Chapter 12: Absolutism to Upheaval
What is Happening
•
Traditional political regimes (absolute
monarchies) allowed no one to share
power- Strong authority meant a strong
country.
• The Enlightenment challenged that notion(not the idea of strength, but the idea that
some should lead without any qualification
but birth.) and began to demand a voice in
the creation of the laws that ruled them
• As this happens, countries will move from
being identified directly with king- to full
nationalism
Enlightened Despots 1740-1790
•
•
Philosophes generally
agreed that the best
government came
from a strong leader
who ruled in best
interest of the people
(rather than himselflike xiv)
Should use power
FOR ideas of
Enlightenmentfreedom of thought,
toleration etc…
•
Philosophes did NOT
advocate democracy
(except Rousseau,
and even other
philosophes thought
he was a bit off) did
not believe that
ordinary (poor) people
were capable of
governing themselves
•
3 prime examples
Frederick the Great of Prussia
•
Frederick II (1740-1786) was well educated
and sophisticated- fascinated by culture (to
the eternal dismay of his soldier father)
• Admired French learning and wit- Required
his nobles to speak French, and invited
Voltaire to live at his court.
• Modernized the concept of the state by
strengthening the bureaucracy, the law,
and the army to run well- no matter whom
was king. Called himself “first servant of
state”
Reforms of Frederick
•
•
•
Religious toleration
(for RC and Jews) but
protestants still
controlled gov’t
One law code for
whole country- made
torture illegal (except
in cases of treason)
Limited freedom of
press/speech.
•
Flaws- kept serfdom
(though he did free his
own) unequal tax
system- favored
Junkers in tax and
gov’t to keep their
support
• Promoted schools and
education- but didn’t
build many
• Reforms primarily
intended to increase
his power
Wars of Frederick
Wanted to expand Prussia and make
her a “great power”. Tried to keep wars
small- and fight when he knew he could
win.
 War of Austrian Succession- Maria
Theresa kept her throne, but Prussia got
Silesia and doubled its pop.
 Seven Years War- Prussia allied with
England, managed to get a larger slice
of Poland

Joseph II of Austria
Background: Maria Theresa
•
•
•
•
1740 HRE Charles VI died with no male heir.
Pragmatic Sanction: 1715- Charles VI had
kings of France, Prussia, Russia and Poland
swear that they would respect Maria Theresa
as heir (tech a woman could not be HRE)
But of course- when she inherited- everyone
attacked (war of Aus. Succession). Biggest
loss was Silesia to Prussia
Made Maria Theresa conservative and
cautious- used diplomacy (esp marriage of
many children) rather than military to achieve
goals
Maria’s Reforms- NOT Enlight.
Despot
Centralize and strengthen gov’t (always
an issue in Austria- and hard to do)
Modernize army and bureaucracy
 Tried to mildly limit power of nobles over
their serfs. Taxed nobles (in a limited
way). Brought RC church under state
control (No religious toleration)

Joseph II- reforms
•
•
Joseph her oldest
son: co- ruler from
1765-1780, ruled
alone 1780-1790
Boldly implemented
Enlightenment
reforms- freedoms
speech & religion,
legal reform, reduction
of censorship.
Abolished serfdomtaxed nobles
•
Still absolutist- no
consultation for new
laws (perhaps why
they failed)
• Serfs only freed if they
paid rents in cash
(which most couldn’t)
• Joseph expanded
state schools, state
hospitals, insane
asylums, orphanages.
• Made German the
“official” language to
bring country together
Disappointment


Reforms caused
chaos throughout
empire (Joseph has
habit of “springing”
them on people) and
he was forced to put
them down
Died disillusionedand his successors
got rid of all reforms


Austria lost multiple
wars in this periodlosing ground to
Prussia and Russiareform made them
seem weak.
French revolution
freaked people outmade them
reactionary
Catherine the Great- Russia
1762-1796
Oversaw the 2nd great
phase of Russia’s
Westernization
 German princessmarried Tsar Peter III
(not so bright- she had
him killed)
 Admired Enlightenment
ideas- but knew she
needed nobles to rule
Russia


