THEORIES IN GERONTOLOGY:
EARLY THEORIES
Dr. M. C. Sengstock
SOC 5760 – Society & Aging
1
5 PHASES OF THEORY IN
GERONTOLOGY
1. Pre 1960: Problems Approach; No Theories
2. 1960s: Early Theory:
Disengagement – Activity – Subculture of Aging
3. 1970s: 2nd Generation Theories
Age Stratification – Personality Continuity
4. 1980s & Later: Emergent Theories
Focus on Contextual & Structural Arrangements
5. More Recent Theories:
Greater Focus on Theories from Individual Disciplines
2
SOCIAL THEORIES OF AGING:
WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF THEORY?
•
•
•
•
Organize What Is Known About a Topic
Propose Explanations for Data Observed
Suggest Hypotheses
Predict Future Findings
3
EARLY THEORIES IN GERONTOLOGY
• Focused On Role Theory (Applicable to Nearly
Everything!)
• ROLE: The Activities Required by Statuses (Social
Positions)
• COMPONENTS: Role Expectations (Norms), Role
Socialization, Role Changes, Role Discontinuity (Esp.
in Times of Transition)
• Early Gerontology Theory Focused on the Way Roles
Were Assigned & Developed
• Also on the Way They Had to Change As People
Reached Old Age
4
DISENGAGEMENT THEORY
• Cummings & Henry, 1961
• Kansas City Study of 275 Persons 50-90 Yrs Old
• NOTE: Discussion in Text (Hooyman & Kiyak)
Is Rather Sterile
• Disengagement Very Influential At That Time
• Was the Basis of Much Social Policy
• Focused Primarily On LOSS of ROLES As People
Grew Old
5
TENETS OF DISENGAGEMENT
•
•
•
•
•
Old Age Is Period of Mutual Withdrawal
Aged Withdraw From Society & Reverse
From Work, Family, Friends, All Institutions
MUTUAL Separation From PEOPLE & ROLES
Society Pushes Them Out
– Get Rid of Them & Make Room For Young
• Aged WANT to Withdraw
– They Know They Are Less Able & Face Imminent Death
6
DISENGAGEMENT (ctd)
• NORMATIVE Withdrawal Accompanies & Follows
Actual Withdrawal
• As Elderly Become Separated From Society, They
Are Less Controlled By It
• They Follow Their Own Rules
• They Become Even More Separated
• This is What Is Meant By “DISENGAGED”
• “Gerotranscendance Theory”: Old Focus More on
Self-Development Than Rational, Economical
View of the World
7
CONSEQUENCES OF DISENGAGEMENT
• Poor Adjustment to Old Age May Occur
• Due to LACK OF SYNCHRONIZATION Between
Society’s & Individual’s Disengagement
• One Side – Usually the Individual – Is Behind the
Other in Withdrawing
• Reengagement Occurs If New Skills Learned
• Low Morale Occurs if Pattern Does Not “Fit”
• Men’s Disengagement More Sudden: Work Roles
Cease More Suddenly Than Women’s Home Roles
- Remember: This is the ’60s – Women Didn’t Work
8
DISENGAGEMENT:
RECOMMENDATIONS & CRITIQUE
• Solution To Old Age Problems: Encourage Aged to
Withdraw
• CRITICISMS: Theory Suggests:
• Withdrawal Is Inevitable
• Withdrawal Is Functional for Both
• Fails to Consider Individual Personal Factors of
Aged Persons
• All Elderly Do NOT Want To Withdraw – Nor Do
Their Families & Friends Want Them To
9
CUMMINGS & HENRY’S RESPONSE
• Distinguished Between Appearance & Reality
• Old People Are Really Disengaged – Even If
They Don’t Look Like It
• Recognized Physical/Psychological Differences
• “Impingers” (Activist, Assertive People)
Disengage Slower Than “Selectors” (Passive)
• Women Socialized to Change Roles Easier
Than Men So They Adapt Better
10
CUMMINGS & HENRY RESPONSE (ctd)
• Disengagement Is Part of “Increasing
Interiority” – Emphasis on Self vs. Other
• This Occurs Throughout Life
• Some People Are More Disposed to Interiority
(Introverts)
• They Will Disengage Faster Than Extroverts
• This Leads to a More “Developmental Psych”
Approach – Moving Through Life Stages
11
ACTIVITY “PERSPECTIVE”
•
•
•
•
•
Havighurst & Albrecht, 1953; Maddox, 1970
Not Developed Enough For a Real Theory
Also Focused on ROLE LOSS of Old Age
Attempted to “Turn It Around”
4 Essential Postulates:
–
–
–
–
Role Loss Is Related to Loss of Activity
Role Support Is Related to Activity
Stable Role Support Produces Stable Self Concept
Positive Self Concept Produces Life Satisfaction
12
ACTIVITY PERSPECTIVE (ctd)
• “Activities” Are Parts of Roles
• Activities Increase Through Child & Adult Life
• Individual’s Self Concept Receives Validation
Through Successful Activity Performance
• With Old Age – Activities Decrease
• To Maintain High Morale  New Activities
Must Be Adopted
13
COMPARING THE THEORIES
• DISENGAGEMENT THEORY:
• Old Must Learn to GIVE UP Roles, Activities
• ACTIVITIES THEORY:
• Old Must Learn to DEVELOP New Roles,
Activities
14
CONSEQUENCES OF ACTIVITY THEORY
• Suggests Disengagement Occurs Only for the
Very Old
• For Most Older People, Increased Activity Is
Necessary for High Morale
• Suggested That “Activities” Should Be Created
for Older People to Provide Them New Things
to Do – & Lead to Higher Morale
15
CRITICISM OF ACTIVITY THEORY
• Does Not Deal With Social Value of Activities
• Will Any Old, Meaningless, Time-Consuming
Activities Do?
