Writing Empirical Research
Reports©
Table of Contents
Unit
Topic
Slides
1
Role of Research in Knowledge Construction and
Discipline Development
3-7
2
Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
8-24
3
Structure of Research Reports
25-30
4
Identifying Research Topics Based on Literature Reviews
31-56
5
How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
57-69
6
How to Write Method Sections
70-85
7
How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
86-99
8
How to Write Discussion Sections
100-107
9
How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
108-113
Unit 1: Role of Research in Knowledge
Construction and Discipline Development
 Unit Objectives
 Contributions of research to education theory and
practice
 Functionality of research to researchers
Unit 1: Role of Research in Knowledge Construction and Discipline Development
Contributions of research to education theory
and practice
 Contributions of research to education theory and
practice
 Major shifts of educational paradigms
 Enrich our understanding or educational issues
 Improving personal education practice
Unit 1: Role of Research in Knowledge Construction and Discipline Development
Pop Quiz Question
Which one of the following is an example of “shifting paradigm of a
discipline”?
 a.
Whereas Piaget believed children’s limited language ability
during early childhood shows they are ego-centric, Vygotsky believed it
shows children are gradually internalizing language to guide their
thinking.
 b.
Chomsky’s research convinced researchers that the
reinforcement theory based on behaviorism was not adequate to
explain children’s language development. Chomsky’s scholarly work
intrigued the cognitive revolution in psychology and linguistics.
 c.
Dr. Lan found from his studies that introducing self-monitoring
in the learning process improves student learning outcome so he
developed a protocol that helps students systematically evaluate their
understanding in his statistics class.
 d.
Cumulating teaching experience year after year, senior teachers
tend to know what works and what does not work in classrooms.
How Does Research Help researchers and
Practitioners
 Describe phenomena of interest
 Predict or explain phenomena of interest
 Control behaviors (promote desirable and reduce or
eliminate undesirable behaviors)
Unit 1: Role of Research in Knowledge Construction and Discipline Development
Pop Quiz Question
Which one of the following is an example of researchers
“controlling a phenomenon of interest”?
 a.
Apple investigated the relationship between student
academic ranking in the higher school and their average
academic performance as freshmen so she could anticipate who
would experience difficulties when starting college education.
 b.
Bob sat in Ms. Smith’s classroom for weeks and he can tell
the strategies that she used to deal with student disciplinary
problems.
 c.
Comparing weight changes of people in different treatment
conditions, Dr. Cain concluded that diet plus exercise is the most
efficient way to lose weight.
 d.
Donna made an “educated guess” that next summer would
be hot.
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of
Social Sciences
 Unit Objectives
 Research methods utilized by social science
researchers
 Comparison between qualitative and quantitative
research methods
 Brief introduction to qualitative research methods
 Brief introduction to quantitative research methods
 Dr. Lan’s 5-step research procedure to start a new
line of research
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines
of Social Sciences
Research Methods for Social Sciences
Quantitative
Qualitative
Mixed
Case Study
Ethnographic
Narrative
QUAN-QUAL
QUAL-Quan
QUAN-Qual
Experimental
Correlational
Descriptive
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Pop Quiz Question
 Of the following, which is an example of qualitative




research?
a. Correlational
b. Causal-comparative
c. Ethnographic
d. Experimental
Comparisons bet. QUAN. and QUAL. Research
Quantitative Research
Steps of Process
Qualitative Research
Description and
Explanation-oriented
Identifying a research
Problem
Exploratory and
understanding-oriented
Justifying for the research
problem and specifying
for the need for the study
Reviewing the literature
Justifying for the research
problem
Specific and narrow;
Large number of
participants
Selecting
participants/samples
General and broad;
Participants’ experiences;
Small group and sites
Predetermined
instruments;
Numeric data;
Measurable, observable
Collecting Data
Emerging protocols;
Text or image data;
Statistical analysis;
Describing trends,
comparing groups, and
examining relationships
Analyzing and
Interpreting data
Text analysis;
Description, analysis,
thematic development,
and finding meanings
Standard and fixed;
Objective and unbiased
Reporting and
Evaluating Research
Flexible and emerging;
Reflexive and biased
Pop Quiz Question
Which of the following statement is true regarding
qualitative and quantitative research?
 a. Quantitative researchers develop deep
relationships with their participants.
 b. Qualitative researchers rely on objective analysis
of the data.
 c. Qualitative researchers manipulate the research
context.
 d. Quantitative researchers state hypothesis prior to
beginning the study.
Narrative Research: Definition and purpose
 Narrative research is the study of how different
humans experience the world around them.
 Narrative researchers collect data about people’s lives
and collaboratively construct a narrative about the
experiences and meanings they contribute to the
experiences.
 Narrative research has often been conducted in
numerous disciplines (e.g., history, anthropology).
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Narrative Research: Examples of types of
narrative research forms
 Autobiographies
 Life writing
 Personal narratives
 Life histories
 Narrative interviews
 Oral histories
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Narrative Research: Research Process
 Identify purpose of the study and a phenomenon to





