Psychology of Women
PSYC 330
Fall 2010
Tammy Lynn Kirichenko
Calendar Description
• An examination of the major theories, research
methodologies, and data in the field of the
psychology of women. Philosophical values of
feminism and the psychological impact of
women's historical roles in society will be
considered throughout.
Prerequisites: PSYC 101, 102, and two 200 level
courses in the social sciences (or permission of
the instructor)
Syllabus
Questions
Other Stuff
Introductions
Why Psychology of WOMEN?
“An examination of the psychology of
women looks at the ways women’s shared
experience is distinct from that of men”
(Lips, 1999)
Why do you think that there is not a
Psychology of Men
course?
Potential Topics
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•
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Gender Theories
Stereotypes
Friendship & Other Relationships
Female Aggression
Violence Against Women
The Culture of Youth & Beauty
Communication (differences between women and men)
Portrayals of Females in the Media
Sexuality
Power & Leadership
Women and Mental Illness
• Other?
Selected Discussion Topics
(example)
• Should women and girls (of any age) be
encouraged to participate in beauty
pageants?
• Discuss (and jot down your conclusions)
Should women and girls (of any age) be
encouraged to participate in beauty pageants?
• Positives:
– Competition can be
healthy
– Pride in
accomplishment
– Scholarships
– Opportunity to do
humanitarian work
– Okay if it is the
girl/woman’s own
choice
• Negatives:
– OVERLY competitive
– Many girls are ‘forced’
into it
– Focus on superficial
qualities
– Can promote
unhealthy behaviours
(e.g., lead to eating
disorders)
Introduction
Research Background
From Princess to Sex-Object:
A Content Analysis of Portrayals of Femininity
in Popular Media Directed Toward
Girls and Young Women
Research Background

content analysis of various media
Clothing
 Disney Animated Features (princess)
 Lyrics
 Music Videos
 Toys (product descriptions)

Purposes
to examine popular media and the ways in
which females are portrayed in terms of
(a) physical appearance
(b) gender-stereotypical roles
(c) sexuality
(d) values and personality characteristics
(e) expectations
Objectification
Theory
Objectification Theory

‘Objectification theory’ was proposed by Fredrickson
and Roberts (1997) as their attempt to explain how
females are socialised to internalise observers’
perspectives of their bodies

This, in turn, leads to a preoccupation with one’s own
physical appearance (self-objectification)

They argue: ‘When objectified, individuals are treated
as bodies and, in particular, as bodies that exist for the
use and pleasure of others’ (Fredrickson, Roberts, Noll,
Quinn, & Twenge, 1998, p. 269).
Consequences of Objectification

The consequences of exposure to objectifying images,
words, or ideas often manifest in ways that are not
always easily identifiable

For instance, internalising an observer’s perspective
can increase a female’s shame and anxiety about her
own physical appearance/attractiveness, decrease her
awareness of internal bodily states, and, subsequently,
inhibit her ability for peak motivational states
(Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)

This lack of internal awareness may make an individual
more vulnerable to developing mental health problems
such as unipolar depression, sexual dysfunction, and
eating disorders (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997)
Sexual Objectification
Sexual objectification occurs when a woman’s
body is treated as an object (especially an object
that exists for the pleasure and use of others),
and is illustrated interpersonally through gaze or
‘checking out’, and in the representation of
women in the media … very few women are able
to avoid contexts that may be potentially
objectifying. (Slater & Tiggemann, 2002, p. 343)
Objectifying Media Images

This is apparent in the media

e.g., music lyrics and videos, magazine covers and
advertisements, television, movies, etc.

Women often put themselves on display (e.g.,
wearing revealing clothing, dancing or acting
provocatively in order to get attention)

Women often refer to themselves in self-objectifying
ways
Examples

‘advertising’ that one is an object to be
stared at, lusted after, or touched

Music lyrics & videos

Clothing
Lyrics

Examples of objectification in lyrics
Self-objectification
 Being objectified by others


What messages do such songs transmit to
Girls?
 Boys?

Music Videos

close ups of body parts: breasts, buttocks,
groin, midriff

male gaze/‘checking out’

dancing/gyrating

touching oneself seductively/sexually
suggestive
Clothing Text

Seven themes emerged from analyses of the
clothing text (/97)

The text in each category included words
related to







Innocence (9)
Naughtiness (11)
Objectification (29) – 30%
‘Princessy’ (22)
Spoiled (12)
Superiority (7)
Competitiveness (7)
Should we close our eyes … ?

merely encountering words (visually) that
describe one’s physical appearance activated a
state of self-objectification in women (and led
to greater appearance anxiety; see Roberts &
Gettman, 2004)

imagine all of the situations in which females
are exposed to such words …

… and, therefore, are at risk for feelings of selfshame, disgust, anxiety, and unattractiveness …
Thoughts?
Social Identity
Social Identity

We think of ourselves in terms of various
identities. Some of these may include:









Gender
Ethnicity
Nationality
Religion
Sexual Orientation
Talents
Accomplishments
Appearance
Relationships
Gender Theories

One of the first of these identities that develops is
gender identity

Gender identity is the personal construction and
acceptance of the self as male or female (Bukatko &
Daehler, 2003), which most children acquire by the age
of three (Santrock, 2004).

