Democracy and
Development in Africa
ECON 3510
A.R.M. Ritter
June 17, 2014
Source: Text Chapter 11
Outline:
I. Introduction
II. Characteristics of a Well-Functioning
State
III. Defining Democracy
IV. The Colonial Heritage in Governance
V. Governance since Independence
VI. Improving Governance
VII. Democracy and Development
I.
Introduction:
– Intense interest in African Governance
in recent years
• reflecting governance problems,
– Examples:
African Organizations
UN ECA; NEPAD
NGOs and INGOs,
e.g. Transparency International
IFIs: World Bank; AfDB.
Donor Countries
II. Some Characteristics of a WellFunctioning State
– Maintenance of Peace, Law and Order;
– Acceptance and Success re the
“Responsibility to Protect”
– Maintenance and Enhancement of Individual
Rights and Liberties
• Fundamental UN Universal Declaration type rights
• Political and civil liberties
– Authentic Representative Government
• Checks and Balances on Exercise of Arbitrary
power
• Transparency and Accountability
• A “legitimate political process”
– Effective Functioning of the State
•
•
•
•
Revenue generation
Provision of public goods (infrastructural, …….)
Redistributive equity
Effective public policy
– Effective Legal System and
Independent Judiciary
•
•
•
•
Independent from Government
Impartial and fair
Dispute resolution;
Enforcement of contracts, rights, etc.
III. Defining Democracy:
Multidimensional and complex phenomena
• “Process” and “Principle” Democracy
“Process” Democracy: Are leaders selected in free
and fair elections”
“ Principle” Democracy: Are individual and minority
rights respected?
• “Majoritarian” and “Consensual”
“Majoritarian”: does the majority rule?
“Consensual”: do all groups have some say and
are their rights protected against the majority?
III. Defining Democracy, continued:
• Huntingdon’s definition:
“…system is democratic to the extent that
the most powerful collective decisionmakers are selected ……
– through fair, honest and periodic elections
– candidates freely compete for votes
– all the adult population is eligible to
vote.”
IV. The Colonial Heritage re Governance
Inadequate tutelage re Representative
Government under Colonialism;
Variation among colonies
– “Indirect Rule” in some areas
– Inadequate education of personnel for the
operation of national states
e.g. Congo: Almost Zero self-rule tutelage and
experience
But note:
Ethiopia: no Colonial Occupation (except 1936-1941
with Mussolini)
Liberia: long history of Independence since 1847;
V. Evolution of Governance since
Independence
At Independence, early 1960s to early 1970s:
– Western-type political systems, but often by
“parachute” rather than evolutionary
assimilation
– Plus strong nationalist or nation-building
ideologies in many cases;
– For a while, quite successful re maintaining law
and order, improving human development,
economic growth and structural change
• A “Golden Age” for African countries ! ?
1970s to 1990s: Shift to Autocratic Military
Rule and One-Party Authoritarian Systems
Military coups in 70s
(Congo-B., Benin, Togo, Burundi, Ghana, Nigeria, Upper
Volta, Mali, Somalia, Ethiopia, Uganda)
By 1990, about 50% of the continent was under
military authoritarian rule
Plus Single-Party States and some Single Party
Dominant States
1975-1990: a period of worsening economic
regression, weakening governance, and social
reversals. HDI declined for some countries
What was cause and what was effect re
economic regression and worsening
governance?
Political Map of the World, 1972
Some African Dictators
Omar Bongo,
Idi Amin
The Cameroon
Uganda
Mobutu,
Ziare
Bokassa,
Central African
Empire
Some African Statesmen
Desmond Tutu
Julius Nyerere
Ellen Johnson
Sirleaf
Nelson Mandela
1990s to 2000s:
Political Liberalization and the
beginnings of Economic Recovery
Political change occurred in most
countries, due usually to popular
pressures
By 2000, many African countries had
held multi-party elections
Some economic rehabilitation and
recovery underway in most countries
Current Regimes in Africa:
– Democratic Pluralism: See Chart
– Structures of Government
– Popular Participation
Question: Is our concern with Governance
and a focus on Representative
Democracy simply “Western
Ethnocentricity?”
The Chinese alternative
Freedom House Map of the World
http://www.freedomhouse.org/template.cfm?page=2
Government World Map 2013 by Saint-Tepes
The Mo Ibrahim
Index of African
Governance,
2011
See
http://www.moibrahimfou
ndation.org/en/section/the
-ibrahim-index
THE IBRAHIM INDEX
• Funded and led by
The Ibrahim Foundation
• Africa's leading assessment
of governance
• 86 indicators grouped into 14 sub-categories
and four dimensions re governance
• Uses indicators from 23 data providers
Ibrahim Index includes:
• Safety and the Rule of Law;
(4 dimensions & 19 measures)
• Participation and Human Rights;
(3 and 21)
• Sustainable Economic Opportunity;
(4 and 27)
• Human Development
(3 and 18)
State Variation regarding Capabilities
1. Failed States; Cases of Total Breakdown:
– at this time, perhaps only Somalia
2. Violent Conflict or Civil War:
– Protracted Civil Wars previously in some cases
– At present: Mali at the Edge
– Areas of concern; S. Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea,
Chad, Northern Nigeria
Note: In 1999:
– 20% of Africa’s people lived in countries with war or
civil conflict;
– 90% of casualties were civilians
– 20 million land mines were laid, 9 million in Angola
alone
3. Decayed States facing near or severe crisis
“worsening institutional capacities cause and
also caused by economic stagnation and
retrogression”
Zimbabwe, Malawi?