explore life writing
Identify an individual who can help you learn about the
phenomenon.
Develop initial narrative research questions.
Develop data collection methods, paying particular
attention to interviewing, and collect the data.
Collaborate with the research participant to construct
the narrative and to validate the accuracy of the story.
Write the narrative account.
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Ethnographic (Ethnography) Research:
Definition and Purpose
 To describe, analyze, and interpret the culture of a
group, over time, in terms of the group’s shared beliefs,
behaviors, and language with Culture defined as a set
of attitudes, values, concepts, beliefs, and practices
shared by members of a group.
 The study of cultural patterns and perspectives of
participants in their natural settings.
 Engage in long-term study of particular phenomena to
situate understandings in context.
 Engage in intensive participant observation.
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Ethnographic (Ethnography) Research:
Research Process
 Identifying the purpose of the research
 Making






time commitment
Demonstrating the relevance of the proposed study
Choosing the site and sample for the study
Negotiating for entry into the research site
Establishing rapport with the collaborators
Beginning data collection in a natural setting utilizing
face-to-face interaction with the participants to
accurate reflection of participants’ perspectives and
behaviors.
uses inductive, interactive, and repetitious collection
of unstructured data and analytic strategies
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Case Study: Characteristics of Case Study
Research
 Particularistic: Focused on a particular
phenomenon, situation, or event
 Descriptive: Includes a think description of the
phenomenon under study
 Heuristic: illuminate readers understanding of the
phenomenon beyond original knowledge
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Case Study: Research Procedure
 Determine the research questions.
 Define the case under study.
 Determine the theoretical and conceptual
framework of the case study.
 Determine whether a single case study; a multiple
case study; or a collective case study is appropriate.
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Pop Quiz Question
 Jeremy, a researcher at a local university, is interested in the




nature of playground bullying. He obtains permission for his
research and goes to a local middle school to observe playground
behaviors. He spends several months watching and taking
notes. As he begins to understand the context of the
playground, he interviews some students and teachers. He
incorporates these interviews into his notes. He systematically
identifies themes and categorizes his findings. At the end of his
study he describes his findings and how these findings relate to
other studies that have been conducted on playground
behaviors. Of the following, which best describes Jeremy’s
research?
a.
Narrative
b.
Experimental
c.
Survey
d. Ethnographic
Comparisons between Quantitative Research
Methods
Research Method
Procedural
Differences
Outcome
Differences
Descriptive
Observe and collect
data
Descriptive
information
Correlational and
Causal-Comparative
Research
Observe and collect
data
Descriptive
information and
association
relationship between
variables
Experimental and
Quasi-experimental
Research
Manipulate, observe,
and collect data
Descriptive
information and
causality
relationship between
variables
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Pop Quiz Question
 Experimental research differs from causal-comparative




research in that
a. causal-comparative research is interested in statistical
relationships between variables and experimental research
is not.
b. experimental research relies on data collection from
multiple pools of participants while causal comparative
research relies on participants from a single pool.
c. experimental research controls the dependent variable
in the study and causal-comparative controls the
independent variable.
d. experimental research controls the selection of
participants from a single pool and randomly divides them
into groups while causal-comparative research does not.
Mill’s Model of Causal Argument
 X is causally related to Y only when
1. X precedes Y in time.
2. X and Y are related.
3. No other variable is related to Y.
 The third condition can only be true in
experimental research.
 Random assignment of participants to treatment
conditions making the IV the only systematic
difference between conditions that is related to the
DV
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
5-Phase Research Procedure to Investigate a
Particular Topic
After a research question is identified:
 Phase 1: Exploring the problem (Qualitative research)
 Phase 2: Creating tools to measure variables identified
(Instrument development)
 Phase 3: Examining the relationships between variables
(Correlational research)
 Phase 4: Conducting studies to show causality
relationship between variables (Experimental research)
 Phase 5: Designing programs to improve the problem
(Evaluating research)
Unit 2: Types of Research Utilized in Disciplines of Social Sciences
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
 Unit Objectives
 Major components of a research report
 How to write a title (other components will be
discussed in following units)
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
 A title
 An abstract
 Introduction/Literature Review
 Method
 Result
 Discussion
 Reference list
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
Pop Quiz Question
 Of the following, which is not a common component
of a research report?
a. A title
 b. An Abstract
 c. An introduction or a literature review
 d. An acknowledgement
Writing Titles
A title should indicate
 Variable or variables investigated
 Relationship or differences investigated
 The population involved
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
Pop Quiz Question
For the title of “How PowerPoint destroys your lecture: Effect
of information organization and intensity on student
understanding of statistics”
 What part of the title does “information organization”
represent?
 Type of study
 Independent variable
 Dependent variable
 Population
Writing Titles: Examples
 Acculturation, internet use, and psychological well-




