W. W. Norton & Company
Our Origins
Discovering Physical
Anthropology
Second Edition
by
Clark Spencer Larsen
Chapter 3
Clark Spencer Larsen
Our Origins
DISCOVERING PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY
Chapter 3
Genetics: Reproducing Life and
Producing Variation
©2011 W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.
The Cell
 Two types of organisms
–
–
Prokaryote (one cell)
Eukaryote (many cells)
The Cell
 Two types of cells
–
–
Somatic (body) cells
Gamete (reproductive) cells
Figure 3.3f Somatic Cells—Skin Cells
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Figure 3.4a Gametes—Human Male Sex Cells
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The DNA Molecule
 Nuclear DNA
–
–
–
Contained within the nucleus of a cell
Makes up chromosomes
Complete set called genome
Figure 3.5a Chromosomes
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The DNA Molecule
 Mitochondrial DNA
–
–
Contained in organelles in cell’s
cytoplasm
Inherited from the mother
The DNA Molecule
 DNA: the blueprint of life
–
–
Chemical template for every aspect of
organisms
Double helix, ladderlike structure
•
•
Ladder forms nucleotide
Ladder base made up of four types
–
–
Adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine
Complementary pairs (A&T, C&G)
Replicating the Code
 One function of the DNA molecule is
replication
–
–
Part of cell division—meiosis or mitosis
DNA makes identical copies of itself
 Chromosome Types
–
Occur in homologous (matching) pairs
•
One in each pair from each parent
Figure 3.12a The Human Karyotype Consists of 46
Chromosomes of Various Sizes in 23 Pairs
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Replicating the Code
 Autosomes (nonsex chromosomes)
 Sex chromosomes
–
–
–
X, Y
Females carry only X chromosomes,
while males have one X and one Y
chromosome
The father determines the sex of the
offspring
Mitosis: Production of Identical
Somatic Cells
 DNA replication followed by one cell
division
 Diploid cell (contains full set of
chromosomes)
Figure 3.14a The Steps of Mitosis in Humans
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Meiosis: Production of Gametes
 One DNA replication followed by two
cell divisions
 Gametes are haploid (half the number
of chromosomes)
 Does not result in identical cell copies
 Errors can occur during meiosis
–
Nondisjunction, translocation
Figure 3.15 Meiosis
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Producing Proteins
 Proteins are chemicals that make up
tissues
 Also regulate functions, repair, and
growth of tissues
 Proteins are made up of amino acids
–
Twenty different types
Producing Proteins
 Structural proteins responsible for
physical characteristics
 Regulatory proteins responsible for
functions: enzymes, hormones,
antibodies
 Protein synthesis involves two steps.
–
–
Transcription (unzipping, template for
RNA)
Translation (template attaches to
ribosomes)
Producing Proteins
 DNA in protein synthesis is coding DNA.
 Most of human DNA is noncoding.
Genes: Structural and Regulatory
 Structural genes are responsible for
body structures.
 Regulatory genes turn other genes on
and off.
–
–
Homeotic (Hox) genes
Master genes
Figure 3.21 Homeotic (Hox) Genes
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Polymorphisms
 Each gene has a specific physical
location (locus).
 Loci are valuable to understanding
genetic variation.
 Alleles on different loci are chemically
alternative versions of the same gene.
Polymorphisms
 Some genes have one allele, while
others have more
–
Mendel’s Law of Segregation: a parent
passes one allele to offspring
 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs)
–
Make up variation between and within
human populations
Figure 3.23 Law of Segregation
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Polymorphisms
 Genotypes and phenotypes: genes and
their physical expression
–
–
Chemically identical alleles are termed
homozygous.
Chemically different alleles are
heterozygous.
•
•
Dominant allele is expressed in the
pair.
For a recessive allele to be expressed,
there must be two copies.
Polygenic Variation and
Pleiotropy
 Much of genetics is based on the “one
gene, one protein” model.
 However, many traits are polygenic and
are determined by genes at more than
one locus.
Polygenic Variation and
Pleiotropy
 For some traits, only some of the
genetic variation can be calculated
(heritability).
–
–
Heritability ranges from 0 (none of the
variation is genetic) to 1 (all of the
variation is genetic).
Only heritable traits respond to natural
selection.
