Reframing Research and Teaching for the Chinese
EFL Classroom:
Perception, Practice and Paradigm
Huizhong Shen
Faculty of Education and Social Work
The University of Sydney
hui-zhong.shen@sydney.edu.au
August 21, Kunming, China
Presentation overview
Misconceptions in EFL teaching and research
What does the research say?
How does English education stack up in China?
Need for a contextualised language model
Confucianism as pedagogy
Misconceptions in teaching
Misconception: CLT or a recipe for failure
Communicative language teaching vs. Grammar-Translation method
›Since Hymes (1972) coined “communicative competence”,
CLT has become the most popularised approach to language
teaching.
›An account of theories of language teaching and learning
without including this would be rendered incomplete.
›The literature often sets CLT in polarity against a more
traditional approach such as the traditional GrammarTranslation method.
Misconceptions in teaching
A more typical argument is that “language is learnable, but not
teachable”. (Grandy, 1999)
The “deaf and mute” learner syndrome in Chinese English
classroom is attributed to Grammar-Translation instruction.
(Zhang,2008; Zhao, 2009)
Learners and teachers are aspired to acquire an identifiable
native speaker English accent (e.g. American or British
English).
Chinese or China English is generally referred as Chinglish – a
substandard English.
Examples of atypical English - teaching
Perception of Chinese English
“I started to teach English majors in Chinese universities in the
seventies…. Student addressed me as Teacher Shi in English.
Although English speakers would not use this form, the
alternative Miss Shi was considered bourgeois, so this was one
of the many examples of how “Chinglish” (Chinese-English)
terms were created.” (Shi, 2002, pp.137-38)
The ‘native speaker idealization myth’ (Kachru, 1987) is
reflected in a monolingual approach to teaching as a hidden
curriculum by the following pictures.
Different approaches
British Hills
Different approaches
New
Oriental
College
Different approaches
Misconceptions in research
Misconception: Following “a single monochrome standard” (Quirk, 1985)
Native speaker English vs. Chinese or China English
Research on Chinese English is problematic on the following accounts:
(1)it adopts a less progressive approach to a nativized English in China;
(2)it hardly departs from a traditional model that uses a code-bound
reference to a native speaker variety;
(3)it focuses on developmental learner English rather than proficient user
English (e.g. Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002);
(4)It stops short in analysis at the level of lexis, syntax and discourse;
(5)it puts down Chinese English by citing atypical language examples (e.g.
Wei & Fei, 2003); and moreover;
(6)There is little recognition or documentation of successes that have been
achieved in Chinese EFL teaching and learning.
Shen, H. (2009). Problematising Research on Chinese English: Issues, Stances and Reconceptualization. In H. Shen & J.Yun
(Eds.). Developments and prospects of English teaching in China (pp. 3-20). Shanghai: Fudan University Press.
Examples of atypical English - research (1)
English in development (lexis)
Recently I have read a book named ‘My experiences in west and east’. It
was writed by Wang Yaohui, a diplomat and a successful businessman.
The book descripted his experiences from a Zhiqing in China to a
respectable man in Canada. It also told me the big differences between
East and West, including the history, culture, [and] government style. I
learned a lot from it, and knew the hardships living in a west country for a
Chinese.
(From an except used in Kirkpatrick & Xu, 2002, p.269)
Examples of atypical English (2)
English in development (syntax)
“Mary yesterday bought a dictionary.”
“For me to get up before 6 o’clock in the morning is
impossible.”
“It is a hard job but someone must do it.”
(Jia, 1990)
Examples of atypical English (3)
Trivialization of atypical Chinese English
“Heart flower angry open”
(Xinhua nufang - be in raptures)
“Good good study, day day up.”
(Haohao xuexi, tiantian xiang shang - Study well and make progress
everyday.)
“People mountain people sea.”
(Renshan renhai - be packed like sardines)
(Wei & Fei, 2003)
What does the research say?
A single monochrome standard” (Quirk, 1985)
What does the research say?
Early debates on the same issue in the UK
The Newbolt Report (1925): The teaching of English should centre on
the teaching of English literature. Non-standard English are the “evil habits
of the home and street”.
