Fundamentals of Petroleum Engineering (Practical)
By: Bilal Shams Memon
FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
(PRACTICALS)
BY: BILAL SHAMS MEMON
PRACTICAL 1
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Object: To determine the viscosity
of crude petroleum & petroleum
products on SuS/SuF by Saybolt
Viscometer.
Apparatus: Saybolt Viscometer,
crude oil, stop watch.
Theory: The efflux time in seconds
of 60ml of sample flowing through
calibrated orifice factor & reported
as viscosity of sample at that
temperature.
PRACTICAL 1
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Procedure: Following steps are followed in this experiment.
In the test, temperature is above the room temperature. Test may be expedited
by preheating sample not more than 3⁰F above the test temperature.
Insert a cork stopper having a card attached for its easily removed into the air
chamber at bottom of viscometer. The cork shall be fit tightly enough to
prevent escape of the air evidenced by the absence of oil on the cork when
drawn.
Filter the prepared sample through 100 mesh screen directly in the viscometer
until the level is above the gee flow rim.
Stir the sample as its temperature will remain constant within 0.05⁰F of the
test temperature during 1 min of continuous stirring. Stir with a viscometer
thermometer equipped with viscometer support. Use circular motion at 30 to
50 rpm in horizontal plain.
PRACTICAL 1
5.
6.
7.
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Remove thermometer from the sample quickly, also remove the oil
from the gallery until its level reaches blow the overflow rim of flask.
This is done by placing the tip of withdrawal tube at one point in the
flow rim withdrawal tube.
Place the receiving flask where steam of oil from bottom of
viscometer will just strike the neck of flask. The graduated mark on
the flask shall be between 10 to 13 cm from the bottom of
viscometer.
Snap the cork from the viscometer using attached cork. At the
same instant, start the time in stopwatch. Stop the timer at the
instant when oil in bottom of the flask reaches the graduation mark.
Now record the efflux time in seconds.
Results:
37(SuS) at 37.7 ⁰C temperature
Efflux time is 2.89 Sec / 60 ml.
PRACTICAL 2
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Object: To determine the specific gravity
of crude oil by hydrometer.
Apparatus: Measuring cylinder,
hydrometer, water & crude oil.
Theory: The sample is brought to
prescribed temperature & transformed to
the cylinder at approximately same
temperature. The appropriate
hydrometer is lowered into sample &
allowed to settle. After the temperature
equilibrium is reached, the hydrometer
displays the specific gravity of crude oil.
PRACTICAL 2
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1.
2.
3.
4.
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Procedure: Following steps are followed in this experiment.
Transfer the sample of crude oil to a clean hydrometer cylinder
without splashing to avoid formation of air bubble. Remove if any air
bubble formed.
Place the cylinder containing the sample in vertical position in a
location free from air bubbles. Ensure that temperature of sample
does not change.
Lower the hydrometer gently into the sample. Take care to avoid
wetting the stamp above the level to which it will be merged in the
liquid.
When hydrometer has come into rest, even floating freely away from
the walls of the cylinder, estimate the hydrometer scale reading.
The correct reading point on hydrometer scale is at which the
principle surface of liquid cuts the scale.
Result: Measured specific gravity of sample of crude oil is 0.789.
PRACTICAL 3
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1.
2.
3.
4.
Object: To determine the presence of salt in crude oil.
Apparatus: Salt analyzer, pipette (10ml), beaker (100ml), measuring
cylinder.
Given materials: Paraffin oil, sample (crude oil), mixed alcohol (methanol +
butanol)
Procedure: Following steps are followed in this experiment.
Accurately measure the 100ml sample & pour it into 100ml measuring
cylinder.
Add 40 ml xylene & mix it well.
Add some of the mixed alcohol & stir it hard. Now pour it into measuring
beaker & stir it with electrode.
Switch on the analyzer & set the pointer at 100 µA with scale adjustment.
Then read the position.
PRACTICAL 3
Select low position if there is no change
occurs in scale.
6. Select medium position if there is no
changing in scale.
7. Select high position if there is no changing
in reading.
if no change displayed on any scale, it
means there is absence of salt in crude oil.
Result:
The salt is present in crude oil as the changed
displayed on low position scale.
5.
PRACTICAL 4
Object: To discuss the classification of crude oil &
natural gas.
 Crude oil: It is defined as a naturally occurring
complex mixture of hydrocarbons. It has two types:
1. Heavy crude oil.
2.
Light crude oil.
Heavy crude oil: Viscous & non-produce-able oil,
can’t flow easily.
Light crude oil: light & produce-able oil that flows
easily.
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PRACTICAL 4
There are 3 principle hydrocarbon series.
1. Paraffin
2. cyclic paraffin 3. aromatic.
Paraffin: Chemically stable compounds, have either
straight or branched chain structure. These crude oil
contains paraffin, having more volatile constituent (due
to having low boiling point). They have general formula:
CnH2n.
Cyclic paraffin: They have general formula CnH2n. They
have ring structure like cyclo-propane, cyclo-butane.
Aromatic: they have general formula CnH2n-6. They are
chemically active & contains benzene ring.
PRACTICAL 4
Classification on basis of base:
Paraffin base:Its chief components are paraffin, which when
completely distilled leaves a solid residue of wax.
Asphalt base: Primarily composed of cyclic compounds, which
when completely distilled leaves solid residue of asphalt.
Mixed base: An oil having properties of both bases.
 Quality of crude oil: Crude oil’s quality depends mainly on API
gravity which measures the oil density. The price which a
producer receives depends on oil gravity; less dense oil that
contains more valuable products like gasoline (having high API
gravity) becomes more valuable.