Probably least
“enlightened” of despots
(in terms of actual
action) More that she
wanted to be thought of
as progressive (without
actually BEING
progressive)
 Refused to speak
Russian- or even
German, so great was
her love of French
culture. Corresponded
for years with Voltaireinvited Diderot to Russia

Reform

Not interested in
Democracy- or a
constitution (which
might have limited her
powers) Supported
economic
development of towns
and cities, but not
giving them political
power. Supported
serfdom





Continued
“Westernization” in
architecture, music
etc…
Brought 1st printing
presses to Russia.
Allowed limited religious
toleration (esp for Jews)
Restricted torture
Nobles benefitted most
from her reformsserfdom became even
more repressive
Pugachev Rebellion

1773-1774 Cossacks
led a rebellion
demanding an end to
taxes, the draft, and
for peasants to have
the right to own their
land. Catherine’s
army crushed
rebellion- executed
Pugachev- and
became even more
oppressive

This made Catherine
realize how much she
needed support of
nobles (who were
dominant force in armygenerals etc…)
Dissolved all their tax
liabilities in 1785- and
made it illegal for
anyone BUT nobles to
own land (Russia is
becoming MORE feudal
rather than more
modern)
Expansion of Russia


Catherine fought in South
(Crimea) to gain access to
the Black Sea (even
warmer water port- access
to Mediterranean- took
land from Ottomans- which
was popular with other
Europeans) as well as land
in West.
Worked with Frederick the
Great and Maria Theresa
to partition Poland
War and Diplomacy


18th century a time of strong European
Rivalries- some dynastic, some territorial (for
Eng and Fr sometimes known as 2nd 100
years war) Everyone wanted to expand their
territory, gathering up small bits that
surrounded them- creating complicated, ever
shifting alliances (will continue to be trend until
wwi)
Wars are bloodier b/c of more powerful
weapons (muskets, bayonets) Sophisticated
warfare was also more expensive- requiring
larger % of national resources to be devoted to
military (Prussia 80%)
Colonial Competition
Tensions in Europe
spread to Europe’s
colonies- esp for
England and Francebecause colonies were
becoming vital for econ
power. ½ of British, and
1/3 of French trade was
with colonies
 North American colonies
were the most heavily
populated (esp by
British who had 1.7 mil
compared to 56,000
french)

Caribbean Sugar most
valuable single export.
 Conflicting land claimsesp over ports and trade
rights with colony (both
wanted right to trade
with others- but others
shouldn’t trade with
theirs)
 Netherland and Spain
also have colonies- but
are in decline- Eng/Fr
eyeing them….

War of Jenkins's Ear
1739-1742
Spain alleged Eng. Abusing the treaty
which had ended the War of Sp.
Succession. (which allowed the British to
control the asiento and 1 trade ship a year
with Sp. Colonies)
 Spanish boarded a British ship and
accused them of smuggling (they were)
Cut off ear of officer- enrages Eng- they go
to war with Spain
 Bleeds over into War of Austrian
Succession


Seven Year’s War: French and Indian War
1756-1763
 Russia/Austria/France vs.
Prussia/England in Europe. (Eng vs. Fr.
in North Amer)
 Fought over a variety of territorial
issues- Prussia, Austria/Russia do most
fighting in Euro (Poland) England and
France fight in N. America and India
 Largest and most expensive war of 18th
century

Treaty of Paris

France loses all territory
east of Mississippi
including Canada. Kept
West Indies (lost
Louisiana to Spain- will
get it back)
 Hurt them economically
(trade down to 1/16 it
was before war) and
their pride- inspires
them to support
American colonists
when they rebel


France lost trade
rights in India (battle
of Plessy)
Makes England the
dominant colonial
power in the world
Partition of Poland



Russia, Austria and Prussia
have all fought frequently over
territory in Poland (they keep
picking away at it).
1772, 1793, 1795 created a
formal agreements to Partition- and make the
country as a whole disappear. Claimed they
were saving themselves from anarchy- both
from having to fight- and because Poland is a
bad influence as an area without a strong king.
No such thing as “Poland” again until after
WWI
The American Revolution
1st political movement inspired by the ideas
of the Enlightenment.
 Colonists were angry about tax hikes
from British (to pay for defense in 7
years war- British thought Americans
should be grateful)
 When Americans started fighting- the
British did send troops- but they were busy
elsewhere (never gave the war more than
4/10 of their attention) Agreed to pull out in
Treaty of Paris 1783