The Bullock Report (1975): The teaching of English should focus on the
development of speech…that a child’s accent should be accepted, and that
to attempt to suppress it is irrational and neither humane or necessary….
(In Urszula, 2001)
What does the research say?
Some of the consequences of conducting ELT practices around
the central figure of the ‘omniscient ’ native speaker — elevated
to the status of a totem — have been profoundly deleterious to
the whole enterprise.
Among other things, it has bred an extremely enervating
inferiority complex among many a non-native speaker
learner/teacher, and helped spawn unfair and discriminatory
hiring practices.
(Rajagopalan 2004: 114)
What does the research say?
There is the need to see the power relationships in the
classroom and the ‘inequalities which support the
prestigious literacy practices we teach’ (Hyland & Hamp-Lyons
2002).
Language teaching needs to deal critically with the
norms and expectations of particular discourse
communities, to raise issues of social, economic and
political concern, yet, nevertheless, to provide students
with the tools they need to succeed (Pennycook1997).
What does the research say?
It is a matter of considerable pride and satisfaction
for native speakers of English that their language is
an international means of communication. But the
point is that it is only international to the extent that it
is not their language.
(Widdowson 1994: 385)
ELT is poised to undergo some dramatic changes as
native varieties of English give way to WE as the
most coveted passport to world citizenship.
(Rajagopalan 2004:111)
What does the research say?
Such an orientation will help us reconcile
ourselves to the reality of English as a
heterogeneous language with a plural
grammatical system and norms,
accommodating the expression of diverse
local values and identities.
(Canagarajah 2006: 211)
What does the research say?
A similar conclusion was drawn in a separate study (Hasan & Lushington,
1968):
One main aim of teaching English is to enable the pupil to use
the language of the speech community of his day. The model
presented to him should be those in which the language used
is that of contemporary speakers and writers. The model ought
to take into account the varieties of language. We may choose
to teach the standard English to the exclusion of others, but
this does not imply that other varieties are inferior or wrong.
How does Chinese English education stack up?
› There are 440-650 million English learners and users in China, making it
the largest English learning and using population in the world. (Bolton,
2003; He & Zhang, 2010; Jiang, 2002)
› There are about 55,000 College English teachers and 10 million College
English students in China. (Wu, 2009)
› There is an annual intake of 5 million university enrollments. (Cen, 2006)
› English education in China is a phenomenal success as compared with
foreign language education in neighboring countries, in Australia, the US
and the UK.
Can we disregard this fact in research and teaching
practice? Are we giving due credits to a model that is
guided by broad principles of Confucianism?
A contextualised language and learning model
This model needs be:
›- guided by broad principles of Confucianism
›- reflecting an insightful knowledge of EFL teaching in China
›- supported by empirical evidence derived from research on
language and learning
›- dynamic and flexible to accommodate the varying needs of
learning and teaching
›- systematic by incorporating the core elements of learning
and teaching
A Confucian perspective
因材施教。
--《论语 ·为政》
Teaching needs to be tailored
for individual learners.
A Confucian perspective
师者，所以传
道、授业、解惑
也。
A teacher is one who
passes on knowledge,
educates on various
subjects, and resolves
doubts.
—— 《师说》
Han Yu (768 – 824)
A Confucian perspective
不闻不若闻之，闻之不若
见之，见之不若知之，知之不
若行之。
Tell me, and I will forget.
Show me, and I may remember.
Involve me, and I will understand.
—— 《荀子·儒效篇》
Xun Zi (325 B.C. – 235 B.C.)
A Confucian perspective
有教无类。
Teach all comers without discrimination.
——《论语· 卫灵公》
读万卷书，行万里路。
Learn knowledge from thousands of
books and accumulate experience by
traveling thousands of miles.
