The Neuroscience of
Critical Thinking
Sandra Johnson, Ph.D., MSW, CASAC
What Motivated You to
Return to School?
 Increase
of knowledge?
 Increase of Self-Confidence?
 Move upward at your place of
employment?
 Will you receive more money with more
schooling?
 Want to Impress Upon Your Children the
Importance of Education?
Are You Ready?
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Do you have a support system?
Do you procrastinate?
Do you have access to an on-line/physical
library?
Do you know how to research (use databases,
etc?)
Do you have a quiet place to study?
Do you have enough time to study/attend
school?
Do you use stress reduction techniques?
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
1. Gathering Information
2. Reflective Observation
3. Abstract Thinking
4. Active Testing
Kolb’s Learning Cycle and
Critical Thinking
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We can become critical thinkers through Kolb’s Learning
The brain changes physically as it learns
As we take in or gather information (concrete
experience), we search and connect neuronally with
similar information in our brain (reflection)
Through this connection we integrate our old and new
knowledge and form new ideas (abstraction)
We can then act upon new ideas or newly formed belief
systems (active testing)
During this process neurons grow new branches
(dendrites) as the old and new information are integrated
Kolb’s Learning Cycle
Gathering Information
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As we have previously stated, gathering
information triggers feelings in our body
These feelings are interpreted as emotions
Actually, our body has an affective experience
(feeling) with every cognitive experience
Therefore, when we learn, we have an
intellectual experience, and in our body, we have
an emotional reaction to each experience
Sometimes we may not actually, in our
conscious mind, be aware of the feeling, but it is
still there in our subconscious mind
Gathering Information (cont.)
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For example, adults entering the classroom bring with
them thoughts concerning their ability to learn that they
have acquired during their learning experiences
If these adults believe, based on previous negative
learning experiences (such as shaming experiences
from a teacher), that they are poor learners, it is because
their brains remember the trauma of these negative
learning experiences
These negative learning experiences can be the “colored
glass” that influences not only our emotions concerning
new learning challenges, but how we view our abilities
as adult learners
Gathering Information (cont.)
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In order to explain the trauma of negative learning
experiences, we need to understand that “the entire
brain is an organ of emotion, and…emotion, reason, and
memory are all linked together” (Zull, 2002, p. 65)
The fear center of the brain (the primitive brain), on a
subconscious level, monitors our learning
If certain learning situations have been negative in the
past, the primitive brain makes meaning of the
experience and lets our body know we are in danger
For example, the brain links a new math class with the
old negative experiences of a previous math class, and
anticipates danger
Gathering Information (cont.)
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The amygdale anticipates danger by sensing the
environment to see if there is anything familiar in
the environment that reminds it of previous
negative experiences
 When danger is anticipated by the amygdale,
the amygdale produces chemicals that will make
the body tense and the mind feel anxious
 When we become aware of the bodily feeling,
we then interpret it as a negative emotion
Gathering Information (cont.)
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Therefore, even though the learning situation
may be safe, the primitive brain has sounded the
alarm as the situation being dangerous to our
emotional well being by creating:
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body tenseness
an inability to concentrate
inability to remember
anxiety
and perhaps confusion
Gathering Information (cont.)
 However,
if we have good learning
experiences:
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we feel in control of our learning
the primitive brain is not triggered
and the body produces dopamine, a goodfeeling chemical
Learning becomes enjoyable. (Zull, 2002)
The Limbic System
Gathering Information (cont.)
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What experiences have influenced your ideas of
yourself as a learner?
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Have there been people in your life you have told you
that you are smart?
Do you feel you gained self-confidence in learning
because of these positive experiences?
Have you had any teachers who made negative
comments about your learning ability in a certain
subject area (such as math or your ability to write
well)?
If so, how has this impacted your academic life?
Buying into the
Learning Experience
“All parts of the learning cycle are influenced by
emotions.” (Zull, 202, p. 223)
 Therefore, emotions can affect learning at any stage of
the learning cycle
 In fact, Zull (2002), states that deep learning probably
depends more on “signals from emotional centers than it
does on new sensory input.” (p 223)
 This is quite a statement! In other words,
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if you believe your learning is important to you, you will engage
in the learning in a deep way, and the neuronal structures will
change in the brain indicating you have accepted the new
knowledge.
