Models of Reflection
This document is meant to provide an explanation of the conclusions of the first phase of my
research conducted with Suzanne McCotter. The definitions and models described here
resulted from analysis of samples of student teacher reflection. This is basically a short
version of the paper, “Reflection as a Visible Outcome”. In this presentation you will see that
we are not satisfied with the quality of reflection we are currently seeing from student
teachers. The main outcome of this research is a matrix describing different levels of
reflection.
The research I am currently working on is explained in the presentation, “student learning.”
Of course, our big goal is to help student teachers use reflection to improve their teaching.
Before considering how to do that, however, I want a better understanding of the challenge.
My current research asks, “why is the level of reflection typically produced by student
teachers so low?” This research is narrowed to the Focus dimension of our reflection matrix.
Specifically, I am trying to understand why student teachers rarely use evidence of student
learning as a basis for reflection and improvement of practice.
A Definition of Reflection
Hatton and Smith (1995) reflection involves
“deliberate thinking about action with a
view to its improvement.”
What are the Qualities that make for
meaningful reflection? The next slide
defines four qualitatively different levels of
reflection.
Levels of Reflection
 Routine: Self disengaged from change
 Technical: Instrumental response to specific situations without
changing perspective.
 Dialogic: Inquiry part of a process involving cycles of situated
questions and action, consideration for others’ perspectives, new
insights.
 Critical: Transformative and fundamental questions and change.
The next set of slides describe these levels with models and student
examples.
Routine Reflection as Distance from Situation
Routine reflection often involves critiquing others. It can also be
about how you are limited in your own practice by others or from
a lack of time and resources. Routine reflection does not tend to
lead to improve of practice--change is out of your control.
Routine Reflection as a Process
Routine reflection does not involve on-going thinking or change.
Sample of Student Teacher Reflection Evaluated as Routine
The other barrier I found was the ability of many
of my students. As an entire class, they did not
have much experience working hands-on. I would
have liked to teach many more concepts hands-on,
but due to the lack of experience in the class it was
not feasible. Classroom management was a
problem the first few times we tried a hands-on
activity. If this had been my classroom, students
would have been familiar with my mode of
teaching and classroom management would not
have been an issue. When I taught my fall week I
did not run into any classroom management
problems because they knew my expectations.
Technical Reflection as Involved but Isolated
Technical reflection involves improvement of practice to
solve specific problems. It is also done alone with limited
input from others.
Technical Reflection as a Process
Technical reflection is like routine reflection in that
it can be seen as a one-time process, but
unlike routine reflection, technical reflection involves change.
Sample of Student Teacher Reflection Evaluated as Technical
I could use more professional development in… getting
students more involved in "lecture" material and making a
connection from class notes and lecture material to the
overall understanding of the lesson. Sometimes there is not
the opportunity to do a hands-on activity related to a
particular topic. The material can be very dry, but definitely
necessary to the understanding of the topic. I try to play
review games, and get the students involved in the lecture
by asking questions that makes them more active
participants. But, I feel I need to find some more strategies
on how to make lecture material more interesting and
engaging for the students.
Notice that this teacher is not questioning the general use of lecturing, the question
is more a technical issue of how to enhance this specific skill. Also, this reflection
does not seem to be responding to peers, students, or ideas from others.
Dialogic Reflection as a Engagement
One of the key characteristics of dialogic reflection is
engagement or “dialogue” with others. This model depicts
the importance of dialogue with peer groups and with students.
On-going assessment and responsiveness to student learning is
also key to dialogic reflection.
Dialogic Reflection as a Process
Unlike Routine and Technical reflection, dialogic reflection
involves on-going inquiry with others.
Sample of student teacher reflection evaluated as dialogic
My first decision to change my instruction came at the very beginning of my
unit after my pre-assessment. Student one, who is an English as a second
language student, did very poorly on the pre-assessment. My first reaction was
to have his ESL teacher give him the assessment. When I found out that this
was not feasible, I decided to try it myself. My first step was to borrow one of
the student’s English-Spanish dictionaries. I was surprised to find out that a lot
of words I needed were not in the dictionary. After finding as many words as I
could, I made notes on a blank assessment and set a time to meet with student
one. I went through the assessment again with this student, only to find that my
efforts did not help. My analysis of this exercise, however, allowed me to
understand a little better why he did poorly on the pre-assessment. I found that
it was not just his English deficiency that hindered him on the assessment.
Student one did not have the prior knowledge needed to answer the questions
on the assessment.
Sample of student teacher reflection evaluated as critical
After questioning her behavior I began to question the assignment. Yes, DK is
a very good writer, but why was she struggling? …Wow, in the middle of my
unit I then began to question the success of the unit. Am I really meeting the
needs of all of my students or is this too easy?…First, I would never just do a
persuasive writing unit again (even though it was in conjunction with
westward expansion). I would love to make a connection between a relevant
issue in student's lives and how they can utilize persuasive writing to assist
them with it.
