Constructing Grounded
Theory
Grounded theory
Grounded theory does not test a
hypothesis. It sets out to find theory that
accounts for our observations. It’s an
inductive process
Rigour in grounded theory comes from its
responsiveness to the situation; a
continuing search for evidence which
disconfirms the emerging theory.
Data
• All is data - everything that gets in the
researcher’s way
• Interviews, observations, field notes of
lectures, meetings, newspaper articles, TV
shows, conversations, self-interviews
NO’s?
• No pre-research literature review. Literature of the
area under study gives preconceptions about what to
find and the researcher gets desensitized by borrowed
concepts. The literature should instead be read in the
sorting stage being treated as more data to code and
compare with what has already been coded and
generated.
• No taping. Taping is counterproductive and a waste of
time - the researcher delimits her data by field-noting
interviews and soon after generates concepts that fit
with data, are relevant and work in explaining what
participants are doing to resolve their main concern.
• No talk. Talking about the theory before it is written up
can either render praise or criticism, and both diminish
the motivational drive to write memos that develop
and refine the concepts and the theory
Grounded theory process
- background information
- from interviews, observations
- finding themes/concepts
- generating theories/propositions
-
- axial coding
Grounded Theory – the band
"Ecological Global Crisis Awareness
and the effect on the planet: the
human response”
• What did you experience when you did the
carbon footprint questionnaire and when you
reflected upon the outcome?
• In pairs, take notes, swap
• Identify themes (propositions, assumptions,
key ideas)
• In groups, discuss themes, can you cluster
them?
Axial Coding - 2nd level coding
Element
Description
• Phenomenon The name of the theme - the concept that
holds the bits together.
• Causal conditions the events or variables that lead to
the occurrence or development of the phenomenon.
• Context linked with causal conditions. Context includes:
– Intervening conditions : Other variables and events
that influence the phenomena
– Action strategies: The purposeful, goal-oriented
activities that participants perform in response to the
phenomenon and intervening conditions.
– Consequences: These are the consequences of the
action strategies, intended and unintended.
Data
comparison
process –
constant
comparison
Other key concepts
• Saturation In collecting and interpreting data,
eventually extra interviews add nothing to what
you already know about a category, its properties,
and its relationship to the core category.
Saturation is reached – cease collecting about
that category.
• Theoretical sampling - deciding whom to
interview or what to observe next according to
the state of theory generation. This can happen
from the first interview
• Checking context - the need to compare between
phenomena and contexts to make the theory
strong.
Validity – being well-grounded or justifiable; at
once relevant and meaningful
• Fit - how closely concepts fit with the incidents they
are representing, and this is related to how thoroughly
the constant comparison of incidents to concepts was
done.
• Relevance. the "grab" that captures our attention –
seeming to match real concern of participants,
• Workability. The theory works when it explains how
the issues are understood and managed with much
variation.
• Modifiability. Theory can be altered when new
relevant data is compared to existing data. Grounded
theory is never right or wrong, it just has more or less
fit, relevance, workability and modifiability.
Criteria for judging emerging theory
• It should fit the phenomenon, provided it has
been carefully derived from diverse data and is
adherent to the common reality of the area;
• It should provide understanding, and be
understandable;
• Because the data is comprehensive, it should
provide generality, in that the theory includes
extensive variation and is abstract enough to be
applicable to a wide variety of contexts; and
• It should provide control, in the sense of stating
the conditions under which the theory applies
and describing a reasonable basis for action.
Grounded Theory - strengths
• Research is free from the bias of literature –
mainly reflecting western ideologies
• Theory emerges from the data – data is not
made to fit the theory
• The method is able to respond to emerging
ideas
• Gets detailed information but is efficient
• Provides a strong information base for
surveys
Grounded theory - weakness
• Difficult to define saturation – the point
where no new ideas are emerging
• Difficult to generalise from as the questions
have changed across the process
• Lack of transcript use means that interviews
are filtered by the researcher’s ideas of
what’s emerging
• Harder to manage ethically
Setting Up the Interview
• BSocP student at Unitec taking part in a
research project: on how people are thinking
about the future, in relation to changing levels
of natural resources and energy resources
available in the world.
