That is: “Who speaks to whom in an
organisation”
Definitions:
•
Networks: Lines or channels that the
organisation uses to convey information from
one person to another.
•
Communication networks: specific lines/
channels of communication used to convey
information from one person to another;
between three (3) or more people. Organisations
traditionally used channels of communication in
a monologue to give instructions to employees.
Today, communication channels are used to
create a dialogue between employees and
employers.
Formal
Informal
Communication is used
according to rules,
regulations and procedures
endorsed by management.
E.g. officially written or
verbal channels such as
interviews, training
programmes, memo’s or
annual reports
Communicating through
interpersonal relationships;
exchanging unofficial
information. E.g. a
conversation between
colleagues about work
issues.
Possible assessment question: Distinguish between formal and
informal communication within an organisation [5 marks]
Within an organisation, information can flow downward
(from top management to subordinates), upward (from
employees to top management), lateral/ horizontal
(between employees on the same hierarchal level), or
informally (through interpersonal relationships).



Downward flow of information: Also referred to as ‘topdown’ communication; used to give instructions, provide
feedback to employees about job performance, etc.
Upward flow of information: Also known as ‘bottom-up’
communication; used to give criticism, complaints and
suggestions from employees, or to provide feedback on
tasks completed
Lateral/ Horizontal flow of information: Used to share
information between departments; e.g. the Production
Manager and the Human Resources Manager discussing
bonuses for staff.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Information dissemination function – communication
provide information which helps employees to do their
job;
Control function – the rules and regulations that govern
the operations within the organisation (e.g. a code of
conduct). It is usually downward communication;
Persuasive function – communication is used to gain
compliance and agreement from employees to perform
tasks… explaining to employees how their work
contributes to the success of a project; and
Integrative function – here, communication is used to
help new employees feel part of the organisation to
create unity and cohesion; e.g. induction programmes.
Thus, the functional role people/ members of an organisation
play regarding communication
(communication has its function (inform, persuade, control, integrate),
while individuals play the following roles)
I.
II.
III.
IV.
Members: these employees are senders and receivers of
information
Isolates: these employees are individuals or groups that
seldom communicate with the rest of the information –
e.g. people working from home, scientists in a laboratory,
etc.
Liaisons: these employees act as the link between different
groups to facilitate communication and information flow
between them – e.g. admin staff
Bridges: these employees ‘connect’ groups with one
another by being part of both – e.g. a manager sharing
duties within the production and communication
departments
v.
vi.
vii.
Cosmopolites/ boundary spanners: these employees
communicate with groups outside of the organisation
– e.g. sales representatives
Gatekeepers: these employees decide which
information is disseminated and which are not.
Managers often communicate certain information to
employees, while keeping sensitive information a
secret
Opinion leaders: these employees influence others in
a network to take/ not take certain actions. The
influence of opinion leaders can function either
formally or informally
Examples of opinion leaders include Chad Le Clos & Ryk
Neethling for Virgin Active; and Nelson Mandela (Madiba)
for the ANC
 Chain
network (also referred to as the line
network);
I
 Y-network;
Y
 Wheel network;
X
Centralised Networks;
more formal
 Circle
network; and
 All-channel network.
Decentralised Networks;
more informal
* refer to print-outs
These six (6) characteristics can affect communication in networks:
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Size: the more people (links) there are in the network, the bigger
the change of miscommunication
Content/ function: Different networks have different purposes –
e.g. an all-channel network is better equipped for social tasks,
whereas the Y-channel is used for executing tasks effectively
Formality: whether the channel is used for formal or informal
reasons
Centralisation/ dominance: whether one person is responsible for
the gathering and dissemination of information; or whether every
participant in the network have access to one another
Multiplexity: this occur when different networks overlap with one
another – e.g. you might be part of an even management team
reporting to one leader (Y-channel), but also be part of a
brainstorming team to solve communication problems (Allchannel)
Network openness: Open networks include external influences,
while closed networks are internally oriented
Definition:
Conflict can be defined as the interaction of
interdependent people who perceive
opposition of goals, aims and values, and
who see the other party as potentially
interfering with the realisation of these.
I.e. People who have to work together, but
have different ideas about reaching the
intended outcomes.
The characteristics of conflict are:
(1) incompatible goals; (2) interdependence;
and (3) interaction.
Levels of conflict:
i.
Intrapersonal conflict – conflict that occur when a person has
to make a tough decision
ii.
Interpersonal conflict – conflict between two people
iii.
Intergroup conflict – different teams experience conflict; e.g.
two departments within an organisation competing for a
project
iv.
Intragroup conflict – conflict occurring within a group
v.
Interorganisational conflict – when two or more organisations
are in competition/ conflict with one another
Types of conflict:
1) Constructive conflict (1) (aka
task-related/ cold conflict (1))
2) Destructive conflict (1) (aka
socio-emotional/ hot conflict (1))
sConflict is used functionally (1) to
share opposing ideas (1), seek
information (1), etc.
Conflict is used as personal attacks
(1) and the aim is not to find a
solution to problems (1).
1. Avoiding
2. Accommodating
3. Compromising
• People ignore or withdraw from conflict
• A lose-lose strategy of conflict
• People are concerned with other’s goals, but not their own
• People are not assertive; a win-lose strategy of conflict
• People try to modify their own goals and persuade others to do the
same
• Also a lose-lose strategy to conflict
4. Forcing
• Known as the ‘competitive’ strategy
• One person tries to dominate or intimidate the other – to force them
to accept his/ her resolution
5. Confronting
• Also known as ‘collaborating’ – this strategy actively seeks to solve a
problem
• Problems are discussed – a win-win strategy of conflict
6. Negotiation
7. Third-party
interventions
8. Dictation
9. Mediation
10. Arbitration
•People discuss conflict to produce a resolve to the conflict
•Good communication skills are required
•A neutral person is tasked to assist parties with their
differences
•In this case, fairness is an important factor
•Decisions are made (by one party) and given as an instruction
to another
•A neutral party facilitate the communication process between
two conflicting parties
•The conflicting parties are motivated to solve their conflict
•An arbitrator listens to both parties and makes a final and
binding decision
Definition:
Organisational culture is the moral (1), social (1) and
behavioural norms (1) of an organisation (their unique way
of doing things), based on the beliefs and attitudes of its
members (1). Most organisational cultures emerge
passively (on its own) over time (1). It is described as the
glue that holds an organisation together (1).
Organisational culture
Organisational climate
What an organisation “is”.
A strong culture is important
because it creates unity and
cohesion from all employees and
gives them a sense of belonging.
The “feelings” employees have
about the atmosphere of an
organisation.
An organisation will only be
successful if the right climate is
created – i.e. if people feel that
their expectations of the
organisation is met.
A school of thought refers to how some researchers
view and describe organisational culture.
i.
ii.
iii.
The first school sees the organisational tasks in
terms of specific and measurable traits,
variables or processes – i.e. one can measure
it;
The second school believes that organisational
culture happens when people come together
and is impossible to measure; and
The third school believes that organisational
cultures can be used to look at organisations
as microsocieties
Two approaches to
the understanding of
organisational
culture
(1) The
FUNCTIONALIST
paradigm
Concerning the
administration and
control of an
organisation
Seek to understand
the organisation –
manipulating
variables to improve
performance
(2) The
INTERPRETIVIST
paradigm
Concerned with how
people experience
their working
environment
a)
b)
c)
Corporate culturalism: organisational
culture is seen as a variable that applies to
the whole organisation
Organisational symbolism: organisational
culture is seen as explaining things that
happen in an organisation – e.g. an
industrial strike action is seen as a result of
an organisational culture of de-motivation
of employees
Postmodernism: Concerned with the
research of organisational culture
We can collect information about the culture of an organisation, by
looking at the following elements:

