GreenCustoms
Knowledge Series No. 25
International bushmeat trade originating
from West/Central Africa
Introduction to species
identification
Developed by the CITES Secretariat
Questions to answer
• Can species used in the bushmeat trade
be identified? How?
• What are the main groups of species
involved, and how can they be
differentiated?
• What precautions are necessary when
handling bushmeat?
• Where can assistance be found?
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Bushmeat identification
• Can species used in the bushmeat trade be identified?
– Many species appearing in the bushmeat trade can be
identified
– However, depending on the state of the specimen (for
example, when dealing with dried or cooked/smoked
meat), it may not be possible to identify to species
level, or even to group level – unless laboratories are
able to conduct detailed analyses (e.g. DNA profiling)
and compare with reference samples
Bushmeat identification
• How can species used in the bushmeat trade be
identified?
– Inspection and comparison with reference materials,
photographs etc., while looking for characteristic
features
– Consultation with experts and national CITES
authorities
– Assistance from specialized
laboratories
Bushmeat identification
• What is it?
• Where do
I start?
Bushmeat identification
• Start by considering the main groups
– Apes, monkeys
– Elephant
– Small carnivores
– Small antelopes
– Pangolins
– Rodents
– Snakes, lizards, tortoises
– Birds
Bushmeat identification
• How these appear in
trade may be very
different
– Whole carcasses, fresh,
frozen, dried or smoked
– Cut pieces, fresh, frozen,
dried or smoked
– Meat, dried or smoked
– Cooked items
Bushmeat identification
• How can specimens be identified?
– Whole carcasses (fresh, frozen, dried/smoked)
– Parts (fresh, frozen, dried/smoked)
– Derivatives
• Which species are in highest demand
internationally, and therefore more likely to be
encountered by Customs?
• There may still be
characteristic
features that can be
used in identification,
even if the
specimens are cut,
dried, smoked or
otherwise heavily
modified in
Bonobo: face all black, unlike the
appearance
Chimpanzee which has a pale or
mottled face
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
Bushmeat identification
Bushmeat identification
• Main characteristics
to look for
– Skull/head
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
– Body shape
– Fur/hair/scales
– Leg/feet/claws
– Tail length and shape
Pangolin: Covered in thick
scales, species can be identified
by tail-body length, extent of
scales on legs
Bushmeat – mammals and CITES
• In some cases it is easy to tell if CITES-listed species are
involved
– All primates are included in Appendix I or II
– All wild cats are in Appendix I or II
• However, for other large groups used for bushmeat, it is
not straightforward
– Duikers & chevrotains can be Appendix I, II, III or not listed
– Some commonly traded mammal species, such as porcupines
and large rodents are not listed
Bushmeat identification
Apes, monkeys
• Chimpanzee
(Pan troglodytes)
– Face is bare, with pale,
mottled or darkly pigmented
skin
– White hairs grow on the
chin in adults of both sexes
Photo credit: Thomas Lersch
– Large, tailless ape, dark
brown to black with brighter
face
Apes, monkeys
• Bonobo (Pan paniscus)
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
– Face black; lips reddish
or pink, slender body,
arms and legs
proportionally longer
than Chimpanzee; arms
longer than legs
Apes, monkeys
• Monkeys
Photo credit: Malene Thyssen
– Drill, Mandrill
(Appendix I)
• Largest monkeys,
baboon-like (M: 8190cm, F: 56-66cm)
• Mandrill male has
the colorful face
Mandrill
Drill
Apes, monkeys
• Colobus monkeys (all have
very reduced thumbs)
– Black colobus (App. II)
• All black in coloration (58–
72cm, tail 60–97cm, 6–11kg)
Photo credit: Frank Wouters
– King colobus (App. II)
• White only on whiskers, chest,
and tail; tail not tufted)
King colobus
Apes, monkeys
• Colobus monkeys (all have
very reduced thumbs)
– Red colobus (App. II)
Photo credit: Atamari
• Black from forehead over
head, neck, shoulders, upper
arms, along back to outer side
of thighs; whiskers, forearms,
legs and underparts bright red
or orange; white triangular
area on hindquarters
Red colobus
Apes, monkeys
• Monkeys
– Guenons (Genus Cercopithecus)
• Diana guenon (C. diana) App. I
• Red-bellied guenon (C. erythrogaster)
• Red-eared guenon (C. erythrotis)
• Owl faced monkey (C. hamlyni)
• De Brazza’s monkey (C. neglectus)
• Greater white-nosed monkey (C. nictitans)
• Crowned guenon (C. pogonias)
• Preuss’s guenon (C. preussi)
• Sclater’s guenon (C. sclateri)
• Sun tailed guenon (C. solatus)
– Guenons (Genus Cercopithecus)
• Characteristic
shape, small
size
Photo credit: Dawn Starin
• Monkeys
Photo credit: Dawn Starin
Apes, monkeys
Apes, monkeys
• Monkeys
– Grey-cheeked mangabey (Lophocebus albigena)
• Generally black; crest has some brown posteriorly; short cheek
hairs are greyish to whitish; shoulder mantle is grey with a
brown tinge; thighs grey; underparts smoky grey.