——（明）董其昌
Dong Qichang (1555 –1636)
Language learning model:
Confucianism as pedagogy
Teaching 传道、授业、解惑
因材施教
Theory of
learning
Theory of
language
Curriculum
design/delivery
Received
knowledge
Learner
读万卷书
有教无类
读万卷书
Context of language/
learning
Experiential
knowledge
行万里路
Learning
不闻不若闻之，闻之不若见之，
见之不若知之，知之不若行之。
Theories of learning
The proposed model could be supported theories of learning:
Social Psychology (Lewin, 1935, 1948; Allport, 1954)
Developmental Psychology (Piaget, 1972; Vygotsky, 1978)
Cognitive Psychology (Wittrock, 1974; Craik & Lockhart, 1972)
Motivation Theory (Skinner, 1968; Bandura, 1965; Slavin, 1990)
Humanistic Psychology (Dewey, 1966; Rogers, 1979)
Global and Moral Values Education (Reardon, 1988, Kohlberg, 1963)
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Gardner, 1983)
Theories of language
› Second language acquisition (SLA)
› Sociolinguistics
› Task-based teaching and learning (TBTL)
› Intercultural approach to language teaching (ILT)
› Text-based curriculum
› Other
A wrap up
To conclude, a language learning model informed by Confucianism as
Pedagogy is an integrated approach that
›situates learning in local context;
›focuses on learning & acquisition;
›views the development of language as a way of approximation;
›helps learners develop intercultural competence with self identity;
›legitimates the learning Chinese English as an emerging variety.
Of course, there is a need to establish an empirical base to back up the
model. This is a taunting task for all Chinese EFL practitioners and
researchers, as my talk only serves as some food for thought or as the
Chinese saying goes:
抛砖引玉
A positive approach
While trying to correct deficiencies in an existing
model, we need to be aware that what we may
consider as weakness is what the West would look to
as overwhelming educational strengths such as a
deeply ingrained work ethic and disciplined training
in the elements of knowledge. “Even as we correct
real deficiencies, we need to recognize and nurture
the strengths that are so evident to others”.
(Brodhead, 2006)
Thank you!
Bolton, K. (2002). Chinese Englishes: From Canton jargon to global English. World Englishes, 21, 2, 181-199.
Bolton, K. (2003). Chinese Englishes: A sociolinguistic history. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Butler, S. (1997). Corpus of English in Southeast Asia: Implications for a regional dictionary. In English is An Asian Language:
The Philippine Context. Edited by M.L. Bautista, Manila: The Macquaire Library, pp. 103-124.
Canagarajah, A.S. (2006). Negotiating the local in English as a lingua franca. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 26, 197218.
Cen, J. (2006). China’s education and innovation in a globalization context. Keynote speech delivered at 1st Australia-China
Symposium on Science, Technology and Education, August, 2006, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
Hasan, R. & Lushington, S. (1968). The subject-matter of English. Harlow: Longmans.
He, D., & Zhang, Q. Y. (2010). Native speaker norms and China English: From the perspective of learners and teachers in
China. TESOL Quarterly, 44(4), 769-789.
Jia, D. (1990). Thought pattern and linear sequence. Foreign Language, 5.
Jiang, Y. (2002). China English: Issues, studies and features. Asian Englishes, 5, 4-23.
Kirkpatrick, A. & Xu, Z. (2002). Chinese pragmatic norms and ‘China English’. World Englishes, 21, 2, 269-279.
Leung, P.K. (2000). Writing between Chinese and English. World Englishes, 19, 3, 399-404.
Lin, Y. (1935). My country and my people. New York: Reynal & Hitchcock.
Ragagopalan, K. (2004). The concept of ‘World English’ and its implication for ELT. ELT Journal, 58, 2, 111-117.
Urszula, C. (2001). War words: Language, history and the disciplining of English. New York: Elsevier.
Wei, Y. & Fei, J. (2003). Using English in China. English Today 76, 19, 4, 42-47.
Widdowson, H.G. (1994). The ownership of English. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 3, 377-388.
Wu, Q. (2009). Experiments of College English teaching reform. Retrieved April 21, 2010 from
http://www.cflo.com.cn/w/wznr.aspx?tag=l6&id=1651&items=47.
