OBSERVATIONAL
LEARNING
Chapter 9
Learning & Behavior (Chance)
Chapter Guiding Questions
• What is observational learning?
• How is observational learning different from imitation?
• What determines whether a model’s behavior will be
imitated?
• What factors influence how much we learn from models?
• What theories attempt to account for observational
learning?
• Are there any applications of observational learning?
What is observational learning?
• A change in behavior due to the experience of observing
a model
• Learning vicariously through the reinforcement and
punishment of a model
• Two basic procedures:
Examples of Vicarious Reinforcement
• Observing a model’s behavior being reinforced
Examples of Vicarious Punishment
• Observing a model’s behavior being punished
An Overview of Classic Experiments
• Warden and colleagues’ experiments
• Experiment with monkeys and raisins
• 47% of observer monkeys solved the problem in 10 seconds
• 75% of observer monkeys solved the problems in 30 seconds
• Even monkeys who did not solve the problem indicated that they
had learned something about it through their actions
• Herbert & Harsh’s (1944) experiment with cats
• Cats who observed a model cat turning a wheel to obtain food
learned to perform the same task in considerably fewer trials
• Bandura & McDonald’s (1963)
study that taught children to use
objective perspectives when
judging misbehaviors
• Children who observed a model being
praised for being more objective were
more likely to make objective judgments
than those who had no model but only
received praise for their own responses.
• Rosekrans & Hartup’s (1967) inflatable doll study (similar
to Bandura’s Bobo doll studies)
• Children who saw aggressive behavior reinforced played more
aggressively; children who saw aggressive behavior punished
played less aggressively.
• Levy’s (1974) study of picture preferences
• Children who saw a model’s choice approved were more likely to
make the same choice. Children who saw a model’s choice
criticized were less likely to make the same choice.
How is this different from imitation?
• Imitation is simply copying
a behavior after observing
a model.
• Observational learning may
result in copying the
behavior, but it may also
result in doing some thing
completely different as a
result of observing the
model.
• Imitation is not necessary for observational learning to
occur
• Imitation might be evidence that learning did not occur
• Imitation does not require the observation of
consequences. Subjects have a tendency to imitate
models regardless of whether or not a model receives
reinforcement because imitation has paid off in the past
What factors influence observational
learning?
• Consequences of the model’s behavior
• Consequences of the observer’s behavior
• Observer’s age and learning history
• Characteristics of the Model
• Competence
• Attractiveness
• Likability
• Prestige
• Age
• Sex
• Popularity
Why does observational learning occur?
• According to social cognitive theory, observational
learning is due to four processes:
• Attentional processes: Observer pays attention to the model.
• Retentional processes: Observer is able to recall the information
about the model’s behavior and repeat it (or a verbal representation
of it).
• Motor reproductive processes: Observer has the ability to engage
in the actions to replicate the model actions or a variation of those
actions.
• Motivational processes: Observer is motivated to repeat the
model’s behavior.
• According to the Miller-Dollard reinforcement theory,
observational learning is due to reinforcement.
• Observational learning is a variation of operant learning.
• Changes in the observer’s behavior are due to the consequences
of the observer’s consequences (not the model’s consequences).
• This theory places more emphasis on the observer’s history and
experiences.