– Black mangabey
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
(Lophocebus aterrimus)
Apes, monkeys
• Species?
Elephant
Photo credit: MIKE-IUCN
• Elephant meat may appear as large
pieces of smoke-blackened meat
Photo credit: MIKE-IUCN
• It will generally be more expensive in
relation to other meats on sale
Small carnivores
• Civets, mongooses
Photo credit: LA Dawson
– Carcasses will appear as somewhat cat- or weasellike, with long pointed muzzles
African civet (Civettictis civetta)
Appendix III
Common Kusimanse
(Crossarchus obscurus)
Non-CITES
Small carnivores
• Palm civet
(Nandinia binotata)
Non-CITES
Skinned Palm civet
• Black-footed mongoose (Bdeogale nigripes)
Non-CITES – 4 toes on each limb instead of 5
Small antelopes
• Jentink’s duiker
(Cephalophus jentinki)
Appendix I
• Ogilby’s duiker
(C. ogilbyi) Appendix II
– Medium size, color golden brown;
underparts paler; legs darker than
the body; tail with grey tip; horns
rather long (10cm+), conical,
strongly ringed at the base
Small antelopes
• Yellow-backed duiker
(C. sylvicultor) Appendix II
– Horns smooth at the
base, rather long
(10cm+), bowed
downwards
Photo credit: Raul654
– Largest duiker with
characteristic triangular
yellow central patch on
the back
Small antelopes
• Blue duiker
(C. monticola) Appendix II
– Very small; slate grey to dark brown,
darker on the back with a bluish gloss;
forehead dark brown; white streak
running above the eye from the base of
each horn to the muzzle; slit like opening
of the suborbital gland below each eye is
surrounded by bare skin patch; horns
very small; tail long, black, bushy and
fringed by white hairs; legs same as the
body or tinged with rufous, sometimes
bright rufous contrasting with the body
Small antelopes
• Banded duiker
(C. zebra) Appendix II
– Small, 12 conspicuous transverse
bands; horns tiny (3cm) almost
concealed by the hairs of the crest,
straight, smooth at the base
Small antelopes
• Water chevrotain
(Hyemoschus
aquaticus) App. III
– A small, compactly built
and duiker-like; a
hunched back; a spotted
coat with lateral stripes;
without horns or antlers;
upper canines of the
male long and sharp
Small antelopes
• Which species? What characteristics are visible?
Pangolins
• Pangolins have no teeth, and they eat ants and
termites using their tongue
• Their bodies are covered in hard scales, and will
curl into a ball as a defensive measure
• The African species can be differentiated by the
length of their tails and the coverage of scales on
their legs
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Pangolins
• Tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis)
Photo credit: Valerius Tygart
– Tail longer than the body; scales on the forelegs do not extend
to the toes
Pangolins
• Tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis)
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
– Tail longer than the body; scales on the forelegs do not extend
to the toes
Pangolins
• Tree pangolin (Manis tricuspis) – smoked
Photo credit: AP
– Tail longer than the body; scales on the forelegs do not extend
to the toes
Pangolins
• Giant pangolin (Manis gigantea)
– Tail not much longer than the body;
scales on lower parts of fore and
hind legs
Rodents
• Porcupines
– Brush-tailed porcupine
(Atherurus africanus)
• One of the largest
rodents in Africa; short
spines, long tail, sharp
incisors
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
Non-CITES
• Porcupines
– Brush-tailed porcupine
(Atherurus africanus)
Non-CITES
– Spines still visible
on smoked carcass
Photo credit: Pol Meuleneire / Belgian Customs
Rodents
Rodents
• Porcupines
– Crested porcupine (Hystrix cristata) Non-CITES
• Short tail, long spines, sharp incisors
Rodents
• Greater cane rat, grasscutter
(Thryonomys swinderianus) Non-CITES
Rodents
• Greater cane rat, grasscutter
(Thryonomys swinderianus) Non-CITES
Photo credit: AP
– Short legs, visible incisors
Snakes
• African rock python
(Python sebae) App. II
– One of the largest snakes in
the world
Photo credit: Teresa Hart
– Typically brown with olive
and tan irregular blotching
Lizards
• Ornate monitor (Varanus ornatus) and
Nile monitor (V. niloticus)
Photo credit: Factumquintus
are very similar
Tortoises
•
Forest hinge-back
tortoise (Kinixys erosa)
Appendix II
(Gradual slope along
the back of the carapace)
•
Home’s hinge-back
tortoise (Kinixys homeana)
Appendix II
(Sharp downward angle
along the back)
Birds
• Birds make up a small proportion of the
bushmeat for sale in
markets
– Light hollow bones, skull
with beak
– Some feathers may still
be present on carcasses
Yellow-casqued Hornbill
• Hornbills are among the birds most frequently
reported in African bushmeat studies
Bushmeat handling
Handling bushmeat specimens
• The handling of CITES specimens requires careful
attention
• Dead specimens (such as bushmeat) can be dangerous
to yourself and others, and can require specialized care
and handling
• When in doubt, do not hesitate to
call for specialized and experienced
help from CITES authorities or other
sources (such as zoo veterinarians
and health
experts)
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Handling bushmeat specimens
• Points to consider when handling bushmeat specimens:
– Availability of relevant documents - do you have all the
information you need? Do you know the point of origin?