Consequences in North America
U.S. created a constitutional
government (Federalism) based
on principles of Enlightenment
(Locke as justification for actionsMontesquieu as base for gov’t)
 No radical social change- because there
was not rigid social stratification in
colonies, so they didn’t need it

Consequences in Britain


Loss of colonies was a blow- will change the way
they deal with their other “settler” (majority
European) colonies (Like Canada, Australia, New
Zealand). Less independence
Also led to changes between kings and
parliament- Hanoverian dynasty (taken over 1715)
had allowed ministers to handle parliament- had
been more figureheads (perhaps b/c they were
German, not Eng) George III was the 1st
Hanoverian to try to rule- (resented by parliament)
and look where that got him! Parliament takes
power more firmly, makes king more and more
ceremonial
Cabinet System
The king’s “ministers” were leading
members of parliament- act as liaison
between the two.
 George I spoke very little
English – appointed Robert
Walpole to be his “Prime”
minister- head the gov’t in his
name

Revolts and Reform
Success of American Revolution
inspired imitations
 Bourgeoisie were wealthy and well
educated- wanted a voice to go with
their $$

Dutch Patriot’s Revolt 1787



Resented the House of Orange as
Stadholders (thought they were bad for
Holland- probably right- getting them sucked
into problems elsewhere)
“Dutch Patriots” demanded political reformorganized militias (the “free corps”) to enforce
goals- elections to replace house of Orange so
that they could create a republican gov’t
Frederick William II sent in troops to put down
rebellion- but 1st wave of attempts for change
in Europe proper
Belgian Independence Movement
Belgium had remained Hapsburg- so
transferred to Austrian control when
Bourbon dynasty took Spain.
 Reforms of Joseph II (which had eliminated
ONLY nobles being in gov’t positions)
sparked protest by Nobles in Belgiumwhich created a counter protest by those
looking for a more representation- and
independence.
 Put down by Leopold II (Jos. Brother, spent
most of his reign undoing reforms)

The French Revolution
In 1789 France was the most advanced
country in Europe- with the largest
population, most $$ (though not per
capita), and strongest military.
 French Culture dominated
the continent- everyone
looked to them

Why? (is there a Revolution)
French Revolution was really a civil war
between social classes, and for the 1st
time- the lower classes win. Directly
challenged French social structuredemanding an end to Absolutism and
aristocratic privilege- calling for “liberty,
equality and fraternity”.
 Inspired by the success of the Amer.
Rev- but Amer. Had been using Fr.
Enlightenment ideas.

Louis XV
1715-1775
 Much more influenced
by his
ministers (and
Mistresses- Pompadour
and Du Berry) than XIV
had been.
 Allowed Parlements
(local meetings of
various officials) still
refused to call Estates
General

Three Estates
The social system in France before 1789 was known
as the “Ancien Regime”
 1st Estate: Clergy. 1-2% of pop, control 10% of land
and $. Exempt from most taxes- collected taxes of their
own (tithe)
 2nd Estate: Nobility. 8% of pop, control 30% of land.
Also exempt from most taxes
 3rd Estate: Everyone else. About 10% Bourgeoisie,
80% peasant. Controlled 30-40% of land and $$- but
that was middle class- more than ½ of France had NO
land- on edge of pure poverty. Paid ALL taxes- Taille
(head tax), tithe, Salt tax, poll tax. Plus Corvee- had to
work a certain # of days on royal projects

Problems in France

Long Term: the revolution was caused
by the breakdown of the Ancien Regimeit was medieval, and too much had
changed
Financial
Spent a fortune on Amer.
Rev- and already in debt.
Extravagance of French
court
 Bad harvests in 1787 &1788
caused food prices to rise
out of reach of large #s of
pop.
 King’s controller general
called for a new tax:
“territorial subvention” which
would be for everyone.
Nobles demand it be
passed by Estates General