Artefacts – tangible objects, e.g. brochures, furniture, office
layout, etc.)

Language – the unique language used (think about journalists-,
advertising executives- or public relations practitioners’ jargon)

Behavioural concepts – the rituals of an organisation, e.g. Friday
braai days OR Tuesday report meetings OR orientation for new
employees

Heroes – significant models to the organisation, e.g. Gill Marcus to
the Reserve Bank; Nelson Mandela to the ANC; Roland Ackerman to
Pick-’n-Pay. Usually the founder of the organisation

Symbols – Words, gestures, pictures or objects that carry a specific
meaning for the organisation, e.g. Logo’s; acronyms; mascots

Psychological phenomenon – beliefs, values and attitudes, e.g.
Chartered Accountants (CA’s) from PriceWaterhouseCoopers (PWC)
act differently than the Journalists from SABC or the Advertising
Execs from Saatchi and Saatchi

Organisational aspects – i. type of business such as banking or
retail (business environment) and ii. How new employees are
integrated, e.g. training (cultural network)
Formal groups
Informal groups
These groups are formed by
organisational appointment. These
groups work in cohesion with other
formal groups. Members of these
groups are guided by
organisational regulations.
The members of these groups join
voluntarily. Informal groups are
bound by similar values, attitudes
and conformity.
Advantages of group behaviour
Disadvantages of group behaviour
 Two heads are better than one –
more knowledge
 More options for action
 Better quality solutions to
problems
 Effectiveness
 It is more pleasurable to work in
a group
 Conflict is inevitable
 Conflict could destroy morale
 Some group members could lay
back and let others complete tasks
 Decisions take a long time to
make when everyone has to agree
 Some people could try to
dominate the group
A paradigm explains how events/ processes (and in this case
‘decisions’) occur.
Effects of organisational communication
technology
New technology affects how organisations
communicate. Some of the effects are:
 On communication content: less face-to-face
communication
 On communication patterns: too much
information can lead to overload
 On communication outcomes: loss of
individuality (lack of leadership, lack of group
identification, and lack of group cohesion)
 On organisational structure: cost-cutting,
compress time and space
Globalisation and organisational communication
What is Globalisation?
It is the increased interaction in trade (creating wealth through
free trade) and communication between a global citizenry and
the evolution of technology. E.g. a South African trader selling
shoes to a Japanese buyer online.
Miller (2003) describes two eras: the modern era (industrial age)
and the post modern era (information revolution); in the
informational revolution everything moves faster and is less
consistent.
Globalisation can either be seen as positive (sharing information)
or pessimistic (undermining political and social institutions).
Globalisation leads to the compression of time and space;
enhanced sense of global consciousness; and the
disembeddedness of people and organisations.
The two (2) patterns that arise in viewing the challenges of
globalisation is convergence (organisation must adapt) and
divergence (cultural differences have to be acknowledged)