Managing Urban Environments
for Wildlife
Robert A. McCleery1, Chistopher E2.
Moorman, Mark C. Wallace3 and David
Drake4
1University
of Florida
2North Carolina State University
3Texas Tech University
4University of Wisconsin
INTRODUCTION
► 50%
of the human population lives in urban
and suburban areas.
► Urban settings have implications for human
health, quality of life, education, and esthetics
► Wildlife ecologists have become increasingly
engaged in and around urban areas because of
the potential impact of working in these
environments
► Urban areas are fundamentally different than
rural and wild areas
Most human-wildlife interactions occur in urban/suburban areas
Ecological Processes, Soils and
Hydrology
►
Energy
 minimal net-primary production
 energy comes from fossil fuels
 food resources are available to
wildlife
► Climate
 increased temperatures
 humidity is lower, precipitation is
greater
► Disturbance
 suppression of large scale
disturbances
 increased anthropogenic disturbances
► Evolution
 selective pressures caused by humans
are pronounced in urban areas
►
►
►
Socioeconomics
 features of urbanization are
tied to social, economic, and
political realities
Soils
 compacted, sealed, and
impervious
 poor water retention
Hydrology
 increased surface runoff,
channel size, water
temperatures, nitrogen,
phosphorus, heavy metals, and
pesticides
 Reduced biodiversity
Urban Vegetation
► Three
1.
Categories :
Remnant
native vegetative surrounded by
development
2.
Colonizing
invasive, exotic, and early
successional plants
3.
Planted
managed communities of
nonnative grasses and planted
shrubs, trees, and ground cover
► General
Characteristics
 simplified with increasing
urbanization
 widely spaced plantings of few
species
 nonnative plants dominate the
core areas
 snags and downed woody debris
occur in low densities
 increased risk of drought because
of the runoff from impervious
surfaces
The abundance of snags and downed logs is low in the built
environment, efforts should be focused on conserving these
critical habitat elements
Wildlife Communities and Urbanization
► Three
1.
Categories :
Avoiders
sensitive to human activities and
not able to use the anthropogenic
resources
2.
Adapters
edge species well adapted to the
typical suburban, backyard, forest–
park matrix
3.
Exploiters
homogenous group of species that are
often not native to the region and
highly adapted to urban environment
► General
Patterns
 urbanization causes extinction and
local extirpation of native vertebrate
 invasive nonnative species have
replaced native wildlife, filling the
ecological vacuum
 densities and biomass of wildlife are
high
 diversity generally decreases but
may increase with low-level of
urbanization
 Diversity decreases in city center
Demographic, Physiology and
Behavior
► Demographics
 higher densities,
fecundity and survival
rates
 anthropogenic causes
of mortality
► Physiology
 larger individuals
 reduced health
► Behaviors
 reduced responses to
humans
 altered diets
 reduced migration
 use of structures
 loader vocalizations
 altered activity
patterns
What is Urban
►
Urban wildlife research is not
restricted to cities and their
surrounding suburbs or to
natural areas within them.
Urban wildlife research also
includes investigations of
wildlife in and around
concentrated human
developments of varying
sizes, and in areas and
communities connected to
cities through transportation,
utilities, or the flow of
materials.
►
Urban wildlife is an
inherently interdisciplinary
field.
 We cannot truly
understand how patterns
of human development
influence wildlife without
integrating social sciences
into ecological research.
Urban Study Design
►compare
wildlife
populations in
urban areas to less
developed areas.
►gradient approach
►using landscape
and patch metrics
►hypothesize
what
features are
influencing wildlife
and relate them to
measured changes
►Account for scale
►Use multiple scales
Research Logistics
►meet
with
►handle animals
stakeholder groups
away from the
public’s eye
►engage local
residents
►beware of theft and
vandalism
►gain permission for
access to study
►don’t let access
sites
bias your study
Managing in the Urban Environment
-Practitioners
► Wildlife
management is
people management
 diversity of
landowners
 urban human–wildlife
conflicts
 public unsure of whom
to contact for help
► Promoting programs
 direct contact with
stakeholders
 build community
support
 outreach,
involvement and
interpretation
 provide incentives
Management of Wildlife in Exurban,
Suburban, and Urban Areas
Exurban
Suburban and urban
Small habitat extents
Protection through development
ordinances, conservation
subdivisions; collaborative
backyard activity; appropriate
park and open space
management
Protection through
development ordinances,
conservation subdivisions;
collaborative backyard
habitats; appropriate park
and open space management
Large habitat extents
Protection through zoning and Limited options; corridors or
development ordinances,
stepping stones to help
conservation subdivisions,
wildlife move through
collaborative backyard activity;
appropriate park and open space
management
Size of habitat
Habitat Conservation and
Management
► Focus
on restoring
degraded sites
► Conservation efforts
should be directed by
specific landowner
► Work collaboratively
with urban planners
and landscape
architects
► Educate
local
governments &
participate in public
hearings
► Map of potential
conservation lands
during planning
process
Managing Landscapes
►
►
►
Conserving landscapes
 60% of the landscape
Connectivity
 corridors
 stepping Stones
Zoning
 Development ordinances
 Acceptable land use
►
►
Development patterns
 integrate open space into
built environment
 consolidate open areas
 city center deign
 transit orient development
Conservation incentives
 density bonuses
 transferrable development
rights
 tax credits
Open-spaces and Green Developments
►
Invasive plant removal
► Recreational effects
 close sensitive areas
 leash laws
► Early successional Habitats
 need disturbance
 fire and timber regulations
can be restrictive
►
►
►
Green Developments
 green neighborhoods
 conservation subdivisions
During construction
 protect trees
 silt fences
During post construction
 use native plants
 use water, pesticides and
fertilizers sparingly
 keep pets indoors
Open Spaces Within Urban Areas
► Riparian
Buffers
 stabilize stream banks
 reduce pollution
 larger buffers provide
wildlife habitat
► Greenways
and trails
 wider greenways (>100
m) are better breeding
birds
 avoid cutting vegetation
next to paths
► Impoundments
 construction
► irregular shorelines
► sloping banks
► include islands
 Water management
►periodic drawdowns
Greenways are multipurpose, linear, protected open spaces
Home Lot Management
► Landscaping
► Feeders
 native plants
 promotes seed eating
species
 fruit bearing plants
 clean feeder regularly
 brush piles
► Reducing collisions
 layer landscaping
 retain snags and deadwood  place feeders close to
windows
► Nest boxes
 do not reflect vegetation
 surrogates for natural
in
windows
cavities
 use awnings
Bird Collisions
► Reducing




