Migration: Terms,
concepts and numbers
1st Advanced Course:
“Health on the move”
January 14 & 15 2012
Ioanna Kotsioni, Phd, Msc
Migration
The movement of a person or a group of
persons, either across an international
border, or within a State. It is a population
movement, encompassing any kind of
movement of people, whatever its length,
composition and causes; it includes
migration of refugees, displaced persons,
economic migrants, and persons moving for
other purposes, including family
reunification.
► Immigration
- A process by which nonnationals move into a country for the
purpose of settlement.
► Forced
migration - A migratory
movement in which an element of
coercion exists, including threats to life
and livelihood, whether arising from
natural or man-made causes.
Migration: as old as human history
► Migration
is by no means a new
phenomenon.
► Migration
is a fundamental process that
redistributes people around the globe.
► Human
history has, to a large extent, been
shaped through the movement of
populations.
1 out of 7 a migrant
► In
2010, the total number of international
migrants in the world was estimated at
214 million people (IOM, 2011).
► The
number of internal migrants is
estimated at 740 million (UNDP, 2009).
► In
total, around a billion people (roughly
one in seven of the world’s population) are
migrants.
Estimates of different categories
► Migrant
workers ~ 100 million (2009)
► Refugees
► Asylum
~ 15.4 million (2010)
seekers ~ 845,800 (2010)
► Trafficked
persons – including adults and children
in forced labour, bonded labour, and forced
prostitution - ~ 12.3 million (2010). Almost 2 out
of 1,000 people are victims of trafficking.
Estimates of different categories
► In
2010, the estimated number of displaced
persons due to natural disasters was over
42 million. The large majority (38 million)
were displaced by climate change-related
disasters (primarily flooding and storms).
Migration: a complex phenomenon
► Migration
is the outcome of a range of factors
including social, economic, cultural, political, as
well as environmental, that shape an individual’s
decision to move.
► People
migrate for different reasons. Some out
of free will in search of better opportunities for
themselves and their family, and others forced
by conflict or disaster in search of safety.
“Mixed” migration
► In
recent years migration flows have
become more complex and comprise
heterogeneous groups of individuals.
► Human
migration rarely has a single cause
and it is often hard to distinguish voluntary
and forced movement.
“Mixed” migration
Increasingly difficult to distinguish refugees
from other migrants:
► Many
► Host
“push”- “pull” factors.
countries may not recognize:
– Generalized violence
– Breakdown of civil order
– Internal conflicts
as legitimate ground for grant refugee status.
Migration: more complex today?
► As
a result of technical advances in
communications, migratory behaviour has
diversified to include short and long term
relocation, permanent migration and circular
migration back to the place of origin.
► After
World War II, countries of origin were mostly
in Europe, and destinations included the Americas
and Australia. Today, most countries are at the
same time countries of origin, transit and
destination (eg. Greece).
Immigration: is it really a threat???
► Immigration
is essential for sending countries, to
assist home communities with remittances.
► It
can also be useful to receiving societies, to
compensate for demographic trends and skill
shortages.
► Europe,
today, faces a serious demographic
challenge. Its population is ageing. Net migration
flows are necessary to moderate the negative
repercussions of aging.
Europe’s demographic problem
►
Europe is the continent with the lowest total fertility rate (on
average 1.5 children per woman). At the same time life
expectancy is increasing.
►
By 2050, the old-age dependency ratio (the number of people
65 and over relative to those between 15 and 64) is projected
to double, meaning that in the EU only two persons of
working age will correspond for every elderly citizen.
►
The repercussions for labour and growth will be dramatic.
Public spending will also come under serious strain. It is
estimated that the effect of an aging population alone would
increase health care public spending by at least 2 percentage
points of GDP by 2050.
Europe’s demographic problem
► It
should be stressed that these projections
are based on the assumption that net
migration inflows to the EU will cumulate to
40 million persons by 2050.
►A
contradiction: While net migration is
necessary for the region’s survival, the
dominant public rhetoric in most European
countries is that “Europe cannot afford no
more immigrants”.
Are developed countries really faced
with an “invasion”?
► It
is estimated that only 37% of migration is
from developing to developed countries.
► The
biggest refugee camp in the world: Dadaab
in Kenya. Almost 400,000 displaced people, the
vast majority from war-torn Somalia.
► “Arab
spring”: Resulted in nearly 800,000
migrants - who fled Libya and Tunisia. Of those
only 50,000 reached the EU - Italy and Malta .
A shift towards more
restrictive policies
The increasing use of the term “irregular” (or illegal)
migration parallels the adoption of increasingly restrictive
migration policies in Europe and the U.S.
U.S. and Europe spend around $9 billion on migration
management annually.
►
►
►
►
►
Stricter border controls (at land and at sea)
Increased and prolonged use of administrative detention
Cooperation agreements with countries of origin and
transit
Emphasis on returns
European Border Management Agency (Frontex)
The human cost of restrictive
migration policies
►
Individuals, including those fleeing persecution, have
extremelly limited means of legally travelling to the EU.
►
This often means people take life-threatening risks,
being forced to use smuggling networks.
►
The number of migrants who died along the European
borders, since 1998, is estimated at 17,738. Most died
trying to cross the Mediterranean. In 2011, alone,
around 2,000 deaths were recorded.
Irregular migration
► Irregular
► Data
(illegal) migration – a contested term
show that most irregular immigrants to
Europe and the USA have entered on a visa,
hence legally, and then have overstayed or
engaged in illicit work and became irregular. Often
they might have been able to regularise or reentered on a new visa and therefore acquired
legal status again.
