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Chapter 5B EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Reading Assignment:
- Chapter 5 in Logic and Computer Design Fundamentals, 4th Edition by Mano
Recall an earlier slide describing two types of state diagrams.
Mealy state machine (Mealy model) – the output depends on the present state and the
inputs applied.
Moore state machine (Moore model) – the output only depends on the present state.
We will
primarily
use Mealy
models
X
X/Y
A
B
X/Y
A/Y
B/Y
X
C/Y
C
Moore Model
Mealy Model
• Transition from one state to another
depends on the Input, X
• Output, Y, is specified with the transition
• Output, Y, depends on both the Present
State and the Input, X
• Transition from one state to another
depends on the Input, X
• Output, Y, is specified with the
Present State
• Output, Y, depends only on the
Present State
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Example: Both a Mealy Model and a Moore Model are used below to specify state machines
that will detect the occurrence of two 1’s in a row.
Moore Model:
Mealy Model:
0
0/0
A/0
A
0/0
1/0
0
0
B
1/1
State A: Zero 1’s received
State B: One 1 received
• Two states (one flip-flop)
• Output of 1 indicates that two inputs of 1
occurred in a row.
• Output is not associated with a state, but
with the transition.
1
B/0
State A: Zero 1’s received
State B: One 1 received
State C: Two 1’s received
1
C/1
1
• Three states (two flip-flops)
• Output of 1 indicates that two inputs of
1 occurred in a row.
• Output is associated with state C.
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Comparison of Mealy models and Moore models:
Mealy Model
Moore Model
Output depends on both the Present State
and the Inputs
Output depends only on the Present State
Specify output in transition
Specify output in Present State
Generally requires fewer states
Generally requires more states
Output may change immediately when input
changes, so may change in the same clock
cycle
Output does not respond immediately to
input change, but is synchronized with the
clock
Reacts faster to inputs
Safer
Most of our textbook examples and class
examples will use Mealy models
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EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Chapter 5B
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Sequence Detector: An example of a circuit whose output
sequence is critical and the numeric value of the states is
unimportant is a “sequence detector”. Such a circuit might be
used to detect a certain bit pattern (such as in synchronizing two
signals) or for a digital lock – where the lock is unlocked when a
correct combination (sequence) is entered.
Input, X
Sequence Detector
Output, Y
Example: Detect the sequence 101, including overlapping sequences. Define
the output, Y, as follows:
0 Inputsequence not detected
Y
1 Input sequence detected
Fill out the values for Y in the table below:
X
Y
0
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Chapter 5B
Example: Design a sequence detector to detect
the sequence 1010. The sequence detector
should also detect overlapping sequences. The
circuit should output a binary 1 when a valid
sequence is detected. Use a Moore model.
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One strategy is to use 5 states:
A - 0 correct values in sequence
B - 1 correct value in sequence
C - 2 correct values in sequence
D - 3 correct values in sequence
E - 4 correct values in sequence
Test the state diagram with the input sequence 0101011001010100
State
A
Input
0
Output
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Chapter 5B
Example: Repeat the previous example using
a Mealy model. Note that only 4 states are
required.
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One strategy is to use 4 states:
A - 0 correct values in sequence
B - 1 correct value in sequence
C - 2 correct values in sequence
D - 3 correct values in sequence
Test the state diagram with the input sequence 0101011001010100
Is the output identical to the output from the previous example?
State
A
Input
0
Output
1
0
1
0
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
• How many flip-flops are required using the Moore model?
• How many flip-flops are required using the Mealy model?
• Complete the excitation table for the Mealy model circuit.
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
Draw the logic diagram. Clearly label the input sequence, x, and the output
sequence, y.
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: Serial 2’s Complementer Circuit
Design a one input, one output serial 2’s complementer using a Mealy Model.
The circuit accepts a string of bits from the input and generates the 2’s
complement at the output. The circuit can be reset asynchronously to start and
stop the operation. Implement the circuit using JK flip-flop(s).
