Describing and Identifying Relative
Positions
& Locations of Structures
Identifying relative
positions of
structures can be
difficult!
Overview
• Anatomical Position
• Terms of Relationship/Comparison
• Joints
– Types
– Names
– Location
– Movements
• Planes of Motion
• Axis of Rotation
• Degrees of Freedom
Anatomical Position
• A position used as a
reference when describing
parts of the body in
relation to each other
• Used in conjunction with
terms of relationship,
terms of comparison, and
terms of movement
• Allows for a standard way
of documenting where one
part of the body is in
relation to another,
regardless of whether the
body is standing, lying
down, or in any other
position
Anatomical Position
• Anatomical Position:
-Standing erect
-Eyes and toes
pointing forward
-Feet together with
arms by the side
-Palms of the hand
are facing up
-Thumbs pointed out
(laterally)
Terms of Relationship/Comparison
• Superior (cranial): Above, or towards the top of the
body
• Inferior (caudal): Below, or towards the bottom of the
body
• Anterior: Towards the front of the body
• Posterior: Towards the back of the body
• Medial: Towards the center of midline of the body
• Lateral: Towards the outside, or away from the
midline of the body
• Proximal: Nearer to the point of origin of a muscle
• Distal: Further from the point of origin of a muscle
Terms of relationship/Comparison
Superior
(cranial)
Anterior
Medial
Proximal
Posterior
Lateral
Distal
Proximal
Distal
Inferior
Inferior
Terms of Relationship/Comparison
• Superficial:
toward or at the
body surface
• Deep: away
from the body
surface; more
internal
Terms of Relationship/Comparison
Hand
Foot
Dorsum
(Dorsal
Surface)
Palm
(Palmar
Surface)
Dorsum
(Dorsal
Surface)
Sole
(Plantar
Surface)
Terms of Relationship/Comparison
• Prone: face
downward;
stomach lying
• Supine: lying on
the back; face
upward
Terms of Laterality
Unilateral: Bilateral: Ipsilateral: Contralateral:
Same Side Opposite Side
One Side Two
Sides
of Body
of Body
1. The axis is ________________ to the atlas
2. The radius is ________________ to the ulna
3. The clavicle is _____________ to the
scapula
4. The carpals are _____________ to the
metacarpals
5. False ribs are _______________ to T8-T10
6. The ilium is ______________ to the ischium
7. The fibula is ________________ to the tibia
8. The hyoid is ___________________ to the
mandible
9. A barbell chest press is performed ________
10. The femoral condyles are _____________ to
the tibial tuberosity
11. The foramen magnum is ____________ to
the spinous process
12. The skin is __________________ to the heart
13. Push-ups are performed ______________
14. The greater trochanter of the femur is
________________ to the pelvic crest
15. Demonstrate the following exercises:
–
–
–
–
Unilateral Leg Curl
Bilateral Overhead Shoulder Press
Ipsilateral Squat and Biceps Curl
Contralateral Forward Lunge and Lateral Shoulder
Raise
Joints = Articulation
• Articulation: two or
more bones attach
• Two Fundamental
Functions of Joints:
– Allow the
skeleton to have
mobility
– Hold the
skeleton together
Classification of Joints
• Functional Classification:
– Based on the amount of movement allowed by the
joint
– Three Functional Classifications:
• Synarthrosis
• Amphiarthrosis
• Diarthrosis
• Structural Classification:
– Based on the material binding or holding the bones
together and whether or not a joint cavity is present
– Three Structural Classifications:
• Fibrous
• Cartilaginous
• Synovial
Functional Classification of Joints
• Arthroses: joint
• Synarthroses
– Immovable joints
– Fibrous joints: sutures in the skull
• Amphiarthroses
– Slightly movable joints
– Cartilaginous joints: ribs
• Diarthroses
– Freely movable joint
– Synovial joints: shoulder
Structural Classification of Joints
• Fibrous:
–The bones are joined by fibrous
tissues
–No joint cavity
–Most are immovable (synarthroses)
–Three Types:
• Suture
• Syndesmosis
• Gomphosis
Suture
• Sutures occur only between the bones of the
skull
• Wavy articulating edges are interlocked
• Hold bones tightly together, but allow for growth
during youth
Syndesmosis
• Bones are connected by a ligament
• Movement varies from immovable to variably
movable
• Examples include the connection between:
–Radius and Ulna
–Tibia and Fibula
Gomphosis
• The only example is the articulation of
a tooth
–Tooth attaches to the bony socket
Cartilaginous Joints
• Articulating bones are joined by
cartilage
• Slightly movable or immovable
• No joint cavity
• Examples- epiphyseal plates of long
bones, joints between costal cartilage
of first rib and manubrium,
intervetebral joints, and pubic
symphysis
Cartilaginous Joints
Synovial Joints
• Articulating bones
are separated by a
joint cavity
containing fluid
• All are freely
movable;
diarthroses
• Examples: all limb
joints and most
joints of the body
Synovial Joints: Distinguishing Features
• Articular Cartilage: tough, rubbery
tissue that forms the surface of bones
within joints
• Synovial Fluid: a very slippery, oil-like
substance which is produced by the
body to lubricate the joints and tendon.
