

Hodges, Keeley, and Grier (2000) write that the
visual image has been used to describe what is
most important to humans throughout history and
is able to evoke emotions, abstract ideas, and the
shared human experience.
Hodges, Keeley, and Grier (2000) used the visual
image in a qualitative hermeneutic
phenomenological study in order to analyze
perceptions of illness in nurses, nursing students,
and the elderly.

In a paper on the use of photo elicitation, Harper
(2002) writes “Images evoke deeper elements of
human consciousness than do words; exchanges
based on words alone utilize less of the brain’s
capacity than do exchanges in which the brain is
processing images as well as words”(p. 13).

Photographic images taken by marginalized
people have the potential for societal change.
Poudrier and Mac-Lean (2008) used photo-voice in
a qualitative, participatory research study. They
loaned cameras to Aboriginal Canadian women in
order to describe visually, their experience with
breast cancer.

Photo elicitation was first mentioned by
Collier(1957), a researcher and a photographer
who used the camera to document the housing of
his study’s subjects. The research questioned the
environmental basis of psychological stress.

Photo research methods began with the
environmental sciences and visual anthropology.
(Hansen-Ketchum & Myrick, 2008).

In a paper describing the use of photography in narrative
inquiry, Harrison(2002) writes that photographs can be seen
as a form of story telling, exploring narrative, and providing
insight into memory and identity construction (Harrison, 2002).

Photographic images may be produced by the investigator
or by those being researched (Harrison,2002).

Photographic images may be produced during the research
process, as in research generated photo diaries , or the
images may have been produced in the past, such as in the
use of old family photo albums. Family albums reveal much
about the participants history (Harrison, 2002).

Photography as auto-biography may be used to
address the core question of “who am I”(Harrison,
2002).

The photographs do not stand alone but are used
in conjunction with interview (Harrison, 2002).

Harrison (2002) described a study by
Thoutenhoofd(1998)in which photography was
used successfully in interviews with deaf people
who documented their visual life with the aid of a
camera.

“Photographs are an important site for the
embodiment of memory, as traces of working
through a place for self in the past and the present.
They are also a means by which people in
everyday life can narrate experience, and in this
way can come to an understanding of what those
experiences mean” (Harrison, 2002, p. 109).

Photo Essay:
A series of photographs made with the intention of telling a story about someone or
some situation. These photographs may reveal more about the participant than meets
the eye (Casey & Dollinger, 2007). The photos may have narrative text placed on or with
the photograph (Harper,2002). Photo essays, once made, may be used for photo
elicitation.

Photo Elicitation:
Inserting photographic images into your research interviews for your participants or
subjects to comment on (Lorenz & Kolb, 2009). Collier(1957) wrote that more information
was elicited from interviews with study subjects when photographs were used to elicit
responses during interviews. In addition, the subjects were less easily fatigued by the
interview process when the act of looking at photographs was included in the interview
process.

Photo-Voice:
A participatory action research method in which a participant in a marginalized
community takes photographs in order to tell his or her own story and their community
point of view through photographic images of their community and lives(Poudrier &
Mac-Lean, 2009). Photographic images made through Photo-Voice may later be used
to generate comments during interviews or focus groups through the use of photo
elicitation.

Macarow (2010) writes about the photo essays of a
variety of photographers as the photographers
explored the lives, roles, resilience, migration, and
opportunities for victims of the holocaust in the
Jewish Diaspora. Researchers view the
photographs to gain an understanding of the
phenomenon.

As a photographer and writer, Allen (2007) studied
the Transgender Community in the united States for
over 30 years through the use of photo essay.

Casey and Dollinger (2007) used photo essay and regression
analysis in a quantitative study to provide insight into patterns
of alcohol consumption among college students. The
students (N=135)took a series of photos of their lives in regards
to alcohol consumption in order to determine their “alcohol
identity” and predicted risk for alcohol related problem
behaviors.

Killion(2001) researched the use of photo essay in a successful
attempt to promote cultural awareness in nursing students,
and to identify multicultural themes in their photographs. The
students in the class were each assigned to produce a photo
essay depicting cultural aspects of health.