being among Chinese international students
Demandingness and responsiveness of advisors as
determinants of doctoral students’ experience
The effects of self-monitoring on college students’ course
performance, use of learning strategies, attitudes, selfjudgment ability, and knowledge representation.
How to teach online: Suggestions based on research
findings
How PowerPoint destroys your lecture: Effect of
information organization and intensity on college
student understanding of statistics
Unit 3: Structure of Research Reports
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics Based on Literature
Reviews
 Unit Objectives
 Importance of research topics
 Characteristics of good research topics
 Sources of research topics
 Formats of stating research topics



Purpose statement (Research objective)
Research question
Research hypothesis
 Hypothesis testing
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics Based on Literature Reviews
Why Are Research Topics Important?
 Selecting and defining a research topic is the first
step in applying the scientific method
 The research topic provides focus and structure.
 The research topic is the driving force of a research
project, which determines other aspects of the
research study (e.g., sampling, assessment, analysis,
etc.)
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics Based on Literature Reviews
Characteristics of Good Research Topic
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
The topic is theoretically based.
The topic has theoretical or practical importance.
The topic is researchable.
The topic is interesting.
The topic is ethical.
The topic is manageable for the researcher given
skills, resources, and time available.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
Sources of Research Topics
 Theories
 Studies that can be replicated with issues to be
clarified (e.g., population, assessment, analysis,
etc.)
 Studies with inconclusive findings
 Studies with conflicting findings
 Personal experiences (need to be illustrated by
theories)
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
Pop Quiz Question
 Paola is a ninth grade mathematics teacher. She is
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


interested in the role of assimilation and
accommodation in learning geometry as proposed by
Piaget. She designs a study to examine the Piagetian
concepts in practice. The purpose of her study is best
described as to
a. test a theory.
b. replicate a study.
c. developed thorough library search.
d. verify personal experiences.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
Formats of Stating Research Topics
 Purpose statement (Research objective)
 Research question
 Research hypothesis
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
Research Topics Stated as Purpose Statements
 Quantitative research topics stated in purpose
statements
 A purpose statement describes the variables of
interest, relations among those variables, and aspects
of the sample.