4. States with Reasonable to Very Good
Capabilities:
Some Highly Effective: Mauritius, R. South
Africa, Botswana, Liberia??
Others reasonably effective:
Ghana, Tanzania, Kenya, Nigeria
IV. Explaining Africa’s Difficulties re
Governance
A number of possible factors:
1. Pre-Colonial Legacy?
2. Colonial Legacy?
3. Ethnic Diversity? Weakness of National
identities?
4. Inexperience of new regimes and
people?
5. Quality of Leadership?
6. Weak economic performance
V. Improving Governance
1. Strengthening the integrity and
legitimacy of the electoral process
and acceptance of the rules of the
game
– Concept and practice of a “loyal
opposition”
– Political parties and their financing
– Access to the media
– Credibility and transparency of the
electoral process
– Electoral Commissions
2. Social inclusiveness: regional, ethnic,
racial, religious and gender balance in
• Government or parliament
• Civil service
• Distribution of public goods and social
services
3. Strengthening “Public Voice”
• “Freedom of Speech” & Independent
Media;
– Free press and independent critical journalism
• Strengthening independence of civil
organs of society.
4. Enhancing support for Human Rights
and the Rule of Law
Ensure:
Equal access to justice and the legal
system
Ender equality and women’s rights
Cultural and social rights e.g. for
indigenous peoples.
VII. Democracy and Development
Question: What is the relationship
between Democracy and Development?
– Does democracy promote development?
– Does development promote democracy?
Central conclusion: Strong correlation; circular
causation or mutual reinforcement
– Generally, the more democratic the country, the
better the policies and the better the economic
performance in terms of growth and incomes
– But what is cause and what is effect?
The Impacts of Democracy on Development
What is development? Growth, + equity + sustainability
What is democracy? (again)
• “Process democracy”: are leaders elected in free and fair
elections?
• “Principles democracy”: are individual rights respected?
• “Majoritarian” does the majority rule?
• “Consensual” do all groups have some say and are their
rights protected against the majority?
– Huntingdon: the most powerful decision-makers
are selected through fair honest and periodic
elections in which candidates compete for votes
and all the adult population has a right to vote.
Does economic development promote
democracy?
How?
1. “Modernization Approach”:
Yes! Development helps generate democracy.
How? Higher GDPpc  better education, more
urbanization, more organized with
independent civil organs of society, better
communications … stronger demands for
political inclusion and eventually democracy
OR, as authoritarian regimes prosper, they
produce the conditions for democratization
(one hopes)
(Is this happening in China?)
How does development affect democracy?
2. “Neo-modernization Approach”:
Contrary view to “Modernization” Approach:
as development occurs, older political
systems may become unstable, so that
political breakdown or emergence of
authoritarian regimes may occur.
i.e. “Development” may lead to instability
and authoritarianism.
Sometime afterwards, a stronger democracy
may emerge, but with difficulty.
– Maintaining stability is vital.
“Neo-modernization Approach”, cont’d :
Relationship between development and democracy is
more complex.
Levels of development may not predict well the
type of regime that will emerge after the
decay or collapse of an old regime.
3. Civil Society Approach:
Countries where civil society is well established
may be better placed to be more democratic.
What is civil society?
4. Structural explanation:
Class analysis:
 the stronger specific classes – capitalist
or workers – the greater the role they
will play;
 development generates classes which
then may promote democracy
Conclude:
Does Authentic Democracy Promote
Development?
How??
Note: Democracies are vital for their own sake.
Note also: Democracy may be messy , risky and
ambiguous,
But it is also fun- lots of the time!
1. Genuine Democracy may ensure that policies
promote the common well being more so than
authoritarianism;
2. Democracies are more accountable than
authoritarian regimes;
3. Peaceful regime change is possible when
governments mess-up, or when times and
conditions change.
Policy adjustment , improvement and evolution
can occur;
4. In democracies, individual economic rights
are protected better than in authoritarian
regimes where the rule of law is dubious;
5. But special interests may dominate and
pervert policies towards their own interests
Established democracies seemed to perform
better in terms of growth, savings levels,
human development indicators, …
Newly established democracies also
performed well, but with some higher
inflation, lower savings, higher debt….
Main conclusion?
The evidence supports both these
propositions:
Development   Democracy,
and
Democracy   Development
The Future of Democracy in Africa
Grounds for Optimism:
 General economic improvement supports genuine
democracy;
 Human development plus communications promotes
democratization;
 Theorizing (Modernization; Civil Society & Structural) imply
a strengthening of democracy;
 International opinion & legitimacy are supportive
Down-side Risks:
 Example of China
 Chances of economic regression