There has already been
dramatic price inflation from
1730-1780 (65%, while real
wages rose only 22%)
 In 1780s ½ of budget paid
INTEREST on the debt.
 Actually, French econ really
that much worse off than
other countries- but
creditors refused to allow
bankruptcy as they had
done before.
 Irony is that nobles called
for estate general- to
BLOCK new tax

Political
Parlements rare- Estates General had
not met in 175 years.
 No room for other voices- everything
comes down to skill of king- and XV &
XVI were NOT skilled political leaders

Social

Modern historians have spent a good
deal of time debating why this boiled
over in France- the vast majority of the
continental countries used the same
system…
Estates General



Called in May 1789
Each “estate” (clergy,
noble, bourgeoisie)
sent representatives
King asked them to
support tax to pay
debt and keep the
party going
Each Estate had 1 vote
(1st and 2nd usually
voted together) but 3rd
had most
representatives- and
demanded a head count
vote- and a permanent
voice in gov’t.
 King refused and
dismissed- again ironyif they had talked and
compromised….

Cahier des Doleances
Each estate was supposed to make a
list of what was wrong and how it should
be fixed
 3rd estate demanded constitutional
monarchy and liberty protected by lawagain, NOT radical- that will come from
not listening

Tennis Court
Oath
June 17, 1789
 3rd estate met anyway
(at nearby indoor racquet
court) and vowed not to disband until their
rights were recognized and they had a
constitution. Called themselves the
“National Assembly”
 Said they alone represented the people of
France. Really the point of no return in
terms of Revolution- the king has chosen to
keep his head in the sand- refuses to
talk/compromise

Popular Revolts
Political crisis and general uneasiness sent
the people of Paris into panic mode
 July 14th 1789 attack on Bastille (planning
to get guns and free prisoners) Lost Paris
for the King- and saved the National
Assembly- he had been about to move
against them
 Great Fear- began in July as well- a vast
panic as rural peasant rose up to attack
landlords, and landlords responded
savagely

Women’s March on Versailles
October 1789 a group of women
marched from Paris to Versailles
demanding an interview with the
king/queen
 7000 went- killed royal bodyguardsthreatened royal family
 King and Queen forced
to move into Tuilleries
palace in Paris

A New Regime (Constitutional Stage)
August 4th 1789
National Assembly
voted to abolish ancien
regime- all citizens of
France are now equal
(and pay taxes)
 Began a constitution
(finished 1791) which
shared power between
king and themselves.
Indirect election with $$
qualifications- keeping
power in fairly small
group



A huge social changeat at this point
relatively peaceful.
This was what the
peasants wantedafter this, THEY will
become far less
radical
Ended serfdom, and
Corvee. Adopted
metric system- issued
new paper $$
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the
Citizen



August 26th 1789
Not political
independence
(that was Tennis
Court Oath) but
Freedom of
Thought. Using
the ideas of the
Enlightenmentdesigned to
guarantee
Natural Rights


Main sources were
Locke and
Rousseau.
France’s Natural
Rights were
“Liberty, Equality
and Fraternity” from
Rousseau they took
the idea of the
General Will
(majority rule) being
the foundation of
the law.
About being
“citizens” regardless
of class
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
1790- Church was seen as part of
Ancien Regime- so Nat. Assembly
secularized the RC church and
confiscated lands for gov’t
 Biggest mistake of National Assemblybegan the radicalizing of the Revolution.

 Clergy to be elected- and required to take an
oath of loyalty to the new state. Condemned
the pope
Constitutional Monarchy
As Constitution of 1791 is being written the
most divisive question is… what do we do
with the king? Planning to keep- but
disagreed how much power he
should/should not have.
 In the end- decided King should be
approved by unicameral legislature
dominated by Bourgeoisie.
 Arguments over king created division in the
assembly- radicals used that dissention to
take power for themselves

Attempted Escape (Flight to Varennes)

June 1791- Louis XVI and Family decide
to flee to Austria- where Louis will meet
Austrian army at border to invade
France. Captured 20 miles from borderreturned to Paris- made people turn
against the royal family, seen as traitors
International Reaction to Revolution
Mixed
 Edmund Burke “Reflections of
Revolution in France 1790” defended
the ancien regime- predicted the
revolution would lead to anarchy and
chaos.
 Thomas Paine “Rights of Man 1791”
saw revolution as a triumph of liberty
over despotism