Input
Sequence, x
Serial 2’s
Complementer
2’s complement
of Input Sequence, y
Design: Recall that one method for finding a 2’s complement is to start with
the LSB and proceed until the first 1 is encountered and then take the 1’s
complement of all bits.
complement
Input, x:
Output, y:
1001100
0110100
State B
(output = 1’s complement of input)
State A
(output = input)
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
• Draw the state diagram using states A and B as defined on the previous slide
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
• How many flip-flops are needed for 2 states?
• Fill out the excitation table.
Input/
Present State
x
Q
0
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
Next
State
Q
Flip-flop inputs
J
K
Output
y
• Use K-maps to find expressions for J, K, and y
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
• Draw the logic diagram
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Recall that three methods for designing sequential circuits will be covered:
1) Excitation table method (already covered)
2) State equation method
3) “One-Hot” method
Designing Sequential Circuits using State Equations
Before the state equation method is covered, two related topics must be
covered:
• state equations
• flip-flop characteristic equations
State Equations
A state equation is an equation for the next state of a sequential logic circuit. It
has the form:
Q(t + 1) = (Boolean expression involving present states and inputs)
The state equations are simply formed using the “Next State” shown in the state
table.
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Chapter 5B
Example: Find the state equations for the state diagram shown below.
0
1
0
0
1
4
1
0
1
1
2
3
1
0
0
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Flip-flop characteristic equations
Flip-flop behavior has been expressed so far using truth tables or excitation
tables. The next state (output) of a flip-flop can also be described algebraically
using a flip-flop state equation or flip-flop characteristic equation.
Example: Develop the flip-flop characteristic equation for a JK flip-flop.
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: Develop flip-flop characteristic equations for SR, D, and T flipflops.
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Designing Sequential Circuits using State Equations – Procedure
1. Form the state table.
2. Develop the state equations from the state table.
3. Determine the type of flip-flop to be used.
4. Manipulate the state equation into the form of the characteristic equation
for each flip-flop. This will yield the flip-flop input expressions.
Notes:
• It is easiest to design by state equations using D flip-flops.
• Many programmable devices only support D flip-flop designs, so state
equations are very useful.
• JK flip-flop designs will yield the simplest circuits in general.
• Designing circuits by the excitation table method and by the state equation
method should yield the same results.
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: Design a modulo-7 counter by the state equation method
using D flip-flops
a) Create the state table
Present State
Next State
A
B
C
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
A(t+1)
B(t+1)
C(t+1)
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
b) Form the state equations
00 01 11 10
00 01 11 10
00 01 11 10
0
0
0
1
1
1
c) Determine the D flip-flop inputs (trivial!)
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
d) Draw the logic diagram using D flip-flops
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Example: Repeat the last example using JK flip-flops.
a) Create the state table – same as before
b) Form the state equations – same as before
c) Determine the JK flip-flop inputs (much harder than with D flip-flops)
State Equation A(t+1)
A(t  1)  A B  BC  P ut in theformof thechar.equation for a JK flip - flop:
Q(t  1)  J  Q  K  Q or
A(t  1)  JA  A  KA  A (i.e.,each termmust haveA or A)
So
A(t  1)  A B  BC

A(t  1)  A B  BC A  A

A(t  1)  A B  ABC  ABC


A(t  1)  AB  C   ABC
A(t  1)  A B  BC  ABC
- T heorem7A
So JA = BC
So KA  B  C
KA  B  C
KA  BC
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued) - Repeat for the next two state equations
State Equation B(t+1)
State Equation C(t+1)
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: (continued)
d) Draw the logic diagram using JK flip-flops
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Three methods for designing synchronous sequential circuits:
1) Excitation table method (already covered)
2) State equation method (already covered)
3) “One-Hot” method
“One-Hot” Method for designing synchronous sequential circuits
The “one-hot” method is based on the idea that N flip-flops will be used to
represent N states and that at any given time only one of the states is “hot” or
HIGH – the current state.
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Example: A state diagram with 4 states would require 4 flip-flops and the
outputs would be as follows:
Q
Other
connections
and circuitry
1
State A is
“hot”
Q
0
Other
connections
and circuitry
Q
0
Q
1
State B is
“hot”
Q
0
Q
0
Q
0
Q
0
(Similar diagrams for states C and D are not shown.)
