CHEMISTRY OF
AMINES AND
CARBOHYDRATES
GROUP 3
NAMES
MATRIC NO
EMAYE .C. SEUN
090224009
KOLAWOLE KEHINDE FESTUS
090224011
OGUNDARE .S. IFEOLUWA
090224012
OKUNRINLA FOLAKEMI
090224019
CARBOHYDRATE
Carbohydrate are a family of compounds containing
carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only which are its major
element. The general formula of carbohydrate is Cx(H2O)y
where x and y re integers (whole numbers). Carbohydrate
fall naturally into simple and complex sugar each of which
can be subdivided.
but before the classification, biologically, in plants,
are produced during photosynthesis (photosynthesis is the
process whereby carbondioxide is combined with water
and mineral salt solution in the presence of sunlight
energy), while chlorophyll act as catalyst thereby
producing carbohydrate and oxygen as by-product
Equation for the reaction
6CO2 +6H2O
C6H12O6 +6O2
Organism that are green are those that are able to preform
photosynthesis i.e. to produce their own food, while non-green
organism’s or plant and animals take their own carbohydrate from the
one produced by green plants. Hence, plants are referred to as
primary producer.
To start the division, the simple sugar carbohydrates are
monosaccharide and disaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDE
The monosaccharide are the simple sugar carbohydrates which are
crystalline, soluble in water and have a sweet taste. By definition,
monosaccharide sugar are carbohydrate, one unit of which cannot be
hydrolyze because it is already at its simplest form. Examples of
monosaccharide sugar are glucose, fructose and galactose e.g.
glucose + water
no reaction.
Monosaccharide carbohydrates are the simplest sugars,
containing from 3 to 6 atoms of carbon in each molecule.
This are;
3 carbon
4 carbon
5 carbon
6 carbon
trioses
tetroses
pentoses
hexoses
The general formula for monosaccharide is (CH2O)n or
CnH2nOn. Trioses=C3H6O3 which is the simplest monosaccharide,
out of the monosaccharide sugar, only the hexoses occur in
appreciable amount in human food. Hexoses are also the best known
sugar.
1. GLUCOSE: This is the most common sugar in the mammalian body,
it is commonly referred to as the grape sugar or dextrose. Its also the
most widely distributed monosaccharide in nature. It has the formula
C6H12O6. It’s the unit from which most polysaccharides are made. It
is a colorless solid with sweet taste and readily soluble in water. A
large quantity of glucose can be found in the juice of ripe grape and
other sweet fruits as well as in honey roofs, leaves, flowers and
animal blood. Little quantity of glucose can be found in human urine.
STRUCTURE
Because of their symmetrical
carbon atoms in the molecule,
solution of glucose rotate and
polarize light, the rotation is to
the right, hence the alternative
name dextrose which is often used
in industries. This properties can
be used to distinguish glucose
from another simple sugar e.g.
fructose. Glucose is a reducing
agent, its able to reduce copper
compound from copper(iii) to
copper(ii). This is the basis for
using benedict solution and
Fehling test.
2. FRUCTOSE
fructose is another simple sugar,
present in honey and a few
plants. It is a colorless crystalline
compound, about as sweet as
glucose. It is more soluble than
glucose. Both glucose and
fructose decompose on heating
and therefore has no fixed
melting point. Fructose is also
the kind of sugar derived from
fruits (fruit sugar), it has the
same fomule as glucose but
different structure (C6H12O6)
Fructose is found in free form in some fruits and also in honey. It is also a
constituent of sucrose and some complex carbohydrate, it rotate polarize
light to the left, hence the alternative name is laevulose. Glucose is an
aldose because it contains alkano (-CHO) group and fructose is ketose
because it contains alkanone (-CO) group.
LABORATORY PREPARATION OF GLUCOSE
It can be obtained in the laboratory by hydrolyzing sucrose with dilute
tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid to form glucose and fructose. The reaction often
takes place in the presence of ethanol which dissolves fructose but not
glucose. This glucose separates out as crystals and is filtered off.