Declaration of Pillnitz
Issued by Prussia and Austria 1791
 Condemned the revolution- demanded
restoration of absolute monarchy- or
they would declare war.
 Kind of a bluff- thought it would scare
the revolutionaries into submission
(though they do actually declare war in
the end)

War of 1st Coalition
Fueled by revolutionary passion and
anti-Austrian sentiment (marie antionette
hated) the National Assembly declared
war on Austria after declaration of
pillnitz.
 French got spanked in battle (after all,
their officers had all been noble….) but
disagreements between Austria and
Prussia saved France from outright
invasion

Brunswick Manifesto
July 1792
 Prussia and Austria declare they will
destroy Paris if the royal family is
harmed.
 Incited riots- Tuilleries
palace attacked and
royal family imprisoned in
Bastille


Start of Radical Phase of Revolution…..
Paris Commune
Radical political groups led by George
Danton forced National Assembly to
suspend monarchy. Called for a new
constitution (starting a charming Fr.
Tradition) based on
Universal Manhood
Suffrage

September Massacres
Sept. 1792
 Leaders of the Paris Commune (Danton
and Marat) stated rumors that aristocrats
were plotting with foreign powers to destroy
the revolution and restore the king.
 Mobs formed and slaughtered over 1000
nobles and clergy- many of whom were
already in prison.
 Started to make France look unhinged to
foreign powers

Sans Culottes
“without breeches” meaning not that
they had no pants- but that they had no
sympathy with the aristocrats.
 NOT Bourgeoisie- working class. Much
more radical and violent- had stormed
the Bastille, marched on Versailles,
led Sept. massacres- they will gain
more and more voice in gov’t

Where we all take a little trip to crazy town……
National Convention


Sept 1792 new
legislature meets to
create a new
Republican
constitution.
Very suspicious of
king- want him OUT
of politics


Younger- less
cautious than Nat.
Assembly, goal right
from the start is
RADICAL change.
Will take “liberte,
egalite, fraternite” to
next level- by
abolishing
everything else
National Convention


Sept 1792 new
legislature meets to
create a new
Republican
constitution.
Very suspicious of
king- want him OUT
of politics


Younger- less
cautious than Nat.
Assembly, goal right
from the start is
RADICAL change.
Will take “liberte,
egalite, fraternite” to
next level- by
abolishing everything
else
Jacobins


Stressed Enlightenment
value of equality above
all else
Want to eliminate
monarchy



The Mountain: the most
radical part of the
group- led by
Robespierre and
Danton. They wanted to
destroy the existing
social structure and
start over.
Sat on highest left hand
benches
Supported by Sansculottes
The Girondins

More interested in
“freedom”- especially
economic freedom.
More politically
moderate

Predominately ruralwant to exile king
Execution of the King and
Queen

Louis XVI tried and
executed January
1793- accused of
conspiring with
Austria to overthrow
the Revolution

Marie Antoinette
executed 10 months
later. Brutal
treatment in prison
(kept from her
children,
psychologically
tortured etc…)
known as “Widow
Capet”
The Committee of Public
Safety


Early in 1793 there
was additional
violence- and France
was attacked by a
coalition of
surrounding nations,
so an emergency
gov’t was created to
respond to the crisis
12 person gov’t
headed by “the
incorruptible”
Robespierre.

Jacobins were using
(and creating) the
situation to grab
power. Their planheavily influenced by
Rousseau- was to
“undo” the ancien
regime, and make an
entirely new society
The Law of Maximum
 An
early version of socialism. Committee
created a planned economy to deal with
the food shortages (which have never
been solved from 1789)
 Gov’t set max prices for staple foods,
and instituted rationing to ensure equal
distribution of foodstuffs..
 State also took over manufacturing for
efficiency and equitable distribution of
goods
Military Victories
France was at war with Prussia, Britain,
Holland, Austria and Russia (varying
degrees)
 Gov’t instituted Levee en Masse- all males
within a certain age range were draftedcreating the largest army in European
history (approx 1 mil)
 Victorious- a tremendous morale boost (and
gave them their national anthem- la
Marseillaise)

Reign of Terror



July 1793- July 1794
Anyone suspected of
being an “enemy of the
revolution” tired and
executed.
16,000 “officially” killedprobably closer to
50,000.