Comparable to an ice skate on ice
• Joint Cavity: a space containing a
small amount of fluid
Synovial Joints: Distinguishing Features
• Articular Capsule: it keeps synovial fluid from leaking
out the joint
• Reinforcing Ligaments: prevent separation of joints
and restrict joint movement
• Bursa: A fluid-containing sac near a joint that reduces
friction between a tendon and a bone, or between a
bone and skin during movement
• Tendons: Tough cords of tissue that connect muscles
to bones.
– The rotator cuff tendons are a group of tendons that
connect the deepest layer of muscles to the
humerus
General Structure of a Synovial Joint
General Structure of a Synovial Joint
Types of Synovial Joints
• Six Major Categories:
–Ball and Socket
–Condyloid
–Saddle
–Pivot
–Hinge
–Gliding
Ball and Socket Joint
• A spherical or hemispherical head of one
bone articulates with a cuplike socket of
another
• Examples: Shoulder and Hip
Condyloid Joint
• Oval articular surface of one bone fits into a
complementary depression in another
• Both articular surfaces are oval
• Examples: Wrist, Knuckles of Fingers and Toes
Saddle Joint
• Similar to condyloid joints but allow greater
movement
• Each articular surface has both a concave and
a convex surface
• Example: Knuckle of Thumb
Pivot Joint
• Rounded end of one bone protrudes into “sleeve,” or
ring, composed of bone or ligaments of another bone
• Examples: Atlas and Axis and Radius and Ulna
Hinge Joint
• Cylindrical projection of one bone fits into a
trough-shaped surface on another
• Resembles action of a hinge
• Examples: Elbow, Ankle, Knee, Fingers and
Toes
Gliding Joint
• Articular surfaces are essentially flat
• Allow only slipping or gliding movements
• Examples: Vertebrae, Carpals in the Wrist,
and Tarsals in the Ankle
Synovial Joint Stability
• Stability is determined by:
–The Shape of Articular surfaces –
determines what movements are possible
–The Number and Position of Ligaments –
unite bones and prevent excessive or
undesirable motion
– Muscle Tone – most important – tendons
that cross joints act as stabilizing factors
and are kept tight by muscle tone
Body Movement
• Body movement occurs when muscles
contract across joints and their insertion
moves toward their origin
• Muscle origin: muscle attached to the
immovable or less movable bone
• Muscle insertion: muscle attached to the
movable bone
• Kinesiology: study of the movement of
body parts
General Types of Synovial Joint
Movement
•
•
•
•
Angular
Gliding
Rotation
Special
Angular Movement
• Change of angle between bones
• Movements that produce an increase or
decrease in the angle between bones and
include:
– Flexion
– Extension
– Abduction
– Adduction
– Lateral Flexion
– Plantarflexion
– Dorsiflexion
Angular Movement Terminology
• Flexion
– Bending movement that decreases the angle of a
joint
– biceps curl, leg curl, crunch, shoulder raise
• Extension
– Bending movement that increases the angle of a
joint
– squat, leg press, triceps press down
Angular Movement Terminology
• Lateral Flexion
– Lateral movement away from the midline of the
body
– Moving the spine to the side (left or right)
– Moving the neck toward the shoulder
• Reduction
– Return from the anatomical position from lateral
movement
Angular Movement Terminology
• Abduction
– Movement of limb away from midline of body
– Lateral DB raise, standing BB shoulder press
• Adduction
– Movement of limb toward body midline of body