C12H22O11+H2O
C6H12O6+C6H12O6
glucose
fructose
INDUSTRIAL PREPARATION
Industrially, glucose is obtained by acid hydrilysis. Starch is boiled with dilute
tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid for about 2 hours.
(C6H10 O5)n
C6H12O6
starch
glucose
After hydrolysis, the acid is neutralized by the addition of calcium
trioxocarbonate (iv).
This react with tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid to form with tetraoxosulphate(vi)
(CaSO4) which is insoluble and as such is precipitated. The glucose solution
is then filtered off and subsequently concentrated by evaporation. The
concentrated solution known as molasses is left to cool and solidify.
PROPERTIES OF GLUCOSE
1a). Glucose is a strong reducing agent. It reduces ammoniacal silver
trioxonitrate(V) to silver. Since the silver deposited at the bottom of the test
tube reflects like a mirror, this is often referred to as the silver mirror test.
b). It also reduces copper(ii) to copper (i) when reacted with Fehling's
solution thereby producing a brick red precipitate of copper(I) oxide
2. When glucose react with conc. Tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid, it is dehydrated
and a black residue of carbon is left behind.
C6H12O6
6H2O
6C
3. Glucose undergoes fermentation, in the presence of yeast to produce
ethanol and carbondioxide
C6H12O6
C2H5OH + 2CO2
USES
1. Glucose is used as an immediate source of energy as this is the form of
energy most easily absorbed by the body.
2. It is also used in the manufacturing of sweets.
DISACCHARIDES SUGAR
A disaccharide molecule can be
obtained by combining two molecules of
monosaccharides. The two molecules may be
of the same type or of different type. E.g.
glucose + glucose
maltose (malt
sugar)
glucose + fructose
sucrose (cane
sugar)
glucose + galactose
lactose (milk
sugar)
The two molecules are usually bounded or
linked together by glycocidic bound. During
the formation of bound, one hydrogen atom
will be removed from the first
monosaccharide unit and hydroxide OH will
be removed from the second monosaccharide
unit, which results to formation of water.
SUCROSE
Sucrose is a disaccharide, it is the ordinary
sugar we eat everyday. It is produced from
the juice of sugar cane, sucrose is a complex
sugar with the formula C12 H22 O11
PREPARATION OF SUCROSE
Sucrose is prepared from juices of sugar cane. The juices
extracted from sugar cane is warmed to about 80 degree
centigree. The solution is then treated with slaked lime and
carbon(vi)oxide.
This precipitate many of the impurities which are then filtered
off. The resulting sucrose solution is concentrated by
evaporation. On cooling, the concentrated solution crystals of
then dark brown raw sugar separates out from the mother
liquor which is known as molasses. The molasses still contains
about 60% sugar and is used in ethanol production by
fermentation.
The brown sugar is impure. This is treated with slaked lime andf
then carbon(iv)oxide before it is finally decolorized by animal
charcoal.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF SUCROSE
1. It is a white crystalline, odorless solid with a sweet taste
2. It is soluble in water but not in ethanol.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF SUCROSE
1. When sucrose is hydrolyzed
with dilute tetraoxosulphate(vi) or
hydrochloric acid, it gives equal
amount of glucose and fructose.
2. Sucrose chars on strong heating
or warming with concentrated
tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid.
C12H22O11
12C.
3. it does not act as a reducing
agent.
USES OF SUCROSE
1. For sweetening foods.
2. It is used to preserve food
3. It is also used to produce
ethanol by fermentation.
MALTOSE
Maltose is another disaccharide
with molecular fomular
C12H22O11. Its structural formula
is
Maltose is obtained by the action of
malt which contains enzyme called
diastase on starch.