Greek emigration
Two recent waves of mass emigration: one from
the late 19th to the early 20th century, and
another following World War II.
► In
the period 1890-1914, almost a sixth of the
population of Greece emigrated, mostly to the
United States and Egypt.
► Following
World War II (between 1950 and 1974),
more than one million Greeks migrated to Western
Europe, the US, Canada, and Australia.
Immigration to Greece
►
In the aftermath of the Eastern bloc collapse, Greece,
received increased migratory flows from Eastern European
countries and quite abruptly became a net immigration
country.
►
According to the 2001 census, the foreign population of
Greece amounted to 796,713 persons (7.3% of the total
population). The vast majority, 750,000, were third country
citizens. Of those, 2,927 were registered as refugees.
►
More than half, 55.7% originated from Albania (among
them about 185,000 ethnic Greeks). The second largest
group came from Central and Eastern Europe.
Immigration to Greece
►
In the last decade, Greece is experiencing the arrival of new
migration flows, originating from Asian and African countries, i.e.
Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, Somalia, Nigeria.
These migratory flows differ from the ones of the 1990s, mainly
in the following:
►
They include more people from war-torn and unstable countries
and therefore more persons potentially in need of international
protection.
►
These migrants endure longer and more dangerous trips as they
need to use the services of smuggling networks.
►
For these migrants Greece is not so much a final destination but
more a first stepping stone into Europe. However, because of
the Schengen and Dublin regulations they find themselves
“stuck” in Greece.
Immigration to Greece
Migrants of the recent influx are more likely to present increased
medical, including mental health needs:
►
Many come from countries with poor health care coverage (eg.
inadequate vaccination).
►
Many come from conflict and violence ridden areas and may
have been direct victims or witnessed violence.
►
They often had to make long trips in extreme conditions and/or
to spent prolonged periods of time in transit countries with
insufficient access to medical care.
►
When in Greece, incarceration, very poor living conditions and
obstacles in accessing health care can by further risk factors for
their health and wellbeing.
Immigration to Greece
►
In 2008, the migrant population was estimated at 1,246,000
(11.3% of the total population. Of whom 339,000 (2.9%) were
of Greek origin and “irregular” migrants about 167,000 (1.5%).
More recent estimates calculate the population of “irregular”
migrants between 250,000 and 400,000 persons.
►
The population census of 2011 will provide us with more
updated and accurate data.
►
The migrant population in Greece is characterized by a younger
age structure (65,7% of the migrants belonged to the age group
of 15-44 years of age while the corresponding percentage for
the Greek population was 42,7%).
Immigration to Greece
►
The migrant population in Greece has also been characterized
by high participation in the labour market (51,45%).
►
Very high concentration in manual professions (70% of the total
migrant working population). Of those 40% employed as
unskilled labour and most of the rest in the construction sector.
►
For most their occupation in Greece does not correspond to their
educational qualifications. 66% were employed at jobs requiring
less qualifications.
►
Many have social insurance. In 2003, 13% of those insured in
IKA were foreigners.
►
They are now increasingly affected by the economic crisis.
Immigration to Greece
►
Most importantly they face increasing anti-migrant sentiments
which have also resulted in serious racist attacks. The role of
public rhetoric and the media is instrumental in producing and
reproducing stereotypes and a climate of insecurity, especially at
times of crisis.
►
However, one should bear in mind that historically the settled
populations have always feared newcomers.
►
Fear of migrants rests upon the fear of change, and especially
changes to culture. Culture is, however, not a fixed concept.
►
Cultures change continuously over time. The cultures as we
know them today are the result of centuries of migration.
By way of conclusion
(World Migration Report 2011, IOM)
►
Societies with a rich diversity of skills and experiences are
better placed to stimulate growth through their human
resources.
►
Yet migration remains highly politicized and often negatively
perceived, despite the obvious need for diversification in
today’s rapidly evolving societies and economies.
►
Nevertheless, international migration is likely to increase in
scale and complexity due to growing demographic disparities,
new global and political dynamics, technological revolutions
and social networks, with profound impacts on the socioeconomic and ethnic composition of societies.
►
This will result in new policy challenges related to the way
migration is experienced by the community at large. In this
context, the image of migrants in their home and host
societies acquires fundamental importance.
Food for thought
Ο παππούς μας ο «λαθρομετανάστης»…
► Αρχές
του 20ου αιώνα: εμφανίζεται στις
εφημερίδες για πρώτη φορά η λέξη
«λαθρομετανάστης» που αναφέρεται αποκλειστικά
σε Έλληνες μετανάστες στις ΗΠΑ.
► Τέλη
του 20ου αιώνα: η απαξιωτική λέξη
«λαθρομετανάστης» χρησιμοποιείται ευρέως και
από την επίσημη πολιτεία για να χαρακτηρίσει τους
άτυπους (irregular) μετανάστες.
Migration and health
► Migration
► I.e.
is, in itself, not a risk to health.
“Healthy migrant” effect.
► However,
migration practices and policies may
render migrants more vulnerable. Migrants, and
especially those on irregular status, are exposed to
numerous health risks during their travel, as well
as in destination countries. (eg. poor living
conditions, violence, limited access to the
healthcare system).
Migration and health
► Governments
face the challenge of
responding to the health needs of migrants.
► Failing
to do so is not only an infringement
on the universal right of an individual to
healthcare, but may have serious public
health repercussions, and can exacerbate
inequalities and marginalisation.