Polygenic Variation and
Pleiotropy
 Measurement of heritability is
complicated by pleiotropy, or a single
allele having multiple effects.
–
Most complex traits are both
pleiotropic and polygenic.
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
Human and chimpanzee DNA is about _____
similar.
a) 100%
b) 98%
c) 90%
d) 75%
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
If one side of the DNA ladder includes the
sequence CTAATGT, the complementary base
configuration for this sequence will be:
a) GCAACGC.
b) AGCCGTG.
c) TAATGTC.
d) GATTACA.
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
The human karyotype consists of ______ pairs of
chromosomes.
a) 23
b) 46
c) 48
d) 24
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
Blocks of genetic material that do not recombine
and are passed on for generations are called:
a) phenotypes.
b) genotypes.
c) karyotypes.
d) haplotypes.
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
Regulatory or functional proteins include:
a) lactase.
b) testosterone.
c) antibodies.
d) All of the above
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
In protein synthesis, ___________ refers to
“unzipping” the DNA and ____________ refers
to the formation of polypeptide chains.
a) division; replication
b) transcription; translation
c) meiosis; mitosis
d) translocation; nondisjunction
Chapter 3: Clicker Questions
Prokaryotes have multiple cells while eukaryotes
have one.
a) True
b) False
Art Presentation Slides
Chapter 3
Chapter Opener
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Figure 3.1 Cells and Their Organelles
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Figure 3.2a Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
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Figure 3.2b A Bacteria that Aids Digestion in the Intestines
of Mammals, Including Humans
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Figure 3.2c The Eukaryotic Cells of a Primate’s Kidney
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Figure 3.3a Somatic Cells—A Heart Muscle
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Figure 3.3b Somatic Cells—Brain Tissue
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Figure 3.3c Somatic Cells—Motor Neurons (Nerve Cells)
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Figure 3.3d Somatic Cells—Red Blood Cells (the Larger Cells Are
White Blood Cells, and the Small Dots Are Platelets)
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Figure 3.3e Somatic Cells—Osteocyte (Bone Cell)
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Figure 3.3f Somatic Cells—Skin Cells
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Figure 3.4a Gametes—Human Male Sex Cells
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Figure 3.4b Gametes—A Human Female Sex Cell
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Figure 3.4c Gametes—Ovum
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Figure 3.5a Chromosomes
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Figure 3.5b Number of Chromosomes
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Figure 3.6 Nuclear DNA
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Figure 3.7 Mitochondrion
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Figure 3.8 The Structure of DNA
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Figure 3.9 Nucleotide
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Figure 3.10 The Steps of DNA Replication
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Human Chromosome 3
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Normal Bone, on the Left, and Osteoporotic Bone, on the Right
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DNA from 4,000-Year-Old Human Hair
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Figure 3.11 Chromosome Pairs
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Figure 3.12a The Human Karyotype Consists of 46
Chromosomes of Various Sizes in 23 Pairs
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Figure 3.12b In this Karyotype, the Pair Labeled “XY”
Belong to a Human Male
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Figure 3.13 Embryonic Development
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Figure 3.14a The Steps of Mitosis in Humans
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Figure 3.14b A Human Skin Cell Undergoing Mitosis, Dividing
into Two New Daughter Cells
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The Skeletons of Native Americans
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Figure 3.15 Meiosis
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Figure 3.16a The Law of Independent Assortment, Asserts
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Figure 3.16b Hair Color, for Example, Is Inherited
Independently from Eye Color
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Figure 3.17 Linkage
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Figure 3.18a Structural Proteins—Keratin
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Figure 3.18b Structural Proteins-Collagen
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Figure 3.19a Protein Synthesis
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Figure 3.19b Protein Synthesis
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Figure 3.20a The Hand on the Right Shows Normal Finger Growth.
The Hand on the Left Has Much Longer and Thinner Fingers.
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Figure 3.20b Marfan Syndrome
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Figure 3.21 Homeotic (Hox) Genes
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Figure 3.22a Antibody–Antigen System
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Figure 3.22b Antibody–Antigen System
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Figure 3.23 Law of Segregation
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Figure 3.24 Polygenic Traits and Pleiotropic Genes
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Our Origins
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This concludes the slide set for Chapter 3
Our Origins
Discovering Physical Anthropology
Second Edition
by
Clark Spencer Larsen