•
Eradication – this is a strategy in which extensive efforts and costs are provided in the short term to completely remove the pest and therefore provide unhindered produce development in future periods;
• Prophylaxis – this is a strategy of insurance, in which pest controls are applied systematically, periodically and generally preventively regardless of the pest population;
•
Containment – the intention is to ensure the pest population stays below a specific level. The producer in this situation accepts some loss of yield (and therefore revenue) and controls the pest when it is cost-effective to do so.
Cousens (1987)

•
Synthetic Pesticide Era--1939 to ?????
Prior to this time, insecticides were formulated from petroleum, coal tar distillates, plants or inorganic compounds

1930's trend toward synthesizing new compounds
DDT
- synthesized by a German graduate student 1873
- Paul Muller, (Swiss) discovers insecticidal activity
- saves many soldiers' lives during WWII (body lice - typhus)
- such an impact on human health -- Muller wins 1948 Nobel prize in medicine
More soldiers were lost in WWII due to mosquito-borne disease than in battle.

•
During WWII both the Germans and the Allies working on the development of organophosphates as nerve gases. They discover the insecticidal properties of these chemicals
•
After WWII development of other chlorinated hydrocarbons and organophosphates as pesticides

•
1950's early 60's
•
"The Green Revolution"
- synthetic pesticides and fertilizers the answer to world hunger!!
- trend away from understanding pest phenology, density or damage potential and toward pure chemical approach

•
1962
•
Silent Spring
- Adverse effects on wildlife, water quality, human health?
- DDT found in milk and foods (biomagnification)
- Resistance of pests to pesticides
Response to book leads eventually to public policy changes in
1970's

•
1970's
USDA creates nationwide IPM Program in Land Grant
Universities
EPA created & given jurisdiction over pesticide registration & regulation
•
1980's
Increase in IPM research

•
Integrated control.
•
Pest management and Economic injury level .
•
Environmental protection

Pierce, W. D. 1934:
At what point does insect attack become damage?

•
Emphasized concerns regarding excessive and inappropriate uses of insecticides (4 R’s)
- Resistance
- Resurgence
- Residue
- Risk to human health & environment

Integrated control —the conceptual foundation of all modern days IPM programs
Sophisticated idea of pest control predicted on the complementary action of chemical and biological control
4 basic elements:
Threshold for determining the need for control
Sampling to determine critical densities
Understanding and conserving bio-control capacity of system
Use of selective insecticides when needed

GEP
0
Time

0
Time
EIL
GEP

0
Time
EIL
ET
GEP

Injury: The effect of pest (insect) activities on host physiology that is usually deleterious.
Damage: Measurable loss of host utility (quantity/quality/aesthetics).
Certain level of injury may not produce damage or yield loss

Damage boundary: The level of injury (number of insects) at which damage occurs
Pierce, W. D. 1934:
At what point does insect attack become damage?

•
EIL= C/VIDK
EIL= number of injury equivalents per production unit (e.g. insects/ha)
C= cost of management activity ($/ha)
V= market value ($/kg)
I= injury units per insect per production unit (e.g. proportion defoliation/(insect/ha)
D= damage per unit injury (e.g. kg reduction/ha)
K= proportionate reduction of the insect population
Pedigo et al. 1986

Range of pest densities
O 1 2 4 O 1 2 4 O
1 2 4
Experiment without management action
Calculate yield and revenue

Range of pest densities
O 1 2 4 O 1 2 4 O
1 2 4
Experiment with management action
Calculate yield and net revenue

Experiment without management action
O 1 2 4
Yield
Manag. cost
Net returns
Total returns
10
0
100
8
0
80
6
60
100 80 60
Experiment with management action
O 1 2 4
11 10 9
20 20 20
90 80 70
110 100 90

economic losses no losses benefit > cost
EIL
ET cost > benefit
Time

•
The economic threshold is simply the operational criteria for administering pest control action (Higley and Pedigo, 1996)
•
Simple threshold: ET is usually arbitrarily set to some reasonable level below the EIL to allow sufficient time for making the treatment decision and scheduling control activity
•
Comprehensive threshold

1) % damage to leaves, plants, foliage, or
2) # of plants showing damage; or # adults or larvae/stem / plant.
3) # adult insects or larvae / m 2
4) # adult insects or larvae/sweep

Thrips
Beet Webworm
Clover cutworm
Barley, Oats
7 - 8 thrips/stem prior to head emergence
Red Clover
50 - 80 thrips per flower head
20 - 30 larvae/m
2
Canola
Canola, Mustard, Flax 20 - 30 larvae/m
2
Cereals 3 - 4 larvae/m
2
Cutworms
Diamondback moth
Oilseeds
Pea
Canola, Mustard
25 to 30 per cent stand reduction
2-3 larvae /m
2 in the top 7 cm (3 in.) of soil
100 - 150 larvae/m
2 in immature and flowering fields
200 - 300 larvae/m
2 podded canola fields in

Non-economic pest

Comparison of Direct and Indirect Pests
Characteristic Direct
Commodity
Yield-Pest
Relationship
Marketable
Simple
Indirect
Non-Marketable
Complex
Pest Status
Pest Group
Usually Key Pest Any
Insects &
Pathogens
Farmer Tolerance Low
Any
Higher

•
Limited applications for medical pests, veterinary pests, & pathogens
•
Market value of human health and life?
•
Variable market values
•
Substantial background research to calculate injury per insect and injury/plant response relationship
•
Multiple pests?
•
Environmental cost?

•
Provides practical approach to pest related decision making
•
EILs for guilds of species with similar injuries i.e. single EIL for complex of species

1. Tactical vs. Strategic
•
Tactics – Individual control options
•
Strategies – Combinations of Tactics
2. Preventative (Prophylactic) vs. Curative
(Therapeutic)
• Preventative – Before pest is a threat
•
Curative – When pest is threatening

Strategy Pest Management Program
Implement
Tillage Tactic
Implement
Tillage Tactic
Conserve
Biological
Controls
Conserve
Biological
Controls
Weekly Count
Insect A
Caterpillars
Too Many
Caterpillars?
No
Apply
Insecticide 2 if neccessary
Yes
Apply
Insecticide 2

•
1990's
New genetically engineered Bt crops (corn, potatoes) come into use
How will these fit into IPM programs?
•
2000 and beyond??
Pest management is always changing and we cannot predict the future.