e.g., “The purpose of the study is to investigate the
psychometric properties of a new measure of spatial ability
for middle school children.”
e.g., “The topic to be investigated in this study is parents’
beliefs about homework for primary grade children.”
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-37
Research Topics Stated as Purpose Statements
 Qualitative research topics are often stated in more
general language at the outset of a study because the
focus of the study will likely emerge after time in the
field.
 e.g., “The purpose of this study is to describe the
experiences of elementary students who have
previously been retained.”
 e.g., “This qualitative study explores the feelings of
new teachers in large urban districts.”
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-38
Pop Quiz Question
Of the following, which is more likely to be studied as a qualitative
research topic?
 a.
The purpose of this study is to examine relationships
between future career goals and enrollment in advanced
mathematics courses.
 b.
The purpose of the study is to explore the experiences of
students who seek help from faculty during office hours.
 c.
The purpose of this study is to compare grades of students
who go to office hours and those who do not.
 d.
The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship
between the number of office hours held by faculty and student
performance in courses.
Research Topics Stated as Research Questions
 Developing research questions “breathes life” into the
research topic statements by adding another level of
specificity to the research plan, such as
•
•
•
•
To validate that you have a workable way to proceed with
your research.
To directly tied to the data collection strategies used.
To lead to a plan for measurement instrumentation.
To specify the analysis methods
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-40
Difference between Topic Statement and Research
Questions
 Topic Statement:
 “The topic to be investigated in this study is secondary
teachers’ attitudes toward required after-school
activities.”
 Research Questions:
 What are secondary teaches’ attitudes toward varsity
athletics programs?
 What instrumental strategies do secondary teachers
use to accommodate student-athletes?
 How do these instructional strategies affect student
achievement?
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
41
2-41
Difference between Topic Statement and Research
Questions
 Topic Statement:
 “The topic to be investigated in this study is factors and
strategies related to life quality of senior citizens.”
 Research Questions:
 What social, emotional, financial, and physical barriers do
senior citizens experience in Thailand?
 What strategies do senior citizens in Thailand employ to
cope the barriers?
 Is there a relationship between frequencies of using the
coping strategies and life quality of senior citizens in
Thailand?
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
42
2-42
Types of Hypotheses Studied in Quantitative
Research
 Association Hypothesis (about relationships between
continuous variables)
 Difference Hypothesis (about differences between
categories. At least one categorical variable).
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
43
2-43
Examples of Association Hypothesis and
Difference Hypothesis
 Students’ IQ scores are positively correlated to their
achievement scores in a standardized test in verbal
ability
 There is gender difference in verbal ability measured
by a standardized test.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
44
2-44
Pop Quiz Question
 Which of the following is more likely to be an association
hypothesis?
a. There are differences in social skills between children from
single-child families and multiple-siblings families.
b. There is a relationship between the time parents reading books to
their children and the children’s performance on standardized reading
and comprehension tests.
c. Advising style, defined as authoritative, authoritarian,
permissive, and uninvolved, is related to graduate student cognitive
development.
d. Students who learn sciences under problem-centered instruction
outperform students who learn sciences under subject-centered
instruction in creativity tests.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
Two Formats of Hypothesis
 Null Hypothesis
 Alternative Hypothesis
 Directional Alternative Hypothesis
 Non-directional alternative Hypothesis
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
46
2-46
Research Topics Stated as Hypotheses: Null
Hypothesis
 “There is no relationship between verbal ability and
academic achievement.” (association hypothesis)
 “There is no difference between male and female
students in verbal ability.” (difference hypothesis)
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
47
2-47
Research Topics Stated as Hypotheses: Alternative
Hypothesis
 Directional Alternative Hypothesis
 “There is a positive relationship between verbal ability and
academic achievement.”
 “Female students have superior verbal ability to male
students.”
 Non-Directional Alternative Hypothesis
 “There are differences between male and female students in
verbal ability.”
 “There is a relationship between verbal ability and academic
achievement.”
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
48
2-48
Pop Quiz Question
Which of the following is a null hypothesis for the research topic “Are
there differences in final class grades between students who learn
psychology with lectures or self-paced”?
 a.
There is a difference in final class grade between students who
learn psychology with lectures versus self-paced.
 b.
There is no difference in final class grade between students
who learn psychology with lectures versus self-paced.
 c.
Students learn psychology with lectures earn higher class
grades than those learn psychology with self-paced instruction.
 d.
Students learn psychology via self-paced instruction earn
higher class grades than those in lecture classes.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
49
2-49
Pop Quiz Question
Which of the following is a non-directional alternative hypothesis?
 a.
There are no differences in motivation between students
enrolled in free- or reduced-price lunch programs at school and
those who are not enrolled in the programs.
 b.
There are differences in motivation between students enrolled
in free- or reduced-price lunch programs at school and those who are
not enrolled in the programs..
 c.
Students enrolled in free- or reduced-price lunch programs
show higher motivation in school than those who are not enrolled in
the programs.
 d.
Students enrolled in free- or reduced-price lunch programs
show lower motivation in school than those who are not enrolled in
the programs.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
50
2-50
Research Topics Stated as Hypotheses
 Model for hypotheses:
P = The participants
 X = The treatment variable (IV) or
one of the two variables in a
relationship
 Y = The outcome variable (DV) or
another variable in a relationship.

Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-51
Practice Examples:
 Identify the P, X, & Y for the hypothesis below:
 “Attendance at a Saturday tutoring program
increases ninth grade students’ academic
achievement.”
 P=Ninth grade students
 X=Saturday program attendance or nonattendance
 Y=Achievement
 Is this an association or a different Hypothesis?
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-52
Practice Examples:
 Identify the P, X, & Y for the hypothesis below:
 “There is a relationship between proficiency of
ninth grade students’ native language and
foreign language.”
 P = Ninth grade students
 X = Proficiency of the native language
 Y = Proficiency of a foreign language
 Is this an association or a different
Hypothesis?
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-53
Why State Research Topics as Hypotheses?
 Hypotheses convert research questions to testable
format.
 An (alternative) hypothesis is a prediction of the
researchers’ expected findings.
 Hypotheses are derived from theory or knowledge
gained through literature review.
 Hypotheses in quantitative studies are formulated
before conducting the study.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
54
2-54
Hypothesis Testing For Quantitative Research
• The hypothesis is used to guide the research study.
• The researcher conducts the study and then analyzes
the data to determine if the hypothesis is supported.
• Hypotheses are not proven—they are supported or
not supported.
• Valuable contributions to the literature can still be
made if a hypothesis is not supported.
• Hypothesis testing contributes by expanding,
refining, and revising the literature base.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-55
Hypothesis Testing for Qualitative Research
 Qualitative studies
 The qualitative researcher does not state formal
hypotheses before conducting studies.
 Qualitative researchers may develop guiding
hypotheses for the proposed research.
 Qualitative researchers often generate new
hypotheses during the course of their study.
 Qualitative researchers may generate research
questions from their guiding hypotheses.
Unit 4: Identifying Research Topics
2-56
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and
Literature Reviews
 Unit Objectives
 Characteristics of a Good Literature
Review
 Practical Strategies in Writing
Literature Review
 Examples of useful tools used to
summarize or organize a literature
review
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Theoretically Based
 Provide a theoretical “framework” to organize and
present your literature review.
 e.g., Summarize learning outcomes by “domains”
 e.g., Summarize factors in a learning process by
Bandura’s “reciprocal causation”
 Sometimes, multiple theoretical perspectives are
involved in a study.
 Information processing theory for cognitive aspect of
the learning process
 Piaget’s Child Development theory for the
developmental aspect of the learning process
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Characteristics of a Good Literature Review
 Theoretically based
 Relevant to the research question(s) to be
investigated
 Logically organized to lead readers to the research
question(s) to be investigated
 Updated to reflect the current knowledge on the
issue to be investigated
 Information reviewed being synthesized and
evaluated
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Relevant to the research question(s) to be
investigated
 Always keep your research questions in mind when
reviewing literature.
 Fight against the temptation to conduct a
“comprehensive” literature review.
 Do not be distracted by “interesting” studies unless
they are relevant to your research questions.
 “Interesting” measurements
 “Interesting” ways of data collection
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Logically organized to lead readers to the
research question(s) to be investigated
 Present your research idea to your peers to
convince them of the value of your study.
 Ask your audience if they follow the logic that
leads them to your research questions.
 Using topic sentence and transition paragraph to
show connections between ideas.
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Updated to reflect the current knowledge on the issue
to be investigated
 Being knowledgeable of frontier of the
discipline.
 If the literature on your research topic is
scarce, find from related fields.
 If a historical review is needed, keep it
brief.
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Information reviewed being synthesized
and evaluated
 Compare and contrast constructs developed or used by
researchers and indicate similarities and differences
 Compare and contrast measurements used by
researchers and indicate strengths and weaknesses
 Compare and contrast populations involved and indicate
different characteristics of the populations
 Compare and contrast findings of studies on the same
topics and indicate gaps and propose possible
explanations
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Information reviewed being synthesized
and evaluated
 Compare and contrast constructs developed or used by
researchers and indicate similarities and differences.
 Compare and contrast measurements used by
researchers and indicate strengths and weaknesses.
 Compare and contrast populations involved and indicate
different characteristics of the populations.
 Compare and contrast findings of studies on the same
topics and indicate gaps and propose possible
explanations.
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Pop Quiz Question
 Glenda is concerned about her sources of literature.




Although the studies come from peer-reviewed
journals, none of them have methodology sections
and it appears they include prominent researchers’
opinions. What is likely Glenda’s concern?
a. Her sources are too outdated.
b. Her sources are secondary references.
c. Her sources are popular not scholarly.
d. Her sources are subjective.
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Pop Quiz Question
John carefully prohibits his own opinion from
“contaminating” the information when loyally presenting
the information of studies published in research journals
in recent years. If you were his advisor, which of the
following would be your major concern of the outcome of
the review?
 a. The outcome of the review is not academically
oriented.
 b. The outcome of the review is not logically
organized.
 c. The outcome of the review is out-of-dated.
 d. The outcome of the review does not reflect the
researcher’s synthesis and evaluation
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Practical Strategies in Writing Literature
Review
 Create ways to summarize outcomes of the lit review




(e.g., tables, index cards, etc.)
Visit libraries regularly and frequently to keep up
your knowledge in the field
Develop a multi-level outline with headings and
sub-headings for the literature review.
“There is no good writing, only good rewriting.”
Start with a “good” research-oriented textbook to get
a few key references.
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
An Example: A Table to Summarize Literature
Review on Dropouts
Student
Factors
School Factors
Family Factors
Community
Factors
Prior academic
performance
(Smith, 2007;
Davis, 2010);
Motivation in
school work
(Lan, 2008;
Pintrich, 2005;)
Gender (…)
Type of school
(xxx, 2003; xxx,
1998)
School size;
Urbanicity of
school;
School finance;
% dropout out in
previous years;
Family structure;
Family income;
Parental
education;
Number of
siblings
Unemployment
rate;
Concentration of
minority;
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
An Example: An Outline for the Literature Review
on Self-regulation in an Online Environment
 I.
 II.
Rapid development of online instruction
Importance of Self-regulation (SR) in online
learning
 III. Current research on SR in online
environment
 Scarcity of research on online SR
 Findings of online SR research conflicting with findings
on SR in regular classrooms
 Possible explanation: Instruments measuring SR in
regular classrooms used to measure SR in online
environment
 IV. Purpose of the current study: To develop an
instrument measuring SR in the online
environment
Unit 5: How to Write Introductions and Literature Reviews
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
 Unit Objectives
 Purpose of the method section
 Information Included in the Method Section