Gender roles, however, are socially constructed sets of
expectations that influence how females and males
think, feel, and behave (Santrock, 2004).

Although gender-role socialisation is a life-long process,
it is particularly noticeable during children’s formative
years (Marliene, 1999).
1. Psychoanalytic/Identification


From an early age, girls learn to feel
inferior to and envious of males
Freud:


Development and resolution of the Oedipus
Complex; Castration anxiety; Penis envy
Horney:
Unconscious fear of vaginal penetration
 Girls are valued less than boys and are treated
as though their sexuality is the most important
part of their identity

2. Social Learning

From birth, children are treated in genderspecific ways, and parents and other adults
reinforce gender-specific attitudes and
behaviours.

Gender identity, therefore, is formed through
imitation, direct reinforcement for sex-typed
activities, and vicarious learning from peer or
adult same-sex models (Burr, 1998).

Bandura (1986) refers to these phenomena as
‘differential reinforcement’ and ‘observational
learning’.
3. Cognitive Developmental

Children mature through interaction with their
environment and take an active role in organising their
world; they create schemas (i.e., mental categories)
that are fluid and that emerge through interaction with
their social environment (Marliene, 1999)

Kohlberg (1966, as cited in Levy & Carter, 1989)
proposed several stages of gender development:



gender identity: children are capable of labelling themselves
and others by gender (based on physical features);
gender stability: children understand that gender does not
change over time; and
gender constancy: children understand that gender is constant
across time and situations, and that it is independent from
what they wear or how they behave.
4. Gender Schema/
Enculturated Lens Theory

The development of gender identity is embedded in the socio-historical
context of each culture, and culture operates as a lens through which
gender identity and roles are defined and passed on from one generation
to the next (Bem, 1993).

Gender schema theorists consider both cognitive developmental and social
learning theories (i.e., schemas are socialised cognitive networks of sex
and gender roles) as components of gender schema theory.

Gender schemacity refers to judgements about the social world as being
organised into female and male categories (Ruble & Stangor, 1986).
Individuals with strong gender schemas are more susceptible to
stereotypic perceptions and behaviours, whereas gender aschematic
individuals tend to be less bound by stereotypical roles and perceptions
(Bem, 1999; Ruble & Stangor, 1986).

Although children learn about their own sex and sex-/gender roles
primarily through interactions with others (e.g., caregivers, siblings), they
also internalise gender-role stereotypes from books, songs, television, and
movies (Thorne, 1993), and learn sex-typed behaviour from these
‘symbolic’ models (Burr, 1998).
Stereotypes
Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes differ from many racial
stereotypes in that people often want to
confirm them. Many men want to be
“masculine” (assertive and dominant); many
women want to be “feminine” (gentle and selfless). Not only do people often internalize,
value, and agree with sex roles and gender
stereotypes, but they also feel societal pressure
to conform. (Worchel, Cooper, Goethals, &
Olson, 2000, p. 212)
Stereotypes: Roles

Women are
Nurturers
 Domestic


Occupations

Teachers, nurses, secretaries

Other examples?
Stereotypes: Attitudes & Behaviours


Women are preoccupied with their
appearance
Women are overly emotional
Weak
 Dependent
 Need to be rescued


Women are … ?
Media Models

Childhood
 toys, books, audio-visual media, role models and
adult influences, computers

Adolescence
 books, television & movies, magazines, music
videos, “role models” (e.g. actors, models,
musicians), fashion, video games, internet

Adulthood
 values, stereotypes, portrayals are still being
reinforced (e.g., ‘reality’ television)
 internalized  cumulative effect

Prince Charming (aka “Mr. Right”), the “fairy tale wedding”
The Princess Phenomenon

Fairy tales


Disney


DVD players, televisions, ipods, cell phone covers
Household appliances and accessories


T-shirts, jewelry, accessories
Electronics


Books, movies, video games, merchandise
Clothing


Books, dolls, tiaras, castles
Toasters, dishes, bedding, bathroom decor
Movies

A Cinderella Story; Mean Girls; The Princess Diaries
Television

Commercials

Reality Shows (e.g., The Bachelor)

Other?
(e.g., toothpaste/mouthwash)