• Would you be interested in being interviewed
about your ideas and opinions on these
issues?
Creating Interview Questions
• Larry Davidson: “Strategies for Interviewing”
• Begin with descriptive questions. Not asking
for assesements (though you may get them).
You are after a rich description of experience.
• Move to simple evaluations. Likes and
dislikes, and what is behind these.
• Then get to major evaluations, after the
experiential groundwork has been done.
Creating Interview Questions
• Next are solutions/resolutions. Social
practice explored solutions; finish on a
hopeful note.
• Confirming questions. Key hypotheses can be
checked with simple and direct questions.
• Demographic questions. What contexts
influence the answers to the questions? Age,
gender, culture, spiritual orientation,
education, occupation and income?
Drafting the Interview Questions
• As a class: develop a descriptive question
about the experience completing the carbon
footprint measure.
• We may need a question that explores the
interviewee’s knowledge about resource
depletion. I leave that to Geoff to facilitate!
• Next: practicing the interview, using questions
developed last year.
Setting Up the Interview
• We’ll need about 1 and ½ hours to meet
• Ideally a quiet, comfortable place where there
won’t be any distractions
• I’ll start by asking you to fill in a brief survey
about your own use of resources (“carbon
footprint”), which we can use as a basis for
discussion
• The interview will take about 45 minutes and will
be tape-recorded, for confidential use for the
research project (about 32 interviewees).
Developing Rapport
• If you don’t know the interviewee well:
– Do your greetings and chat briefly about
something or a person that connects you, or just
talk about the weather, life in general, etc
• Have a cup of tea, etc, get settled. Perhaps
bring kai with you for connection and sharing.
• Go over what is expected (in detail if you
haven’t had a previous face-to-face
conversation)
Use an Information Sheet to:
• Explain the purpose of the interview and
clarify any doubts
• Address issues of confidentiality, risk and
withdrawal.
• Explain the format of the interview, how
long it takes, how it will be recorded
• Explain what feedback will be provided
• Provide contact information of the
interviewer
Qualities of a good interviewer
• Informed – they have many ideas about where the
topic might go
• Prepared – they are clear about what they
investigating, and have clear and accessible questions.
• Engaged – they are deeply interested in the nuances of
the participant’s discourse
• Reflective – follow up on hints and paradoxes, checking
that their interpretation is correct.
• Remembering – they don’t ask questions about areas
that have already come up in answers to previous
questions.
• Consistent – they ensure that all areas that they
needed to cover in the interview have been covered.
What to do
• Ask open-ended questions
• Ask questions that allow participants to describe
situations and events relevant to the topic
• Ask specific, detailed questions in the participant’s
own language
• Ask only one question at a time
• Ask questions that imply a before, during, and after
• Follow the person’s lead
• Show interest with nonverbal (leaning forward,
showing concern, looking, nodding) and verbal
affirmations “oh”, “mmm”, “ah”, “I see”
• Demonstrate comfort by having a relaxed
disposition and posture.
What not to do
• Avoid asking closed-ended questions or questions that
ask for levels of agreement, except for confirmation
purposes at the end.
• Avoid asking abstract, complex or compound questions
• Avoid pursuing areas of clear discomfort
• Avoid interrupting the person, don’t rush into the gaps,
be silent while people are thinking
• Avoid extreme reactions to any particular details
• Avoid agreeing or disagreeing or giving advice
• Avoid asking “why" questions early – evaluative
questions should come late in the interview
• Take care about asking people about their thoughts,
feelings, or other "internal" states – often these are
private or hard to access.
Clarifications and Finishing
• When you receive a minimal or unclear answer to
a question seek clarification: use prompts.
• If the interviewee doesn’t want to say more
about a particular question, that’s OK
• TOWARDS THE END of the interview, check to see
that you have not missed any questions. Fill in
any gaps.
• Debrief: When you’ve finished the questions ask
them how was it for them to engage in the
interview.