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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“One-Hot” Method - Advantage
The design process is simple for the “one-hot” method.
The connections for D flip-flop designs can be seen easily from an ASM
(Algorithmic State Machine) Chart, which is similar to a flowchart. Also note
that this method can allow for a simple way to describe sequential circuits in
VHDL.
Algorithmic State Machine (ASM) Chart symbols
ASM Charts are covered in more detail in Chapter 8 of the text. For now, we
will just introduce two ASM chart symbols (elements).
Entry
State 0
Exit
State box
Entry
N
X = 1?
Exit 0
Y
Exit 1
Decision box
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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“One-Hot” Method - Disadvantage
The “one-hot method requires a potentially large number of flip-flops.
Since the states are not encoded as with other methods (i.e., one flip-flop is
required for each state), designs may require a large number of flip-flops.
Examples are provided below to illustrate this problem.
# flip-flops using encoded states (state
equations or excitation table method)
# flip-flops using the “onehot” method
# flip-flops = log2(# states)
# flip-flops = # states
3-bit (mod-8)
counter
3
8
8-bit counter
8
256
Circuit with
20 states
5
20
Sequential
Circuit
Note: When implementing sequential circuits using Aldec Active-HDL , the
software gives the user a choice of implementing a “one-hot” design or using
encoded states (the default) . Using encoded states saves many flip-flops.
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example: Use the “one-hot”
method to design a mod-5
counter. Note that each state
box essentially acts like a D
flip-flop where the entry to the
box is D and the exit from the
box is Q.
ASM Chart
State Equations
D0
State 0
So Q0(t+1) = D0 = Q4
Q0
D1
State 1
So Q1(t+1) = D1 = Q0
Q1
State diagram
D2
State 2
0
So Q2(t+1) = D2 = Q1
Q2
D3
4
1
State 3
So Q3(t+1) = D3 = Q2
Q3
D4
3
2
State 4
Q4
So Q4(t+1) = D4 = Q3
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Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Example (mod-5 counter continued):
State Equations:
Q0(t+1) = D0 = Q4
Q1(t+1) = D1 = Q0
Q2(t+1) = D2 = Q1
Q3(t+1) = D3 = Q2
Q4(t+1) = D4 = Q3
Logic Diagram:
D0
Q0
Q0
D1
Q1
Q1
D2
Q2
Q2
D3
Q3
Q3
D4
Q4
Q4
CK
Recall that the outputs above are not encoded. An encoder can be used to
create encoded outputs if they are needed (for example, to send the outputs to a
BCD-to-7 segment decoder). This is illustrated on the following slide.
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
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Example (mod-5 counter continued):
CK
D0
Q0
Logic Diagram with encoder added
Q0
D1
Q1
Q1
D2
Q2
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8x3
Encoder
(MSB) A
B
C
Q2
D3
Q3
0
Q3
D4
Q4
Q4
A
BCD-to
7-segment
B
decoder
C
D (LSB)
Exercise: Add
binary values to the
logic diagram if the
counter is in state 3
Chapter 5B
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EGR 270
Example: Use the “one-hot” method
to design a mod-5 counter UP/DOWN.
Let x be an input control where if:
• x = 0 the counter counts down
• x = 1 the counter counts up
State 0
0
0
1
x = 0 or 1?
Q2(t+1) = D2 =
1
1
0
0
1
State 2
0
4
x = 0 or 1?
Q1(t+1) = D1 =
ASM Chart:
1
0
1
1
State 1
0
State diagram
x = 0 or 1?
Q0(t+1) = D0 =
State 3
0
Q3(t+1) = D3 =
1
0
0
x = 0 or 1?
1
2
3
State 4
1
• Label D and Q next to each state box
• Find the state equations
0
x = 0 or 1?
Q4(t+1) = D4 =
1
Chapter 5B
EGR 270 – Fundamentals of Computer Engineering
Example (mod-5 UP/DOWN counter continued) :
Draw the logic diagram
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