In a paper on photo elicitation, Harper(2002) writes
that the methodology has been used by
researchers to investigate the social identify of kids,
ethnically diverse immigrants, drug addicts, and
work worlds.

Longoria and Marini (2006) used photo elicitation in
a descriptive mixed methods study using a survey
tool and open ended questions in order to explore
the perceptions of children's attitudes towards
peers with a severe physical disability. The children
were shown photographs of severely handicapped
children and asked to comment on them.

Brand and McMurray (2009) used photo elicitation in an
explorative, qualitative descriptive pilot study exploring first
year nursing students perceptions of older adults. In individual
interviews, the student was shown pre-existing photographs of
older adult patients receiving nursing care. The student was
asked to comment on the photographs.

In an effort to improve quality of life for older people,
Newton, Ormerod, Burton, Mitchell, and Ward-Thompson
(2010) used photo elicitation in a qualitative descriptive study
to determine the preferred neighborhood street design by
older people. Older people were individually interviewed
and asked to view and discuss environmentally
contextualized photographs of various street features.

Wang and Pies (2004) used photo-voice, a participatory action
research methodology, in an ethnically diverse California
community in order to augment previously collected quantitative
data. Residents of the community were provided with disposable
cameras and asked to take photographs reflecting their views on
family, maternal, and child health assets, and concerns in their
community. They later participated in group discussions reflecting on
the photographs through the use of photo elicitation.

Andonian (2010) used photo-voice as an action research
methodology in order to research the community participation of
mentally ill individuals within an urban setting. The mentally ill
participants were given cameras and asked to photograph people,
places, and things, that showed their experience of community
participation.

Poudrier and Mac-Lean (2009) used photo-voice, as a qualitative,
participatory, visual methodology to record Canadian, Aboriginal Women’s
experience with breast cancer. The participants were loaned cameras and
asked to take 12-15 photographs of what the experience of breast cancer
meant to them. The images were later discussed individually and in a sharing
circle using the photo elicitation method.

Gallagher et al. (2010) used focus groups and photo-voice in an exploratory,
qualitative study in which adult African American community members were
given disposable cameras and were instructed to take pictures in the
community of anything that encouraged or discouraged walking.

Oliffe, Bottorff, Kelly and Halpin (2008) used participant produced
photographs and narrative interviews in an ethnographic study exploring
fatherhood and smoking.





The main ethical concern is usually what will happen after the
photograph is taken (Close, 2007).
Depending on the review board, at times, photographs may
be taken of objects and places but not of people (Close,
2007).
Informed consents must be obtained, the person (or child) or
the child’s representative, must be competent to provide
consent.
Are the photographs to be published or disseminated? The
informed consents must include the exact use of the
photograph.
Who will own the photograph if it was taken by a community
participant? In a study by Miller and Happell (2006), the
photographs were on loan to the researchers, but could be
withdrawn at any time.

Andonian (2010) instructed her photo-voice participants to only photograph
non-family members in public spaces to address issues of consent. Only
pictures of people in public spaces were used as data in the study. Legally
one may take photographs in public places outside, however, what is legal is
not always ethical. Check with your IRB ethics committee.

Martin, Garcia, and Leipert (2010) suggest that careful training of photovoice participants in the ethical issues related to taking pictures of people is
necessary. They recommend that every person who is photographed sign an
informed consent.

Originally, Poudrier and Mac-Lean (2008)received IRB ethics approval to deidentify their study participants in the photographs, because their study
participants later wished to be identified, the researchers re-applied for
ethics approval out of respect for their participant’s wishes.

Check with your Institutional Review Board
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United States over 30 years, 1978-2007. Sexuality Research & Social Policy, 4 (4) 92104.
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an urban environment. Occupational Therapy in Mental Health, 26, 401-417.
Brand, G., & McMurray, A. (2009). Reflections on photographs: Exploring first-year
student’s perceptions of older adults. Journal of Gerontological Nursing, 35(11) 3035.
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(2010). Neighborhood factors relevant for walking in older, urban, African
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