Prepared by Robert Gass & John Seiter
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WORDS HAVE POWER
Children’s names carry connotations
Words affect perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and emotions
 undocumented person vs. illegal immigrant
 person of color versus Black person, African-American,
Negro, N-word
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SYMBOLS
Symbols are arbitrary words, images, or behavior that
stand for or represent something else.
 Symbols are arbitrary: The word for “pig” could just as easily
be “garp”
 Symbols include images (peace sign, thumbs up gesture)
 Symbols can include behavior (rituals and rites or other
symbolic action)
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SYMBOLS, MEANING, AND PERSUASION
Denotative meaning
Connotative meaning
 A word’s strict dictionary
definition
 Emotional associations surrounding
a word
 Animals names
Alligator
Bison
Elephant
Leopard
 References to females/males using
animal names
Bitch
Fox
Chick
Pig
Cougar Stud
Cow
Tiger
Dog
Wolf
Moose
Python
Rooster
Zebra
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ULTIMATE TERMS
God terms
 family values, peace, truth, modern
Devil terms
 deadbeat dad, sexual predator, sweatshop, hate crime
Charismatic terms
 green, natural, freedom, democracy
Terms may change, evolve over time
 political correctness, affirmative action, liberal
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APHORISMS, FAMILIAR PHRASES
Famous sayings, proverbs, and
folk wisdom can facilitate
persuasion
Such truisms function as
peripheral cues
 “Rome wasn’t built in a day”
 “Don’t put all your eggs in one
basket”
 “Money doesn’t grow on trees”
Students heard a persuasive
message that included familiar
phrases
 Some students were
distracted while listening
 Some students were not
The distracted students were
more persuaded than the ones
who paid full attention
(Howard, 1997)
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THE POWER OF LABELING
People’s names influence
impressions
 Perceived likeability, friendliness
 Perceptions of their “hotness”
Labels reflect attitudes
 male, guy, dude
 female, girl, chick, broad
 gay, queer, fag, homosexual
 Food servers who used patrons’
names received higher tips
 Job titles
 Barista at Starbucks
 “Genius bar” at Apple
stores
 Geek Squad at Best Buy
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THE POWER OF LABELING
Prescription drug names
 branding companies typically earn
between $50,000 and $250,000
for coming up with a unique name
for a prescription drug
Names that sound scientific,
with an “X” or “Z” are popular
 Paxil
 Prozac
 Zoloft
 Xanax
 Lexapro
 Nexium
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SAPIR-WHORF HYPOTHESIS
Language shapes the way we
think
The average Joe or Jill might call a
color “off-white”
Language can facilitate or inhibit
certain types of thinking
A painter or clothing designer might
differentiate between subtle shades
More precise language enables
more focused thought
Texting versus writing
 Texting is fast, generic
 Writing is slow, nuanced
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
alabaster
antique white
bone
China
cream
eggshell
ivory
parchment
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THE POWER OF RENAMING
“progressive” versus “liberal”
“death panels” versus “health insurance”
“troop reduction” versus “cut and run”
“peer-to-peer file sharing” versus “internet piracy”
“pre-owned” versus “used”
“womyn” instead of “women”
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EUPHEMISMS & DOUBLE-SPEAK
It sounds so much better when you put it that way.
 commercial sex worker vs. prostitute or whore
 enhanced interrogation techniques vs. torture
 faith-based vs. religious
 downsizing, right-sizing, or bright-sizing vs. being fired
 hobo or homeless vs. vagabond or sojourner
Euphemisms can help people save face
 “I’m between jobs right now”
Euphemisms can convey tact, sensitivity
 “I need to visit the men’s room”
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LANGUAGE INTENSITY, VIVIDNESS, AND OFFENSIVENESS
Profanity is rarely a persuader’s friend.
 Profanity tends to lower perceived credibility
 Perceptions of profanity are topic, audience, and
situation specific
 Religious profanity was perceived less negatively
than sexual profanity, with excretory profanity
perceived somewhere in between
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POLITICAL CORRECTNESS
Evolving terms for AfricanAmericans

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



N-word
Darkie
Colored
Negro
Black
African-American
Person of color
Bi-racial, multi-racial
The control of language entails the
control of social reality
 terrorist vs. martyr vs. freedom fighter
The power of naming shapes
perceptions and confers power
 The gay community has taken back
the word “queer” and made it socially
acceptable
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POLITICAL CORRECTNESS
The language of disability
 Saying “wheel chair bound” emphasizes the disability first
 Saying “person with a disability,” (PWD) emphasizes the
person first
 Persuaders who used empowering terms (heroic) for PWDs
were perceived as more credible
 Persuaders who used pejorative terms (pathetic) were
perceived as less credible
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VIVIDNESS
Vivid language is more memorable than pallid
language
 Colorful, picturesque language increases
attention and retention
 Pallid language is, well, boring
 Vivid language must be congruent with the
message
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LANGUAGE INTENSITY
Intense language demonstrates
a source’s bias on a topic or
issue
 National health insurance will
lead to “death panels” (Sarah
Palin)
 “Humans have no more value
than slugs” (John Daley, editor
of Earth First!)
 People who aren’t shifting to
bio-diesel fuel are “raping the
planet” (Fuel: Uncovering
America’s Dirty Little Secret,
2008 documentary)
Reinforcement Theory
 Intense language facilitates
persuasion with a friendly audience
 Intense language can alienate a
hostile audience
Language Expectancy Theory
 Violations perceived positively
facilitate persuasion
 Violations perceived negatively
inhibit persuasion
 How a violation is perceived
depends on the status and reward
power of the violator
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LANGUAGE INTENSITY
Information Processing Theory
 Intense language persuades
via message discrepancy
 A previously unthinkable
position becomes more
thinkable
 Intense language may also
backfire based on the contrast
effect
Communication Accommodation
Theory
 Persuaders who match the
language style of their audience
are more effective
 Intense language users prefer
intense speakers
 Non-intense language users
prefer non-intense speakers
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POWERFUL VS. POWERLESS LANGUAGE
Powerful, assertive language is
generally more persuasive
 “I have an important
question…”
Powerful language conveys confidence,
credibility
But…
 “I loved that movie.”
Powerful language requires good
arguments and evidence
 “Let’s grab some coffee and
talk.”
Females may need to moderate their
assertiveness for male audiences
 “My skill set is a perfect fit for
your company.”
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POWERLESS LANGUAGE
Powerless language signifies low
status, low credibility
 This may sound like a dumb
question but…”
 “That was a good movie, don’t
you think?”
 “I was kind of hoping that maybe
we could get together for coffee
sometime, if you want.”
 “Uh, so I would, really, um, like
to work here, um, at, like, your
company.”
*Note: Some types of diplomatic language are
polite, but not powerless
Types of powerless language
Disclaimers
 You’ll probably say ‘No’ but…”
Hedges
 “kind of,” “sort of,” “I guess”
Hesitations
 “uh,” “um,” “like,” “you know”
Intensifiers
 “Very,” “really,”
Polite forms*
 “If it’s okay…” “I’d appreciate it if…”
Tag questions
 “don’t you think?”
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