Research Design
Participants
Measurement
Procedure
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
What purpose does the method section serve
in a research report
 To establish internal validity and external validity
 Internal validity: the trustworthiness of the research
findings
 External validity: the generalizability of the research
findings beyond the sample studied
 To provide sufficient information for others to
replicate the study
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Pop Quiz Question
 A researcher’s efforts to remove influence of




extraneous variables is referred to as
a. experimental control.
b. sample assignment.
c. sorting independent variables.
d. determining dependent variables.
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Pop Quiz Question
 The type of validity concerned with whether findings




can be generalized to other groups or other settings
is referred to as
a. internal validity.
b. external validity.
c. content validity.
d. construct validity.
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Information Included in the Method Section
 Research Design
 Participants
 Measurement
 Procedure
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Research Design
 Describe the type of the study conducted (e.g.,
quantitative or qualitative? experimental or
correlational? instrument development or program
evaluation?)
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Research Design for Research Examining
Difference Hypotheses
 Identify independent variable(s)
 Identify dependent variable(s)
 Describe how confounding variable(s) are controlled
(for internal validity)
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
An Example of Research Design for a Study
Examining Difference Hypotheses
 “In this experimental study, two independent
variables, information organization and information
intensity, were manipulated to examine their effects
on the dependent variable of graduate students’
understanding of the content taught in an
introductory level of statistics. Student prior
knowledge measured by their GRE quantitative test
score was controlled as a covariate.”
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Research Design for Research Examining
Association Hypotheses
 Identify variables of interest.
 Indicate criterion variable and predictors.
 Indicate the relationship to be studied.
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
An Example of Research Design for a Study
Examining Association Hypotheses
 “In this correlation study, the relationships between
Chinese international students’ acculturation, ethnic
identity, English proficiency and their attitude
toward seeking professional counseling service were
examined. The variables of acculturation, ethnic
identity, and English proficiency were used as
predictors to predict the criterion variable of attitude
toward seeking professional counseling service.”
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Pop Quiz Question
Mary, a university admission officer who was interested in
choosing the most powerful predictors of student academic
performance as freshmen. She collected students’ GPA’s in high
schools, high school teachers’ ratings of the students, SAT scores,
and ratings of student aspiration expressed in their personal
statements. She also collected students’ GPA by the end of the
freshman year. Of the following, which one is a
predictor/independent variable in Mary’s research?
 a. Freshmen
 b. Freshman GPA
 c. College the students attending
 d. High school GPA
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Participants
 How was the sample selected? (i.e., How were
participants recruited?)
 Consent procedure in recruitment and
confidentiality of data collected
 Description of the sample to establish the external
validity
 Response rate
 Demographics of the respondents
 Characteristics of non-respondents compared with
respondents
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Measurement: Source of the
measurement
 Using existing instruments
 Source of the measurement instruments
 Reliability and validity evidence on the instruments
provided by other researchers
 Developing new measurement instruments
 Development of the test items pool
 Pilot study on psychometric characteristics of the
measurement
 Revision and re-pilot (if need)
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Measurement
 Provide sample items for each construct measured
 Explain the scoring system of the instrument
 Response scale used in the instrument
 What scores are generated from the measurement?
 How is the score defined (e.g., sum of the item
responses, mean of the item responses.)
 Range of the score
 Interpretation of the scores.
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Measurement:
A sample of the scoring system
 “This instrument generated a score of self-regulation
in online learning environment, defined as the mean
of the 15 items designed to measure online selfregulation, ranging from 1 to 5, with lower scores
signifying lower self-regulation and higher scores
signifying higher self-regulation in online learning
environments.”
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Procedure
 Present the step-by-step procedure vividly so other researchers
could follow
 Research environment (e.g., field or lab, school or family, etc.)
 For experimental research:
 How was the independent variable manipulated?
 How was the dependent variable measured?
 Extremely important for qualitative research.
 Data sources (how participants were purposely selected?)
 Data analysis (how qualitative data were analyzed?)
 Length of time for participants to complete the study
Unit 6: How to Write Method Sections
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results
Sections
 Unit Objectives
 The results section for quantitative analysis