Buying into the
Learning Experience (cont.)
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By acceptance, I mean, buying into the
knowledge
 Zull states that when we “buy into” presented
information (i.e., when the information is
important to us), the nucleus bassalis fires and
delivers acetylcholine to the auditory cortex
 The function of acetylcholine is to “trigger
chemical changes that increase the
responsiveness of existing synapses and alter
the expression of genes so that the neurons
produce stronger, more numerous synapses”
(Zull, 2002, p. 225)
Buying into the
Learning Experience (cont.)
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Therefore, when neurons receive the
“importance” signal (meaning you have bought
into the learning experience/information), the
brain changes, and deep learning can happen
 We now experience learning that goes beyond
memorization and short term memory
 The information has meaning/importance and,
through the learning cycle, the information can
move into long-term memory.
Buying into the
Learning Experience (cont.)
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It is important to note that our primitive brain appraises
all information for threat and meaning
Therefore, if the information is not threatening and we
can find meaning in the academic topic, the information
can move into the higher regions of the brain for the next
phase of the learning cycle: reflection
However, even if we meet this criteria, we, as adult
learners, may find learning difficult because of feeling
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anxious over our learning (not enough time, anxious over
grades)
overwhelmed with so many responsibilities (family, school)
a lack of confidence, etc
Buying into the
Learning Experience (cont.)
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Pro-longed stress/anxiety impairs memory
Under prolonged stress/anxiety, the adrenal gland
releases a chemical into the blood called cortisol
Cortisol seems to have a devastating effect on cells in
the hippocampus
Extreme stress can damage our memory centers
Therefore, adult learners need to learn how to relax in
order for the brain to move into the higher levels of
learning and be able to move through the rest of the
learning cycle:
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reflection
abstraction, and
actively testing new ideas
Dendritic Spines in
Hippocampal Cells
Ways to Relax to Improve
Learning and Memory
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What Works for You?
1. autogenic relaxation (systematic relaxing of
our muscle groups)
2. listening to soothing music
3. exercising before studying
4. other…
Reflection
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Learning is much more than memorizing
If we want to encounter deep, meaningful learning that
impacts our life, we need to be able to reflect upon our
experiences and connect new knowledge with similar
experiences (belief systems)
Reflection then is literally searching for connections
between old belief systems and new information in order
to recreate old belief system
In fact, every time we receive new information that we
can connect to a belief system, we can recreate that
system through the reflective experience
Reflective thinking or reflective observing (observing our
thought structures), takes time
According to Zull (2002), it is the biochemistry of the
brain that is “behind this need for time” (p. 225)
Reflection (cont.)
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Neurotransmitters initiate a complex path of chemical
reactions within the neurons
And since there are a number of separate steps in these
pathways, each of which takes up some time, these
times add up
They can be 100 times slower than the electrical signals
These chemical cascades end up affecting the nature
and number of synapses
Those changes can increase synapse number and
activity, so the power for changing the brain is great
(Zull, 2002, p. 225-226)
Reflection (cont.)
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We need to have time to self-reflect without disturbances
We need to take time to find out what our thoughts are
concerning a topic, bring our new knowledge into our
current thinking, and be able to cope with being
confused for a while as we integrate these knowledge
bases
This suspension of judgment is the key to our brain
making connections and achieving integration
Reflective observation requires a procedure whereby,
time and suspension of judgment is required in order for
the brain’s neuronal connections to integrate and form
an opinion or new belief system
According to Zull (2002), critical reflective thinking and
abstract thinking (forming new belief systems) forms the
basis of our thinking process
Reflection (cont.)
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However, bringing new knowledge to our current belief
systems can be psychologically challenging
Each one of us has had various experiences stemming from
our culture, environment, friends, family and relationships
We may grow up in the same household as another but, on a
daily basis, we have faced different experiences that have
shaped our belief system
Therefore, as we reflect upon what we believe about a topic
(what our belief system is), and bring new knowledge to that
belief system, we may, for the first time realize that the
opinion or opinions we hold may not be what we really believe
They may be our families’ or our culture’s beliefs, but not our
own
We may need to challenge these old beliefs and create new
belief systems.