Analysing Chinese English
(Syntactical structure)
I am not deep and not well-read. If one is too wellread, then one does not know right is right and
wrong is wrong. (Lin 1935)
…when two men separated by the ages think the
same thoughts and sense the same feelings and
each perfectly understands the other.” (Lin 1935)
To be born yellow and to be educated white is a
privilege… (Wu, 1937 in Bolton, 2002)
Analysing Chinese English
(Cultural allusions)
And what a treasure it is to be able to feel like a
Chinese and to think like a Westerner! And what an
ideal, to be as tender-hearted as a woman, and at
the same time as tough-minded as a man!”
(Wu, 1937 in Bolton, 2002)
Analysing Chinese English
(trans-lingual/cultural)
Compare two poems: Poem 1: Astronaut
fly wife and parachute kids to passport-land,
fly back, astronaut, coming in above love hotels
of Kowloon Tong for a Kai Tak splash down.
Rent a flat again in Happy Valley
With a view of the races,
Whatever the cost per square inch
To my karaoke soul!
(From Astronaut by Parkin 1997: 23-5)
Analysing Chinese English
(trans-lingual/cultural)
Compare two poems: Poem 2: Leaf of passage
Not an astronaut bringing home legends of space odysseys. Not at all.
Just a lonely father shuttling back with heavy twigs to build new nests.
Worries add to one’s age, diseases accumulate. Transit is never as smooth
As sages on blades of weed. See those mottled stamps on suspicious
passport?
Not so easy to roll a house into a backpack; lost forever are the familiar
Land and language. Departing, you imagined yourself a snow goose flying
south,
Crossing the frozen earth in search of a warmer port? What one foresees
Are sneers from both soils: how can a leaf move that many woes?
(From Leaf of Passage by Leung 1998)
Analyzing Chinese English
(trans-lingual/cultural creativity)
I started to write the poem in English first, but shifted
halfway to Chinese and finished...But the two
languages must have tangled deeper in my
mind…Only when I really worked on the poem in
English did I discover the unconscious echoes to Li
Po’ lines ‘Sailing through wails of monkeys from both
banks, a light boat has passed thousands of
mountains’ in my first line….
(Leung,
2000)
“Is this a jade or a wooden canoe? Sailing through wails from both banks,….”
Analysing Chinese English
(rhetorical strategies)
Compare:
Yr: As an old man with very rich and unique experience, do you
care more about your health, family happiness… or the art
you have pursued and loved so much all your life?
RC: I’m afraid I am not very much of a family man….I’m afraid
it’s still my career, my past….
(From Highlights of Dialogue, eds., Sheng, et al., 2006)
"I wanted to do this job and I wanted to be a good father as
well, a good parent, and I want to make sure that the family
always comes first," he said. "Nothing will change. I'll continue
to do everything I can to be a good family member”.
(Bracks, 2007, SMH July 28)
Analysing Chinese English
(Cultural allusions)
Feel the fear and do it anyway! Storms make trees
take deeper roots! Make money internationally!
(Li Yang, in Bolton, 2002)
The front gatekeeper, a gray-haired, red armbanded
woman surnamed Zhu, yawned and nodded to Chen
on that April morning as he tossed a green plastic
token into the token box.
(From A Loyal Character Dancer by Qiu Xiaolong, 2002)
Defining Chinese English
As a trans-lingual/cultural emergent, Chinese English, while
still susceptible to irresponsible or ill-informed accounts of its
being a sub standard variety as opposed to a native English
variety, is a variety of standard English. It has identifiable
traits in discoursal representation- expression, syntax,
rhetorical strategies, as well as socio-cultural associations. An
emphasis must also be made in analysis that Chinese English
is seemingly familiar with the source and target language, but
transcends in unique ways.
However, further research is needed to gather empirical evidence for
codifying and theorizing as well as developing an English curriculum
informed and invested by such understanding.
Criteria for determining an variety of English
Butler (1997) established a set of criteria for determining an
emerging variety of English. These criteria include:
(1)an established standard, recognizable pronunciation;
(2)a set of words and phrases that is typical of the variety;
(3)a speech community that evolved over a period of time in
history;
(4)a literature written in that variety, and
(5)the existence of reference books.