Information included
Selecting appropriate analysis methods for various types of
quantitative studies
 The results section for qualitative analysis
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Results Sections for Quantitative Studies
 Include a brief introduction to refresh readers’ memory of






the purposes of the study and the research questions.
Psychometric characteristics of the measuring instruments
Organize the results of the data analysis by research
questions or hypotheses.
Choose appropriate analysis method that addresses the
research question. (See next two slides.)
Always present descriptive statistics prior to inferential
statistics.
Do not repeat the information in text that is presented in
tables or vise versa.
Follow the APA format to provide information required.
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Psychometric characteristics of the measuring
Instruments (Reliability)
 Test-retest reliability (Consistency of performance
across time by the same group of participants)
 Equivalence reliability (Consistency of performance
across different forms by the same group of
participants)
 Internal consistency reliability (Consistency of
performance across items within a measurement
measured by Cronback’s alpha)
 Inter-rater reliability (Consistency between raters on
the same performance)
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Pop Quiz Question
 Kari’s research study measured the effects of




cooperative learning on learners’ ability to solve
complex problems. After scoring the problems and
entering the data, her advisor told her she must have
another researcher score the problems. Interestingly,
the scores she gave the participants did not match the
scores that the other researcher gave. Kari’s scoring
problem is indicative of a problem with
a. internal consistency reliability.
b. inter-rater reliability.
c. content validity.
d. consequential validity.
Psychometric characteristics of the measuring
Instruments (Validity)
 Content validity
 Criterion-related validity
 Concurrent validity
 Predictive validity
 Construct validity
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Psychometric characteristics of the measuring
Instruments (Validity)
 Content validity
 Criterion-related validity
 Concurrent validity
 Predictive validity
 Construct validity
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Psychometric characteristics of the measuring
Instruments (Validity)
 To prepare a comprehensive examination for her Master’s




students, Dr. Smith carefully listed all courses her students
took during the Master’s program to make sure that every
course was covered proportionally in the comprehensive
exam. Dr. Smith’s effort is to assure
a. Content validity.
b. Concurrent validity.
c. Predictive validity.
d. Construct validity.
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Importance of Soundness of Measurement for
Quantitative Research
External Validity
Internal Validity
Validity
Reliability
Analysis Methods Designed to Test Association
Hypothesis
Manifested
Latent
Correlation
Path Analysis
Regression
Factor Analysis
Structural Equation Modeling
Analysis Methods Designed to Test Difference
Hypothesis
Testing Method
Independent
Variable(s)
1 categorical IV with
2 values
Dependent
Variable(s)
1 continuous DV
None
One-way ANOVA
1 categorical IV with
2 or more than 2
values
1 continuous DV
None
Factorial ANOVA
More than 1
categorical IV
1 continuous DV
None
ANCOVA
1 or more categorical
IV
1 or more categorical
IV
1 continuous DV
1 or more continuous
covariate (s)
none
1 or more categorical
IV
multiple continuous
DV
t-test
MANOVA
MANCOVA
multiple continuous
DV
Covariate (s)
1 or more continuous
covariate (s)
Descriptive Statistics vs. Inferential Statistics
 Descriptive statistics: Statistical procedures that help
describe the information gathered during a research
study
 Inferential statistics: Statistical procedures that
determine ho likely it is that results obtained from a
sample or samples are the same results that would
have been obtained from the entire population.
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Descriptive Statistics vs. Inferential Statistics
Descriptive Statistics
Inferential Statistics
Functionality
Describing the sample
studied
“Guess” what would
happen if the entire
population is studied
Values calculated
Statistics
Parameters
Symbols
Roman letters (M, s, s2 …)
Greek letters (µ, σ, σ2 …)
Group targeted
Sample or samples
Population or
populations
How to obtain
Directly measured or
observed
Inferred from observed
statistics
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Results Sections for Qualitative Studies
 How were the qualitative data analyzed?
 Reading/Memoing to get initial sense of the data
 Describing to provide a narrative picture of the setting
and the event that take place
 Classifying to break data down to smaller units and put
together in a more general and analytic form
 Indicate “themes” or “trends” identified through
analyzing qualitative data.
 Show evidence on “trustworthiness” and
“transferability” of the outcomes of data analysis.
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Pop Quiz Question
 Both Marianne and Bill examined the same set of