– Lat pull-down, pull-up
• Circumduction
– Moving limb so that it describes a cone in space
– Combination of flexion, abduction, extension and
adduction in succession
Angular Movement Terminology
• Horizontal Adduction
– Movement of the humerus or femur across the
midline of the body
– Examples: cable fly, DB chest press, hip adductor
machine, push-up
• Horizontal Abduction
– Movement of the humerus or femur away from the
midline of the body
– Examples: seated row, reverse cable fly, hip
abductor machine
Rotation
• The turning of a bone around its own vertical
axis
• Examples:
– Between C1 and C2 vertebrae
– Hip and Shoulder joints
– Forearm Joint
Rotation Terminology
• Medial Rotation (internal rotation):
– Rotation of the limb where the anterior surface of
the limb moves medially
• Lateral Rotation (external rotation):
– Rotation of the limb where the anterior surface of
the limb moves laterally
Gliding Movement Terminology
• One flat bone surface glides or slips over another
bone (back-and-forth, side-to-side)
• Wrist Abduction (radial deviation):
– Laterally flexing the wrist toward the thumb
• Wrist Adduction (ulnar deviation):
– Laterally flexing the wrist toward the pinky
Wrist Adduction
Wrist Abduction
Special Movements
• Supination and Pronation
• Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
• Inversion and Eversion
• Protraction and Retraction
• Elevation and Depression
• Opposition
Forearm Supination and Pronation
• Supination: laterally rotating the forearm and
hand so that the palm faces forward or upward
(radius lies parallel to the ulna)
• Pronation: medially rotating the forearm and
hand so that the palm faces downward
Ankle Dorsiflexion and Plantarflexion
• Dorsiflexion: movement of the ankle which decreases
the angle between the foot and the leg
– Pointing the toes up
• Plantarflexion: movement of the ankle which
increases the angle between the foot and the leg
– Pointing the toes down
• Examples: walking, biking, calf raise, tapping your
toes, jump rope
Ankle Inversion and Eversion
• Inversion: movement of the foot in which the
sole turns toward the midline
• Eversion: movement of the foot in which the
sole turns outward away from the midline
• Examples: soccer-style kick, ice-skating, roller
blading, hockey
Protraction, Retraction, Elevation, and
Depression
Opposition
Putting It All Together!
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
C1 and C2
Spine
Shoulder
Elbow
Forearm
Wrist
Hip
Knee
Ankle
C1 and Skull and C1 and C2
• C1 and Skull:
– Atlantooccipital Joint
• Type: Saddle
• Movements: Mainly limited nodding
– Flexion
– Extension
• C1 and C2:
– Atlantoaxial Joint
• Type: Pivot
• Movements: Rotation
Vertebral Column
• Name:
–Intervertebral Joints
• Type: Fibrocartilaginous
• Movements (All but limited degrees):
–Flexion
–Extension
–Lateral Flexion
–Circumduction
Shoulder Joint
• Glenohumeral Joint
• Type: Ball in Socket
• Movements:
– Flexion
– Extension
– Abduction
– Adduction
– Horizontal Abduction
– Horizontal Adduction
– Medial Rotation
– Lateral Rotation
– Circumduction
Elbow Joint
• Humeroulnar Joint
• Type: Hinge
• Movements:
–Flexion
–Extension
Forearm Joint
• Radioulnar joint
• Type: Pivot
• Movements:
–Supination
–Pronation
Wrist Joint
• Radiocarpal Joint
• Type: Condyloid
• Movements:
– Flexion
– Extension
– Abduction
– Adduction
– Cicumduction
– Note: No true rotation at this joint.