PROPERTIES OF MALTOSE
1. It is crystalline
2. It is soluble in water
3. It melts between 160-165 degree
centigree
4. It is less sweet than sugar
5. When hydrolyzed with dilute acid
or enzyme maltose, two molecules
of glucose are produced.
6. It is a reducing sugar, it reduces
Fehling's solution.
LACTOSE
Lactose known as milk sugar is also
a disacccharide and it is found in
plants. Its molecular foemula is
C12H22O11 while its structural
formula is :
PROPERTIES OF LACTOSE
1. it is a white crystalline solid
2. It melts at 203 degree centigrade with decomposition
3. It is soluble in water
4. it is less sweet than sucrose
When hydrolyzed by diluted acids or by the enzyme lactose, it
produce a molecule each of glucose and galactose.
POLYSACCHARIDE
Polysaccharides are a group of carbohydrates that are
composed of very long chains of monosaccharides linked
together by condensation. Polysaccharides are polymers of
glucose. Under appropriate condition disaccharide link up
through glycocidic bond to form a polysaccharide. Examples are
cellulose, starch and gum. Polysaccharides can be hydrolyzed
step by step with dilute acid to yield the component of
monosaccharide as the final products. The general molecular
formula of polysaccharide is (C6H10O5)n where n is a very large
number.
STARCH
Starch is an important polysaccharrides which occur naturally in
green plants. Plant store their foods in form of starch, the
commercial sources being maize, wheat, barley, yam, rice,
potatoes and cereals. Its structure consist of many units of
glucose molecules while its molecular formular is (C6H10O5)n
PREPARATION
The raw material to be used are peeled cassava tubers which
should be washed and grated into pulp. Water is then added to
the pulp to extract starch. It forms suspension and this can stay
for sometime before the water above is decanted and starch
residue allowed to dry.
PYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. Starch is a white odourless, tasteless powder with the
formula (C6H10O5)
2. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water forming
a viscous solution which sets into a jelly on cooling.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Starch gives the familiar characteristic deep blue color with
iodine solution
2. Hot dilute acids hydrolyze starch into maltose and glucose
3. It does not reduce Fehling’s solution.
4. It decomposes on heating in the presence of the enzyme diastase to
form maltose sugar.
TEST FOR STARCH
Add a few drops of iodine to some boiled starch. A dark blue
coloration which disappears on heating and reappears on cooling
result.
USES OF STARCH
1. It is used for stiffening linen.
2. It is used to produce ethanol and glucose
3. It is used mainly as food.
CELLULOSE
Cellulose is the highest of the polysaccharides. It is the main
component of plant cell walls and plant fibers. The principal industrial
sources are cotton and wood each of which contains about 50% of
cellulose. Other sources of cellulose for textile purposes are floxi china
Grass, hemp and jute.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
1. It forms transparent fibers when it is pure.
2. It is insoluble in water and in most organic solvents.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
1. Cellulose can be completely hydrolyzes to glucose by hot
acids
2. Hydrolysis of cellulose can also be carried out readily by the
enzyme cellulase which is present in the digestive system of
termites and herbivores animals.
USES OF CELLULOSE
1. It is used is the manufacture of explosives, surface coating
paper, textiles and ropes.
2. In the manufacture of gum, cotton and explosives.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
IMPORTANCE OF CARBOHYDRATE
They form the bulk of foods for all organisms.
All organisms obtain their energy from the breakdown of
carbohydrates during respiration.
Carbohydrates forms the part of the structural unit of cells
of living matters.
They form a very important building unit for both plants and
animals
They contribute to what animals need for their activities.
AMINES
Amines are organic derivatives of ammonia and, like ammonia,
they are basic. Amines are the most important type of organic
base found in nature. We can think of them as substituted
ammonia molecules in which one, two, or three of the ammonia
hydrogen have been replaced by an organic group
The structure reveal that
like ammonia, amines
are pyramidal. The
nitrogen atom has three
groups bonded to it and
has a non bonding pairs
of electrons.
amines are
classified according to
the number of alkyl or
aryl groups attached to
the nitrogen.