– Where to carry out the examination - do you have a secure place
where any escapes can be immediately controlled?
– Storage facility - if you have to hold the specimens, do you have
a suitable facility?
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Handling bushmeat specimens
• Points to consider when handling
bushmeat specimens:
– Health and safety concerns - are you
and your colleagues trained to deal
with bushmeat specimens?
– Do you have the right equipment to
ensure the safety of yourself, others?
– Are you equipped to deal with cuts,
scratches or other minor injuries?
– Do you have access to help and
advice if needed?
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Handling bushmeat specimens
• Points to consider when handling bushmeat specimens:
– Availability of experts - can you contact experts who are
experienced in dealing with bushmeat?
– Do you have their contact details outside working hours?
– Other agencies - have you contacted other agencies that may
need to be informed (such as the CITES Management
Authority)?
– Do you have the contact details of people in charge outside
working hours?
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Equipment
• It is important to keep basic equipment at hand
– Surgical gloves, face masks
– Antibacterial soap and detergents should be available for the
handlers and the handling areas
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Health
• Be aware that bushmeat specimens may carry zoonoses,
also called zoonotic disease, which are diseases that can
be passed from animals to humans
CITES Team, UK Border Agency
• Remember, the risk of disease may be greater in illegallytraded specimens that have evaded veterinary or health
checks and inspections
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Health
Photo credit: Dr. Robert Shongo
• Diseases carried by animals include Ebola, Marburg
virus, hepatitis A and B, green monkey disease, simian
deficiency virus (animal AIDS), monkeypox, aspergillosis,
botulism, and salmonella
• There are well
over 200 zoonotic
diseases
Monkeypox
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Health
• Some examples of zoonoses are:
– Salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, anthrax, brucellosis, E. coli,
leptospirosis, plague, shigellosis and tularaemia, from bacteria
– Cysticercosis/taeniasis, echinococcosis/hydatidosis,
toxoplasmosis and trematodosis, from parasites
– Q-fever and other Rickettsial diseases
– Rabies, avian influenza, Crimean-Congo haemorrhagic fever,
Ebola, and Rift Valley fever, from viruses
World Health Organization
Find out more at http://www.who.int/zoonoses/en/
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Assistance
Assistance
• Make sure you know who to contact in your
country
– Health, veterinary departments for experts and
technical advice
– CITES Management Authority (for CITES-listed
species, assistance with identification)
– Non-Governmental organizations may be able to
assist with identification and handling advice
Summary
• Many species appearing in the bushmeat trade can be
identified
• For dried/smoked specimens it may not be possible to
identify to species level, or even to group level – unless
laboratories are able to conduct detailed analyses
• Some identification characteristics may remain, which can
allow a distinction to be made between main groups of
species in the bushmeat trade
• The main groups include apes and monkeys, small
carnivores, small antelopes, pangolins, rodents, snakes,
lizards, tortoises and birds
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Summary
• Main characteristics to look for include the skull/head/horns,
body shape, fur/hair/scales, leg/feet/claws, and tail length
and shape
• Dead specimens (such as bushmeat) can be dangerous to
yourself and others, and can require specialized care and
handling
• Safe handling of bushmeat requires training, information
and equipment, and you may need to call upon specialized
assistance
• Make sure you know who to contact in your country for
assistance and advice
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CITES Secretariat
Geneva
www.cites.org
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