Formula:
API gravity = (141.5 / specific gravity) – 131.5
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PRACTICAL 4
Natural gas:
Unique mixture of hydrocarbons,
primarily composed of light members of paraffin series
& has methane as a dominant component. It has also
impurities like CO2, H2S, H2O (vapors), N & He.
There are following basic classification of natural gas.
Wet gas:
Gas contains an amount of natural gasoline &
water vapors.
Sweet gas: Gas contains no H2S.
Sour gas: Gas containing H2S.
Dry gas:
Gas free from natural gasoline & water vapors
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PRACTICAL 4
Chemical composition:
Natural gas is mainly
considered to having light paraffin from C1 –
C4, S, N, O. They are generally present in
following percentage:
Elements
Percentage
C
65-80%
H
19-25%
S
0-0.2%
N
1-1.5%
O
0% or negligible
PRACTICAL 4
Natural gas generally have following
percentage of paraffin series:
Compounds
Percentage
CH4
60-94%
C2H6
1.05%
C3H8
0.28%
C4H10
0.17%
N2
3.88%
CO2
0.72%
PRACTICAL 5
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Object:
To demonstrate the function of Christmas-tree & its
components.
Theory:
A Christmas tree is an assembly of valves, flanges &
connections that control the flow of fluid from the well.
Many types of christmas tree are available (like pumping wells christmas
tree & consist of mainly stuffing box. These complex trees with numerous
master & wing valves are also installed on deep high pressure gas wells.
Each well is unique & requires specific type of tree.
For high rate well, the flow of tree is often “Y” shaped just to reduce
turbulence & erosion. Similarly flow control valve is installed in a straight run
rather than conventional right angle beam arrangement; a second side
(wing) out valve. This is often used in high pressure well kill connection for a
tubing kill line.
The main valve of christmas tree is master valve which is attached above
the tubing head & on master valve that is used to shut off the production &
is important for well service & workover.
PRACTICAL 5
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i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
Component of tree: In-spite of wide variety of tubes available, they shares
certain basic components:
Pressure gauge – It monitors tubing & casing-annulus pressures.
Gauge flange – It seals the cap of tree & has fitting for pressure gauge.
When gauge hanger is removed, the tubing becomes accessible & bottom
hole testing equipments can be installed.
Crown on swab valve – It shuts off the well from wire-line coil. Tubing on
other work-over unit is to be riches up.
Flow on croupy – Flow tree allows to be run into the well during well
production
Wing valve – It shut in the must routine operation. This valve is the
earliest valve that replaced on the tree.
PRACTICAL 5
vi.
vii.
viii.
ix.
Choke – It is used to control the amount of flow rate
either it will be fixed choke or adjustable.
Master valve – This valve is used to shut off the
well.
Tubing head – It is flange steel fitting body with
gauge that is of packed mechanism having tubing
hanger (part of valve). Tubing head seals annular
space between tubing & casing while suspending
the tubing string in the valve. Also it provides the
connection that supports the christmas tree.
Christmas tree – It is a heavy flanged steel fitting
connected to the first string of casing. It provides
slips for casing & packing assemblies, allows
suspension of intermediate & production string of
casing.
PRACTICAL 6
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Object:
To demonstrate the function of well
head & its components.
Theory:
The collective assembly of valves &
connections at the top of well is known as well
head.
This equipment’s primary purpose is to control
pressures of flowing fluid. Well head
equipments supports tubular, provide seal &
control the path & flow rate of fluid. All well
head includes at-least one casing & tubing
heads & hangers & one christmas tree.
Function of well head & its components:Major
components of well head are:
PRACTICAL 6
Casing head:
It is screamed or welded to outer most casing
stub. Its inside provides a shouldered sealing surface for
casing hanger which grips the casing, usually allows the
weight of casing string to provide necessary force to seal
the annulus between outer tubing & inner casing string (to
be hung & sealed off above the casing head) or spot in
mined with temporary bushing to prevent damage from drill
pipe rotation.
Tubing head:
It accommodate the tubing hanger which
usually screw on top of tubing string & seal off casing
tubing space by rubber sealing elements. Tubing hanger
further screamed by screws, an adopter (tubing bonnet)
provides tension from tubing head to well arrangements &
fittings above the casing & tubing head that are used to
control flow.
PRACTICAL 6
Christmas tree: In christmas tree, bottom valves are
master valves. Its primary function is to completely
shut in the well.
PRACTICAL 7
Object:
To demonstrate the function of choke.
 Theory:
In oil field terminology, choke was adopted to
designate flow & regulate an oil or gas well to the required
amount of production.
Types of choke: There are three types generally:
1. Positive
2. Adjustable
3. Rotary.
1.
Positive choke – This is an orifice usually elongated of a
chosen size that changes the flow rate. Orifice are half to
six inches bored. These chokes were originally merely of
solid pipe nipples with holes through them. They are now
mostly replaceable orifice with thread & seal.

PRACTICAL 7
2.
Adjustable choke – This is long pointed tube needle
valve with same type modified venture orifice seat. By
turning a calibrated land wheel, the choke capacity
may be set to an approximation of an equivalent
positive choke.
The micrometer indicator on stem moves along the
scale attached that opens other variation of pointer;
indicators are also used. The locking cap provides
quick removal of stem whilst choke’s seat is similar to
positive choke beam which is trapped carefully at inlet
to match the stem tap & orifice is their modified
venture. Adjustable choke is not used as valve for
completely closing purpose. The pressure required for
closure may deform the seat & stem destroy their
accuracy.
PRACTICAL 7
3.
Rotary choke – This choke contains a rotating interior sealed
disc that carries six positive choke bean. Disc can be turning
by inserting a bar in rotating shaft. Advantage of this type of
choke is that it can be installed or changed outside at
atmospheric pressure, which make inspection easy & well
does not have to be closed in.