• Many “Activities” Were Meaningless (Nursing
Homes Made Bread Wrapper Placemats)
• May Have a Middle Class Bias: Assumes
Everyone Must Always Do Something “Useful”
• Importance of Leisure – Old People May Have
a Right & Desire for Leisure!
16
SUBCULTURE OF AGING THEORY
• Sociological Theory (A.Rose, 1965; J.Gubrium)
• NOTE: “Subculture” Does NOT Refer to a Less
Valuable Culture
• It Refers to a Culture Practiced By A Smaller
Segment Than the Population As a Whole
• Sees Close Relationship Between:
Roles – Social Identity – Self Concept
17
SUBCULTURE OF AGING (ctd)
• A Distinctive AGED SUBCULTURE Develops:
• Aged Interact More With Each Other Than
Younger People
• Demographic Changes Produced Many Old
• Older People Are Targets of Discrimination
• Older People Live Together in “Aged Ghettos”
• Social Agencies Serving Elderly Promote It!
• EX of Aged Subcultures:
– FL Retirement Communities: Juvenile-Style Crime
– Mesa, AZ Laws Against Children, Schools
– 55 Yr Olds Aspiring to Retirement Community Living
18
PARTICIPATION IN AGED SUBCULTURE
An Aged Person’s Participation in the “Aged
Subculture” Is Dependent Upon:
• Solidarity of the Age Group
• Number of Aged Organizations, Their Strength
• Number of Aged IN vs. NOT in Aged Groups
– I.e., Who Associate More With Family, Friends
– Are More Isolated From the Aged Community
• SUM: Elderly In Retirement Communities – Part
of Aged Subculture
• Those in General Communities – Probably NOT
19
AGED SUBCULTURE:
SUMMARY & CRITIQUE
• SUM: There Will Be An Aged Subculture If
Most Elderly Spend Most of Their Time With
Old People & Little Time With Younger People
(Family, Neighborhood, Church, Work)
• QUESTIONS: Is There Really An Aged
Subculture?
• Does It Apply to All Aged?
• Which Is Better:
• Strong Aged Subculture? Or Weak One?
20
AGE STEROTYPING
•
•
•
•
•
Concept Related to Aged Subculture Theory
Over-Simplified Generalizations About Aged
Often Accepted By Young, Middle-Aged
Often Accepted By Old As Well
EX: Old-Fashioned; Fussy; Forgetful; Senile;
Crotchety; Demanding; Asexual; Radically
Different From Younger Persons; Men Upset
By Retirement; Women By Children Leaving
21
CONSEQUENCES OF STEREOTYPES
• Complaints By Elderly Are Often Dismissed As
Results of Normal Aging or Examples of Old
People Constantly Complaining
• Are Stereotypes Accurate? For Whom?
• Who Fares Best?
