Reading Assessment and
Instruction
Using Levels of
Functioning to
Assess Reading and
Determine
Instructional
Expectations
Factors in Deciding How to
Teach Reading
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Student attitude, energy, and motivation
Effectiveness of previous approaches
Clear diagnostic information of specific
reading problems (of the individual)
Teacher knowledge of reading strategies
Matching appropriate reading program
with the student.
Functioning Levels
Operationalized for Reading
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Independent: >98% word recognition +
>90% comprehension. Thumbnail: @95%
overall
Instructional: 95% word rec. and >75%
comprehension. Thumbnail: @ 80 - 90%
overall
Frustration: <90% word rec. and <50%
comprehension. Thumbnail:<80 % overall
Hierarchy of Instruction
Reading for accuracy
 Reading for fluency
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Strands of Reading
Curriculum
word attack
 word recognition
 reading comprehension
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Word Attack
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Definition
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Scope and Sequence
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Analysis of words
Represent discrete oral sounds associated
with letters or groups of letters
Should be developed according to observed
needs of the student and/or in relationship to
curriculum
Major Approaches
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Phonics
Structural Analysis
Performance Measures
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Isolated sounds - 70 spm @ 98%accuracy
Words in a list - 80 wpm @ 98% accuracy
Words in text - 100 wpm @ 98%
accuracy
Sequence of Fluency Measures
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Sounds in isolation
Saying nonsense words
Saying phonetically regular words
Oral reading from text
Isolated prefixes and suffixes
endings, prefixes , & suffixes with
nonsense roots
Structural analysis of words
Word Attack Levels of
Assessment
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Knowledge
Associate letters with sounds
 Recognize beginnings and endings
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Application
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Apply rules for decoding
• familiar words
• unfamiliar words
Error Analysis
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Topology
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Miscue analysis
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reproduction errors
errors in grammar and/or meaning
Specific word attack errors
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based on what has been taught
Word Recognition
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Definition:
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treating a group of letters as a single unit
Scope and sequence
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Curriculum types
• Developmental
• Functional
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Major Approaches
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Student-specific words in the curriculum
Overall fluency
Performance Measures
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Latency and rate
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words in isolation
Passages in text
Levels of Assessment
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Associate letters in sequence as
words
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95% accuracy
Do so to automaticity
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95% fluency
Reading Comprehension
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Definition
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ability to obtain meaning from print.
Scope and Sequence
Word attack and recognition are
important prerequisites
 Literal, inferential, and critical
comprehension
 Little consensus on what skills to teach
and in what sequence
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Performance Measures of
Reading Comprehension
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Comprehension is measured indirectly:
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that is, they are inferential
Often measurements of RC are more
accurately influenced by
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Language
Cognition/reasoning
Memory
Literary skills
Prior Knowledge
Language Influences on
Reading Comprehension
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To comprehend text requires
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knowledge of vocabulary (semantics) and
grammar (syntax)
the student must know what words mean
• apart and in conjunction with other words
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language competence of the learner must
match the language demands of the text
Reading comprehension cannot exceed
general language competence.
Cognition/reasoning Influences
on Reading Comprehension
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Prediction/extrapolation
prediction requires going beyond
information presented
 extrapolationn reqires prediction plus
making unstated conclusions
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Higher order skills
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summarize, analyze, synthesize
Memory Influences on Reading
Comprehension
Immediate or long term recall/retell
 Recognition of main ideas or details
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Literary Skills Influences on
Reading Comprehension
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Recognition of literary devices
satire, irony, sarcasm
 similes, metaphors
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Interpretation
literary devices
 poetry
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Influence of Prior Knowledge
on Reading Comprehension
Students can comprehend new
material if it covers something they
already know
 New material that covers something
unexperienced may be more difficult
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CBA
Data collection of performance
results
 Display of data
 Based on extant curricula
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Guidelines for Measuring
Reading Comprehension
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Measures should match vocabulary and
syntax of the material covered
Assessments should measure comprehension
(not analysis, synthesis, or evaluation)
Assessment should measure literal
comprehension
Assessment should allow the student to see
the passages to avoid recall/memory
influences
Assessment of comprehension should account
for prior knowledge
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pretest or provide relevant background information
Common Performance Measures
of Reading Comprehension
Sentence verification tests
 Student retelling
 Time oral reading
 Cloze procedures
 Text comprehension quesitons
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Sentence verification tests
(Prompted Written Recall)
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A group of sentences
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drawn from a passage
with changed meaning
distractors
Student reads and answers (from
memory) whether information in
sentences was part of the original
passage or is the same in meaning.