Hip Joint
• Acetabulofemoral Joint
• Type: Ball and Socket
• Movements:
– Flexion
– Extension
– Abduction
– Adduction
– Horizontal Abduction
– Horizontal Adduction
– Medial Rotation
– Lateral Rotation
– Circumduction
Knee Joint
• Tibiofemoral Joint
• Type: Modified Hinge
• Movements:
–Flexion
–Extension
Ankle Joints
• Talocrural Joint
• Type: Hinge
• Movements:
–Plantarflexion
–Dorsiflexion
• Subtalar Joint
• Type: Gliding
• Movements:
–Inversion
–Eversion
Scapula
• Scapulothoracic Joint
• Movements:
– Retraction (adduction): where the scapula
moves towards the spine
• Seated Row
– Protraction (abduction): where the scapula
moves away from the spine
• Push-Up
Scapula
• Elevation: where the scapula moves upwards
towards the ear
• Shoulder Shrug
• Depression: where the scapula moves
downwards towards the hips
• Lat Pull-Down
Scapula
• Upward Rotation: where the scapula rotates
clockwise approximately 30 degrees.
(Elevation usually occurs with upward rotation)
– DB Shoulder Press
• Downward Rotation: the movement of the
scapula returning from the upward rotated
position, where the humerus is brought back
along side the body.
(Depression usually occurs with downward
rotation)
– Lat pull-down
Planes of Motion
• A body plane is an imaginary flat
surface that is used to define a
particular area of anatomy.
• The anatomical planes are a
universally used method
describing human movement
• Movement occurs in 1 plane if
you are moving parallel to that
plane
Anatomical Planes
Frontal Plane:
divides the body into
front and back
halves
Transverse Plane:
divides the body into
top and bottom
halves
Sagittal Plane: divides the
body into right and left
halves
Anatomical Planes
Sagital Plane
• Sagital Plane Divides the Body into Right and Left
Halves.
• Movements Involve Flexion/Extension and
Plantarflexion/Dorsiflexion
• Examples:
– Bicep curls
-Triceps Extension
– Knee Extensions
-Leg Curl
– Abdominal Crunches -Back Extension
– Running
-Walking
– Stair Climbing
- Squats
– Cycling
– Calf Raises
– Leg Press
Frontal Plane
• Frontal Plane Divides the Body into Front and Back
Halves.
• Movements Involve Abduction/Adduction;
Inversion/Eversion; Lateral Flexion; Wrist
Abduction/Adduction; Scapular
Elevation/Depression/Upward Rotation/Downward
Rotation
• Examples:
– Jumping Jacks
- Shoulder Shrug
– Pull Up (pronated grip) - Lateral Step-Up
– Spinal Lateral Flexion
- Overhead DB Shoulder
Press
-Side Lunges
– Lateral DB Raise
– Lat Pull Down (pronated grip)
Transverse Plane
• Transverse Plane Divides the Body Horizontally into
Superior and Inferior Halves.
• Movements Involve Medial and Lateral Rotation;
Circumduction; Supination/Pronation; Horizontal
Abduction/Adduction; Scapular Retraction/Protraction
• Examples:
– Cable Fly
-Cable Chop
– Pronation of hands
– Supination of hands
– Bench Press (pronated grip)
– Sporting Activity Movements like Throwing
– Reverse DB Fly
– Seated Wide Row (pronated grip)
Axis of Rotation
• When analyzing movement think of an
axis as a rod through a joint allowing
rotation around it and perpendicular to
the plane it is being passed
• Sagital plane has a medial-to-lateral
axis perpendicular to the sagital plane
• Frontal plane has an anteriorposterior axis perpendicular to the
frontal plane
• Transverse plane has a vertical axis
perpendicular to the transverse plane
Axis of Rotation
• Uniaxial:
– Movement in one plane
– Hinge joint (humeroulnar)
• Biaxial:
– Movement in two planes
– Condyloid joint (radiocarpal) and Saddle joint
(carpometacarpal)
• Multiaxial:
– Movement in or around all three planes
– Ball and socket joint (glenohumeral and
femoracetabular)
Degrees of Freedom
• Degrees of Freedom:
–Number of planes that any joint can
move through simultaneously
• One DOF (degree of freedom):
–Uniaxial joint. The elbow is an
example because it can only flex
and extend in the sagital plane.
Degrees of Freedom
• 2 DOF:
–Biaxial joint like the wrist because it can
flex and extend in the sagital plane and
abduct and adduct in the frontal plane.
• 3 DOF:
–Triaxial joint like the shoulder, spine and
hip which can flex and extend in the
sagital plane, abduct and adduct in the
frontal plane and rotate in the transverse
plane