collisions
place feeders close to
windows
angle window
downward
remove reflective
vegetation from
window
install awnings
Millions of birds die each year from
collisions with windows
Nest boxes can should be designed and located as is appropriate
for target wildlife species
Road Management
► impact
from roads may exceed hundreds of
meters
► Management approaches
 underpasses
 overpasses
 fences
 strategic road placement
Attracting Wildlife
► Birds




water
feeders
houses
cats indoors
► Mammals
 brush piles
 bat houses
► Reptiles
and
amphibians
 piled rocks
 cover
 ponds
► Butterflies




sun
water
caterpillar-host plants
colorful flowers
Damage in Urban/Suburban Areas
► Economic,
healthrelated, and natural
resource damage
 8 billion $ to manage
wildlife in US
 greatest damage from
► mice,
rats
► raccoons
► moles
► pigeons
► starlings
► Overabundant
species
 Often edge-oriented
and habitat generalists.
► Many
of the
interactions suburban
and urban residents
have with wildlife are
often perceived to be
negative.
Groups of Canada geese (Branta canadensis) are often viewed as pests
because of the mess their dropping make and the damage they can
cause to residential lawns, golf courses, and ornamental plants
Wildlife Damage Management
► Identify
the problem
► Controlling nuisance
animals
► Use animal’s life
 Nonlethal
history, ecology and
► more accepted by the
behavior can be used
public
to resolve the problem.
► not always effects




trap placement
bait
timing
behavioral deterrents
►
moves animal to new
location
 Lethal
► can
eliminate a nuisance
animal
► not always accepted
 Reproductive controls
Wildlife, like these once endangered brown pelicans (Pelecanus occidentalis),
can easily habituate to people. Eliminating hand outs and the random
implementation of diverse harassment techniques can help combat habituation
Methods for Managing Wildlife
Damage
►Take
an integrated approach
 diverse techniques
 Randomness of times and locations
►Be proactive before the problem occurs
►Have a knowledge of state and federal laws
►Make ethical considerations
FUTURE DIRECTIONS
► There
will continue to be growing opportunities
for practitioners and researchers in urban
systems
► The
future of urban wildlife ecology and
management depends upon the new cohort of
biologists, and it will be what they make of it.