qualitative data collected from couples in a study designed
to understand relationship stress. Interestingly, the
themes that emerged from the data were not consistent
across the two researchers. Of the following, which is the
most likely reason for the discrepancy?
a. The data were not valid.
b. The data were not reliable.
c. Qualitative analysis is interpretive.
d. Qualitative analysis is deductive
Unit 7: How to Write Analysis and Results Sections
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
 Unit Objectives
 Refreshing research questions
 Summarizing research findings to answer research
questions
 Theoretical contributions
 Practical Applications
 Suggestions on future research
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Refreshing Research Questions
 Start with a summary of research findings by
answering research questions or hypotheses.
 Only say what your data allow you to day.
 Conclusions of the study must be supported by data.
 Do not interpret association as causality
 Do not introduce new data in the Discussion Section.
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Summarizing Research Findings to Answer
Research Questions
 Tie findings of the study to the theoretical framework
presented early in the “literature review” section.
 What findings were supported by the current
literature?
 What findings were inconsistent with the current
theoretical perspectives?
 Any explanation for unexpected findings?
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Theoretical Contribution of the Study
 Whether the study expands the current theory to a
new population
 Whether the study expands the current theory to a
new setting
 Whether the study introduces a new variable to
clarify the current theory
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Practical Applications of the Study
 What can practitioners learn from your study to
improve their practice?
 Practical suggestions/recommendations based on the
study
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Suggestions for Future Research
 Acknowledge limitations of the study to be addressed
in future research
 Another population?
 Another measurement tool?
 Another way of manipulating independent variable?
 Better control over confounding variables?
 New questions emerging from the study that need to
be addressed in future research
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Pop Quiz Question
 Based on his study, Dr. Stevens believes teaching
foreign language in an immersion environment will
enhance student motivation in learning foreign
language in addition to the cognitive and linguistic
advantages of the teaching method. Dr. Stevens is
most likely to include the idea in the discussion
section when presenting
 a.
 b.
 c.
 d.
Research questions.
Theoretical contribution of the study.
Practical applications of the research findings.
Suggestions for future research.
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Pop Quiz Question




After conducting a correlational study on the relationship between
time people spending in prison and the aggressiveness of their
behavior, a researcher concluded that the time criminals spending in
jail increased the aggressiveness of behavior after being released.
The researcher made
a.
a correct interpretation of his research finding because there is
a strong relationship.
b.
a wrong interpretation of his research finding because
aggressiveness of the behavior was the cause for lengthy
sentence in prison.
c.
a wrong interpretation of his research finding because there is
another factor, bipolar personality disorder, determines the
relationship between the two variables investigated.
d.
a wrong interpretation because the type of research he
conducted prohibits him from making any statement on
causality.
Unit 8: How to Write Discussion Sections
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize
Reference Lists
 Unit Objectives
 How to prepare an abstract
 How to prepare a reference list
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
How to Write Abstracts
 Check “Notes to Contributors” of journals to know the
word limit for abstracts
 Provide information that most likely interests your
readers
 Type of research
 Variables studied
 Population
 Findings
 Theoretical contributions and practical applications
 Start it long then cut it to fit.
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
Pop Quiz Question
 Of the following, Which one is most unlikely to be




found in an abstract of a research report?
a. “In the experimental study, we examined effects
of reinforcement schedule and type of reinforcer on
elementary students’ problem-solving ability.”
b. “The study showed that student motivation in a
foreign language class was significantly enhanced
when immersion instruction was implemented.”
c. “The t-test showed a significant difference
between boys and girls in verbal ability, p = .02.”
d. “It is suggested that the study be replicated in a
rural environment to improve the external validity of
findings of the study.”
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
Pop Quiz Question
 For the following abstract, what do you want to
add if space permits?
 “Two hundred second-grade students were
administered a battery of published cognitive tests
that measured a variety of academic achievement
variables. The students were drawn from three
elementary schools in a large, urban school district.
All were tested near the end of second grade. Test
administrators administered the tests in three
sessions because students might become fatigued by
taking the entire battery in a single testing session.
The three hypotheses were confirmed. Implications
for cognitive and development and directions for
future research are discussed.”
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
How to Write/Organize Reference Lists
 Assemble the reference list from the beginning of the
research process.
 Use the required format (e.g., APA manual) when
creating the reference list.
 Double check the references cited in the text against
the reference list before submitting.
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists
Pop Quiz Question
 Which one of the following is a correct statement about




the reference list of a research report?
a. The reference list is optional for a research report.
b. The reference list is not very useful resource of
information for researchers.
c. For most research journals, the reference list must
contain all research studies cited by the author in the
manuscript.
d. The reference list is organized by the order the
references appear in the manuscript.
Unit 9: How to Write Abstracts and Organize Reference Lists