There are three types:
1. primary amine
2. Secondary amine
3. Tertiary amine
In a primary (10) amine, one of the hydrogen is replaced by an
organic group. In a secondary (20) amine, two of the hydrogen
are replaced. In a tertiary (30) amine, three organic groups
replaced the hydrogen.
The ability of primary and secondary amines to form N-H-N
hydrogen bonds is reflected in their boiling points. Primary
amines have boiling points well above those of comparable
alcohols
Tertiary amines do not have an N-H bond. As a result, they
Cannot form intermolecular hydrogen bonds with other tertiary
amines. Consequently their boiling points are lower than those
of primary or secondary amines of comparable molecular
weight
The intermolecular hydrogen bonds formed by primary and
secondary amines are not as strong as the hydrogen bond
formed by alcohols because nitrogen is not as electronegative as
oxygen. For this reason, primary and secondary amines have
lower boiling point than alcohols.
All amines can form intermolecular hydrogen bonds with water
(O-H---N). As a result, small amines (six or fewer carbons) are
soluble in water. As we have noted for other families of organic
molecules, water solubility decreases as the length of the
hydrocarbon ( hydrophobic) portion of the molecule increases.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
1. The first two members of amines- methylamine and
ethylamine are gases at room temperature and pressure.
2. They have strong smell of fish.
3. They are very soluble in cold water like ammonia.
RNH2(aq) + H2O
RNH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
e.g.
C2H5NH2(g) + H2O(l)
C2H5NH3+(aq) + OH-(aq)
For ammonia: NH3(g) + H2O
NH4+(aq) + OH-(aq)
4. They burn in air but ammonia does not.
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF AMINES
1.Methylamine and ethylamine turn damp red litmus paper blue like
ammonia.
2. They form salt with mineral acids like ammonia
C2H5NH2(g) + HCL(g)
C2H5NH3 + CL(ethylammonium chloride)
Ammonia
NH3(g) + HCL(g)
NH4 + CL(ammonium chloride)
3. When amine salts are warmed with alkalis like ammonium salts,
they liberate free amine.
USES OF AMINE
• Amines can be used in making polyamides or nylon
• Amines are used as corrosion inhibitors in boilers and in lubricating
oils
• They are used as antioxidants for rubber and roofing asphalt.
• They are also used as stabilizers for cellulose nitrate explosives
• They are used as protectants against damage from gamma radiation
• They are used as anticling and water proofing gents for textiles
NOMENCLATURE OF AMINE
In systematic nomenclature, primary amines are named according to
the following rules:
• Determine the name of the parent compound, the longest
continuous carbon chain containing the amine group
• Replace the –e ending of the alkane chain with amine. Following
this pattern, the alkane becomes an alkanamine; for instance ethane
becomes ethanamine.
• Number the parent chain to give the carbon bearing the amine
group the lowest possible number.
• Name and number all substituents, and add them as prefixes to the
“alkanamine” name.
for instance,
CH3 NH2
Methanamine
CH3CH2CH2 NH2
CH3CH2CH2CHCH3
NH2
1- propanamine
2- Pentanamine
For secondary or tertiary amines the prefix N-alkyl is added to the
name of the parent compound. For example,
• CH3 NH CH2CH3
N-Methylethanamine
•
CH3
CH3 N CH3
N,N-Dimethylmethanamine
Common names are often used for the simple amines. The common
names of the alkyl groups bonded to the amines nitrogen are followed
by the ending –amine. Each group is listed alphabetically in one
continuous word followed by the suffix amine.
• CH3 NH2
Methylamine
• CH3 NH CH3
N,N-Dimethylmethanamine
•
CH3
CH3 N CH3
Trimethylamine
• CH3 CH2 NH2
Ethylamine