• Wealthy: Comfortable: Age a Pleasant Surprise
• Poor: Aging Is As Portrayed: Little Money,
Poor Health, Left Out of Things
22
IMPACT OF METHODOLOGY
• These Theories Probably Resulted From
Methodological Patterns
• Early Research Done on Institutionalized Aged
• Easy to Access for Study Subjects
• Different From Community Dwelling Aged …
• Who Are NOT Separated From Community As
a Whole
• Who Interact a Lot With Younger People
23
AGE STRATIFICATION THEORY
• A 2nd GENERATION THEORY
• Shifted Attention from the Individual Roles
Approach
• Focused More on Broader Social Structure
• Sociological Theory
• Matilda White Riley, et al, 1972; Dowd, 1980
24
AGE STRATIFICATION THEORY (ctd)
•
•
•
•
•
•
Structural Components:
Same Variables As Any Stratification System:
Socio-Economic Status (SES); Ethnic Minorities
Age Strata: All Societies Have Age Subgroups
Size & Composition Varies With the Society
Each Stratum Differs in Terms of:
– Physical, Psychological, Social Conditions
• Results in Age-Related Capacities
25
AGE-RELATED ROLES
• Roles Are Patterned/Distributed Based on Age
– Directly: Women’s Age Determines Pregnancy
– Indirectly: Rules Determine Entry Into School
– Generally Roles Are Distributed By Age
• Parents of Preschoolers; Retirees
• Age-Related Expectations:
– People of Different Ages Play Roles Differently
– Partly Due to Physical Ability
– Partly Due to Experience, Knowledge
26
PROCESS COMPONENTS
IN AGE STRATA
Cohort Flow:
• Each Cohort Begins, Passes Through, & Ends
Under Different Conditions
Aging:
• Each Cohort Changes Physiologically & In
Gaining Knowledge
27
INTERVENING VARIABLES
IN AGE STRATA
• Allocation: Processes of Assigning &
Reassigning People of Various Ages to
Appropriate Roles
– Adoption; Becoming Executive or Stock Clerk;
Certain Jobs Only Available to College Grads, etc.
• Socialization: Socializing Agencies Training
People for New Roles At Each Stage
– EX: Schools; Religious Organizations; Company
OJT; Retirement Preparation Seminars
28
EXTERNAL FACTORS
IMPACTING ON AGE STRATA
• Outside Events: Events Which Play a Role or
Impact on the Process – Without Anyone
Being Able to Control It – EX:
– Level of Industrialization; Numbers of
Men/Women in Cohort
– Economic Factors: Recession; Changes in 401K
Plans; Madoff’s Scam
• Outside Factors Affect the Way the Age
System/ Strata Operate At a Given Time
29
PROBLEM OF AGE STRATA:
STRUCTURAL LAG
• Strata Patterns Lag Behind – No Longer Apply
EX: Rules Require Mandatory Retirement @ 65
But Many Workers Cannot Afford to Retire:
– Union Supported Retirement Plans Eliminated
– Would-Be Retirees Caring for Very Elderly Parents
– Harvard Care Plan: Force Women to Stay Home
• Needs of Society &/or Individual Not Met
30
CONTRIBUTION OF
AGE STRAFICATION THEORY
Major Contribution: Its Research Methodology
COHORT ANALYSIS: Comparing Effects of:
• Aging: Physical Process of Growing Older
• Period: Historical Period of Aging Process
• Cohort: Generation Going Through It Together
31
PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
•
•
•
•
•
•
From Developmental Psychology
“Life Course Theory”
Views Aging As One Stage in Life Course
See Changes Occurring Throughout Life
Many Different Stages (Including Elder Care)
Life Course “Capital” Plays a Role:
– Assets/Liabilities Developed Through Life
Experiences
32
PERSONALITY CONTINUITY THEORY
• Basic Tenet: As We Age, We Basically
Continue As We Were Before
• No Major Changes As a Result of Growing Old
– Barring Major Physical Change – EX: Stroke
• Early Research Goal: Obtain Evidence of the
“Mid-Life Crisis” & When It Occurred
Paul Costa, PhD. Former Chief of Personality &
Cognition Studies, Institute on Aging
33
COSTA’S STUDY OF MID-LIFE CRISIS
• 25 Year Longitudinal Study of Military Men
• Phase I: Personality Test Taken in 1944 in
Their 20s (Test A)
• Phase II: Same Test Taken 25 Years Later
(1969) – 2 Parts:
– Test B: Answer As You Think You Would Have
Answered It 25 Years Ago
– Test C: Answer As You Would Answer It Today
34
RESULTS OF COSTA’S STUDY
• 3 Personality Tests Compared:
1944 Score; 1969 Est. of 1944 Score; 1969 Score
• Great Similarity Between 1944 & 1969 Scores
• Less Similarity: 1944 Score & Estimate of 1944
• Conclusion: If You Want to Know What You
Were Like 25 Years Ago – Look at Self Today!
• Memories Are Notoriously Inaccurate!
35
CONCLUSIONS OF PERSONALITY
CONTINUITY THEORY
• Our Personalities Are Pretty Well Set By Time
We Are About 25 (Younger for Non-College)
• Pictures of Elderly as Crotchety, Hard to Get
Along With Are Inaccurate (Absent Brain Trauma)
• Crabby Elderly Probably Were Crabby In
Youth, Middle Age
• People Easy to Get Along With In Youth,
Middle Age – Stay That Way
36
NEXT SECTION
Will Discuss Major
Sociological Approaches
to Aging
37