As you may have noticed, we don’t have a model that illustrates critical
reflection. Critical reflection is similar to dialogic reflection, but there is a
qualitative distinction based on the commitment to inquiry and the depth of the
questions being asked.
It is also difficult to demonstrate the critical qualities that we found in
this short excerpt. Generally critical reflection involves asking bigger
questions-especially questions that fundamentally challenge personally
held beliefs. It also involves a fundamental shift of perspective.
A typical distribution of Ratings
60
51
50
40
37
30
20
5
10
1
0
Routine
Technical
Dialogic
Critical
This distribution is based on analysis of student teacher
reflective writings from our students as well as the
students from 11 different universities. The quality of
reflection is not what we hope for.
We would like to see something
more like this
50
40
40
30
25
25
20
10
10
0
Routine
Technical
Dialogic
Critical
We do not think routine or technical reflection is bad. In
fact, it is important and developmentally appropriate for
student teachers. Yet we believe that more dialogic and
critical reflection would help even new teachers improve
their practice.
Why Routine reflection is important...
One student suggested that I teach more aggressively and to develop more
confidence in myself as well as (I love this) to not “take any crap from us
students.” I understand what that student was saying. I was definitely not
confident in teaching this unit, partly because probability was a topic in
mathematics that I wasn’t comfortable with and partly because this was the
first unit I taught with this class. As the semester went on, I did develop
more confidence in teaching them as well as becoming more comfortable
with displaying my personality, which another student had suggested.
This sample of reflection was evaluated as Routine in focus (see the reflection matrix),
because the focusis on self and control in the classroom. Yet it is dialogic in terms of
process because the student teacher is listening to her students.
Reflection is about change and change is threatening. For new teachers,
it is important to have room to think about themselves, or to have a chance to
critique others before they engage in deep questioning that could shatter
their developing confidence as new teachers.
The most difficult to evaluate...
My greatest insight in teaching this unit was the fact that children want to
learn. When concepts are presented to children in a way that is meaningful to
them, they will naturally learn. My students wanted to know why, when,
where, and how. They wanted to show they could apply their knowledge in a
new situation. They wanted to analyze their learning by breaking it down
and then they wanted to create thereby using synthesis. My students had no
problems evaluating their work. They were able to justify their need and
their ability to conquer the subject matter. The students had within them the
desire to learn. I just had to allow that desire to express itself. I realized that
I did not have the ability to “force” a student to learn. Instead, I recognized
that I could lead the student and provide an environment that allowed the
student to learn.
We jumped back and forth between rating this reflection as
either routine (because of the overgeneralization and definitive
stance) and Critical, because of the fundamental insight. This sample
points to the difficulty of evaluating reflection based on
writing. Was this student thinking deeply or just saying what her supervisor
wanted to hear? Written reflection is only an indicator of true reflective
thinking and action.
Less Useful Views of Reflection
 Baskin Robbins
One reason we think student teachers produce low quality reflection is
because they believe that reflection is personal and so all reflection is a
matter of personal choice, like choosing your favorite flavor of ice
cream. When there are no guidelines for quality, students tend to
devalue reflection and see it is “make work”. We believe that
reflection can be evaluated in ways that are meaningful.
Less Useful Views of Reflection
 Joe Friday--Just the Facts
Other students think reflection is primarily reporting what happened.
We don’t consider this type of writing to be reflection.
Less Useful Views of Reflection
 The Thinker
In many of the rubrics we have seen used for grading reflective
writing, the predominant quality emphasized is critical thinking.
Although dialogic and critical reflection have much in common with
critical thinking, we believe this is not a useful way to understand
reflection.
Less Useful Views of Reflection
 The Thinker
Here is one definition of critical thinking that we think expresses the
common understanding of critical thinking very well:
Critical Thinking Definition: “Consistently does all or almost all of the
following: Accurately interprets evidence, statements, graphics,
questions, etc. Identifies the salient arguments (reasons and claims)
pro and con. Thoughtfully analyzes and evaluates major alternative
points of view. Draws warranted, judicious, non-fallacious
conclusions. Justifies key results and procedures, explains assumptions
and reasons. Fair-mindedly follows where evidence and reasons lead.”
Facione & Facione
Comparison with Critical
Thinking
Critical thinking involves
–
–
–
–
–
Making and supporting a claim rather than questioning and wondering
Defense of ground rather than broadening of ground
Thinking from a distance as opposed to thinking through engagement
Analysis done alone rather than with others
Thinking as opposed to thinking and acting.
While there are many definitions of both critical thinking and critical reflection and
it is certainly possible to equate the two, we believe it is useful to make a clear
distinction between reflection and the most common interpretations of critical
thinking. Too often reflection is understood as essentially an analytical task rather
than as engagement and dialogue with practice. Dewey described reflection as
“thought bound up in action or about action”