Reflection (cont.)
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Being reflective means we remember our old belief systems without
judgment, and reflect upon new information
It is like holding the old belief systems in one hand and the new
information in our another hand, while examining the pros and cons
of the issues of the topic
This process of being able to tolerate ambiguity means we are
willing, for a little while, not to have preconceived ideas, and tolerate
the creative tension of not knowing
Through the process of reflection, we reflect on our thinking, and
develop a new self, or new belief system
Adult learning is based on this premise: we keep recreating
ourselves as we keep investigating new knowledge
The process of creating new belief systems is called abstract
thinking
Abstract thinking is creative thinking as we problem-solve and
discover new avenues of thought.
Abstract Thinking
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As connections are being made by reflective thinking, we start the
process of creating new ideas and solving problems
“We change from being receivers of knowledge to creators of
knowledge” (Zull, 2002, p. 18)
This process takes place in the front integrative cortex (the
executive brain)
Creating new ideas has two steps:
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short-term storage of information and
manipulation or rearrangement of that information to form new
relationships
This manipulation of information in working memory is what creates
new knowledge for the learner
As he organizes things in new arrangements and attaches them to
the networks that represent his prior knowledge, each learner
creates his own understandings
This conscious rearranging and manipulation of items…comes
closest to what we call thinking. (Zull, 2002, p. 185)
Taking Action
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The last phase of the learning cycle involves taking action
“Active testing can take many forms…Any action that is inspired by
your ideas qualifies as active testing” (Zull, 2002, p. 206)
Taking action can be talking to someone about your ideas or writing
about your ideas
You may develop a piece of art around your thinking, or, if you are a
scientist, scientifically test your ideas
Why is acting upon our ideas important?
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Taking action biologically completes the cycle
The brain gets ideas so the body can act
At the same time, the action of the body provides sensory feedback to
the brain
It is through action that the biological wholeness of learning becomes
apparent” (Zull, 2002, p.104).
Taking Action
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According to Elder & Paul (1994), critical thinking can
be best understood as the ability of thinkers to take
charge of their own thinking
According to Orman-Mitchell (1992), attributes of critical
thinkers may include:
1. Independence of mind, in the sense of intellectual autonomy,
self-understanding, self-confidence, and courage
2. Open-mindedness, in the sense of alert curiosity, attentiveness,
and the spontaneous outreaching for alternative perspectives,
intellectual flexibility, and the willingness to suspend judgment
3. Wholeheartedness -- that is, enthusiasm and perseverance in
pursuit of an intellectual goal
4. Respect for others, in terms of sensitivity, empathy, fairmindedness, readiness to listen, and willingness to consider
other points of view
Critical Reflective Thinkers
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Through the path of becoming critical reflective thinkers, we
are able to look at all aspects of topics and make decisions of
about what we really believe
We become seekers of the truth, with an ability to withhold
judgment, and tolerate creative tension, while we seek for the
best possible solution/answers to problems/outcomes
Most importantly, as we seek answers, we create and
recreate our belief systems as we take in new knowledge
This ability keeps us socially current as we keep pace with our
informational age
We become “wise” learners, willing to seek to understand
another’s viewpoints
The outcome is global citizenship as we can negotiate a
complex world and contribute our understandings to this
complexity.
References
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Elder, L, & Paul, R. Critical thinking: Why we must
transform our teaching. Journal of Developmental
Education, 18(1), 34-35.
 Kegan, R. (1982). The Evolving self: Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
 Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential Learning: Experience as
the source of learning and development. Upper Saddle
River, N.J: Prentice Hall, 1984.
 Oxman-Mitchell, W. (1992). Critical thinking as critical
spirit. Viewpoints, 4(7), 1-16. Upper Montclair, NJ:
Institute for Critical Thinking, Montclair State College.
 Zull, J. (2002). The art of changing the brain: Enriching
teaching by exploring the biology of learning. Sterling
Virginia: Stylus.