>85% = Independent, 75-85% =
Instructional, <65% = Frustration
Student retelling
Students read and paraphrase as
they go along
 Students read entire passage and
paraphrase at the end
 Procedures for scoring include
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Percent total words retold per words in
the passage
 Percent content words retold per
content words in the passage
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Timed Oral Reading
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Fluency of reading is highly
associated with reading
comprehension
Measure words read correctly per total
words read
 Correct words per minute
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See Salvia and Hughes (1990) for
detailed procedures
Cloze Procedures
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Choose a grade level passage of 250
words
Provide a 25-word lead-in
paragraph/passage for reading sense
Delete every 5th word and replace with a
blank (@ 15 spaces each)
Provide a guided pre-sample for
understanding
Make the procedure untimed
Cloze Procedures
Student reads the passage and says
or writes the missing words (spelling
not a concern)
 Exact correct words or close
synonyms are accepted
 >57% = Independent, 44-56% =
instructional, <44% = frustration
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Answering Text Questions
5 - 10 questions at appropriate
reading level
 Use text explicit and implicit
questions
 >90% = Independent, 75-89% =
Instructional, <75% = Frustration
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Other Common Reading
Assessments
Informal Reading Inventories
 Content Reading Inventories
 Textual Reading/Study Strategies
 Observation/Error analysis
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A Classroom Informal Reading
Inventory (In the Content Area)
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Pick 20-25 words from 2 grade levels to
the present (present to 2 grade levels
above for potentially advanced readers)
using appropriate subject matter texts.
Select passages of 200 -250 words from
the same texts.
Construct 5 questions for each passage:
include recall facts, inferential questions,
and vocabulary definitions.
Observation/Error analysis
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Checklists/Observational
Instruments
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Used to identify specific areas of
difficulty
Error Analysis
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Used for identifying common errors to
target for instruction
Levels of Assessment
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Literal, inferential, and critical
comprehension require different assessments
Beginning students should assessed for
literal comprehension
Advance students can be assessed for higher
levels of comprehension
Inferential comprehension requires students
to analyze, synthesize and draw conclusions
Critical comprehension requires evaluation
and judgments of the reading’s worth.
Diagnostic Information
Assessment
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Compare reading proficiency of
students in the class with target
student
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Important to determine proficiency on
what the student can be expected to
do.
Reading Instruction for
Secondary Students with
Mild Disabilities
Strategies and
Models
The Reading Process
Motivational Analysis
 Vocabulary Development
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Word Recognition,
 Word Knowledge (Definition)
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Teaching Comprehension
Strategic Reading
 Strategic Teaching
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Motivational Analysis
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Identify why student needs to read in
your content area
Identify why student will read in your
content area
Identify how student is convinced to read
in your content area (primary and
secondary reinforcers)
Attach reinforcers to reading activities
Word Recognition (for
highly deficient readers)
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Identifying words
use of computer assisted instruction or
flashcards
 Word ID strategies (e.g., DISSECT)
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Use word banks with motivational
inventories (token reinforcement)
Word Knowledge
(Definition)
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Concept diagramming (mapping)
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Computer-generated maps (e.g., Inspiration)
Finding synonyms,
Contextual analysis
Using Reference Sources
Morphemic Analysis
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Understand the parts, understand the word
Strategic Reading
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Study Strategies
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Analyze sections of the text
Comprehension Strategies
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RAP
• Read the paragraph
• Ask yourself what the paragraph is about
• Put the main idea and two details in your
own words.
Strategic Teaching
Reciprocal Teaching
 Direct Instruction
 Adaptation Analysis
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Reciprocal Teaching
Summarize
 Question
 Clarify
 Predict
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Direct Instruction
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Structure the learning climate into
predictable activities that provide
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a high level of teacher-student, and studentstudent interaction
make efficient use of learned strategies
Teacher behaviors include
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questioning
paraphrasing
visual imagery
Adaptation Analysis
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Options
Reduce the expected amount of
learning
 Match textbooks to learning abilities
 Enhance content through study guides
 Provide technology accommodations
 promote use of appropriate learning
strategies
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Writing samples
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10 minute probes
Story starters (pictures)
Calculate the words written and correct
words written
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correct = spelled correctly and appropriate
mechanics
Determine % accuracy of writing sample.
Determine most appropriate writing goal
Writing Sample 1: Picture of a
flying saucer circling a small town
a
green space
man comes to
boise. he kill
boys and girls.
there moms
and dads are
sad.
Writing Sample 2: Picture of
a party
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its a party and my
friends come to
my house. we
dance and Ill have
lotsa fun.
Sample 3: Picture of skier
with child
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my skisut is red. I
go fast on hills. my
sisters ski with
me. its to cold to
ski for a long time.
Reading Comprehension
Sample 1
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In reading “Mary had a Little
Lamb”
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What do you think the teacher
would say if Mary brought the
lamb a second day?
Reading Comprehension
Sample 2
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In reading “Mary had a Little
Lamb”
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How do you think Mary felt
about her day at school?