Relative pronouns
and relative clauses
A relative clause gives information about a noun. It
immediately follows the noun it describes and often
begins with a relative pronoun such as who, which or
when.

Defining Relative Clauses
 They identify the noun they
refer to and therefore give
necessary information when it
comes to the meaning of the
sentence.
 Non-defining Relative
Clauses
 They give additional (extra)
information about sth that is
already clearly identified and
therefore can be left out
without affecting meaning.
 Non defining relative clauses
are separated by commas
from the rest of the sentence.
Relative pronoun
Use
Which
a.
For animals and things
The furniture which you ordered will be
delivered tomorrow afternoon. (defining)
The Maths exam, which many students
failed, was far too difficult. (non-defining)
b.
To refer to a whole clause
Bill took his degree, which is great news.
c.
After prepositions in defining
clauses
That
(it can only be used
in defining relative
clauses)
a.
b.
c.
Who
Examples
The book to which you are referring is
sold out.
For people, animals and things;
replaces who, which or when in
defining relative clauses only
Often used after words like all,
none, little, few, anything,
nothing
After superlatives (often with
the present or past perfect), the
first/ last time etc.
This is the girl that helped me find your
address. (defining)
For people
She is the candidate who passed the
exam. (defining)
My sister, who got married last year, is
expecting a boy. (non-defining)
There is nothing (that) I need now
except a glass of water.
This is the best holiday (that) I’ve ever
had.
Whom
Whose
a.For people as the direct object
of a verb (formal)
The actress whom the journalist
interviewed was very friendly and
willing to answer all the
questions. (defining)
John, whom I met at university, is
one of my best friends. (non –
defining)
b. As the indirect object
This is the lady to whom you sent
the application.
c. After prepositions
Nobody knew the girl with whom
Frank was dancing. (defining)
OR Nobody knew the girl Frank
was dancing with. (informal)
Peter, with whom I shared a flat,
has now moved to New York.
(non – defining)
To show possession
The woman whose purse was
stolen is very upset. (defining)
Our neighbors, whose children
are very noisy, often get
complaints. (non-defining)
Where
For places
The office where I work is not
far from home. (defining)
I like the new sports center
uptown, where you can find
suitable facilities for almost all
team sports. (non-defining)
When
For time (can be replaced by
that in defining clauses only)
Do you remember the day
when we first met? (defining)
Last summer, when I was in
Santorini, I attended a world
class free-running tournament.
(non-defining)
Why
To show reason
Emily told me the reason why
she doesn’t want to go out with
Tim anymore.
what
To replace the thing (s) which/
that
What Angela said made me
very upset. (The thing Angela
said made me very upset.)
NOTES

Who, whom, which or that may be omitted from a defining relative clause when it is
the object of the verb in the relative clause.
e.g. I didn’t like the film which we saw last night. – I didn’t like the film we saw last night.
Hint: If the relative pronoun is followed by a subject and verb it can be left out.

If a relative pronoun is used with a preposition, the preposition can come before the
relative pronoun (formal style) or at the end of the clause (informal style)
e.g. The tool with which the lock was forced open has not been found (formal).
The magazine that my article was published in is on the table. (informal)

That and who cannot be used after a preposition. We use which and whom instead.
Whom is considered formal.
e.g. The company he works for is in serious financial trouble.
The company for which he works is in serious financial trouble.
The man for whom he works is from the UK.

A non-defining relative clause never begins with the relative pronoun that.

When a relative clause uses who, which + be + present or past participle, the relative
pronoun and the verb to be can be omitted.
e.g. Look at those boys who are playing football over there.
Look at those boys playing football over there.
The food which was served at the wedding was delicious.
The food served at the wedding was delicious.

In non-defining clauses quantifiers (e.g. all, none, both, some, many, neither, one, few)
can be used with of which/ of whom.
e.g. I have two close friends, both of whom live next door.
The churches here, many of which need renovating, were built 500 years ago.
To show possession when referring to things we can also use noun + of which or that …
of
e.g. He wrote a book whose title/ the title of which I’ve forgotten.
He wrote a book that I’ve forgotten the title of.

 Which can refer to a whole situation that is described in the main
clause.
e.g. My friend was obviously lying which annoyed me immensely. (which =
the fact that my friend was lying)
 The words whatever, whoever, whichever, wherever and whenever can
be used to replace relative pronouns. We use them to talk about people
or things that are indefinite or unknown.
e.g. Take whatever you want from the boxes over there. (anything you
want)
Why don’t you just come over whenever you are ready? (any time)
 What cannot be used as an ordinary relative pronoun after a noun or
pronoun. What can replace a noun
e.g. We haven’t got the books what you ordered. X
We haven’t got the books that you ordered.
We haven’t got what you ordered. (what = the things that you ordered)