Robespierre decided
upper classes were
incapable of change,
and needed to be
purged
Executions became
spectator sport.
Used as political
weapon as much as
social weapon- keep
power for Jacobins.
Of executions: 8%
aristocrat, 14% Bourg.,
6% Clergy, 70%
peasant
Republic of Virtue


Radicals wanted to
change EVERYTHINGsaid all culture was
attached to ancien
regime, and had to go.
New calendar,
abolished RC church in
France (force clergy to
marry etc..) Eliminate all
titles, even “Mr. and
Mrs.” all people in
France now “citizen”


Created cult of supreme
being- Notre Dame
rechristened the
“temple of Reason”
(until a new one, the
Pantheon could be
built)
This is where the
Jacobins oversteppedthis upset people even
more than mass
executions- turned
people against the
revolution
Law of Suspects
 Alleged
“enemies” brought before
tribunals for sham trials.
 Not told the charges, or allowed to call
witnesses, could be accused on hearsay,
not even always allowed to speak in your
own defense
 Hysteria grew until Robespierre
was himself accused and executed
Thermadorian Reaction


Robespierre’s death
ended the Jacobin
gov’t
Bourgeoisie leaders
of 1789 feel this has
all gotten out of
hand, want to take
over and create a
more moderate
government

Shows the pendulum
of revolution- terror
was extreme leftnow they will begin
heading towards an
extreme right wing
gov’t
The Directory
In 1794 France is a mess. At war, exhausted by
chaos, and no closer to a functional gov’t than they
were in 1789.
 “Thermadorians” (middle classes- not really
representing interests of whole country, which
makes them weak from the start) wrote a new
constitution in 1795 that provided amnesty for
Jacobins, and created a constitutional republic with
a 5 man executive (the directory) and bi cameral
legislature. Allowed for multi-party participation in
gov’t.
 Maintained price controls of Jacobins- issued new
$$ to deal with continued inflation

Ultra-Royalists
Royalists

Wanted to overthrow
the Republic and
restore the Bourbon
family (XVI’s younger
Brother) to an
absolute monarchy
Moderate

Wanted to have an
elected king (from
one of several noble
families) to head a
constitutional
monarchy that kept
the Republic’s
political institutions
Neo Jacobins
Didn’t want Terror backbut admired egalitarian
spirit behind the radical
movement.
 Wanted free education
and progressive taxation

Babeuvists
Most radical group (led
by Francois Babeuf) who
said the Terror had been
the prelude to the “final
revolution of the
masses”. Saw the
Directory as another
form of repression
 Really the original
modern communistwanted to abolish private
property and enforce
equality (he was
guillotined)

Government doesn’t really have a
lid on things…using the army to
control the population (never a
good sign in gov’t)
Women and the Revolution
Feminist thinkers like Mary Wollstonecraft
argued that revolution should create equal
rights for them as well as the lower classes.
 Women watched political debates- took part
in mob violence…but did not gain political
rights
 Revolution did offer greater legal rights, like
property, and led to the opening of schools
for girls- but didn’t change their status.
 Olympia de Gouges- advocated women’s
suffrage- however, most men still felt
women too weak/ruled by emotion

Nations and Nationalism
Both the American and French Revolutions
played a part in developing the idea of a
NATION- a group of people who share a
common cultural and political identity.
 The countries of Europe have been
identified through their kings since the dark
ages- now loyalty is shifting the the place
itself- not the leader
 Nationalism provides a sense of belonging
which creates strength for the country
served by it

Coup d'état Brumaire
November 1799- the Directory is struggling
to govern and survive
 A young military officer- Napoleon
Bonaparte- uses his army to drive the
legislators from the assembly and
overthrows the gov’t.
 Invited to do so by Abbe Sieyes- (a famous
revolutionary), who had feared royalists
were gaining in power b/c things were going
so badly people who want a king for
someone in charge

Age of Napoleon: 3rd Phase
Authoritarian


That young officer
took it upon himself
to “save” France.
(“the crown of
France was lying in
the gutter, I merely
picked it up”)
Played a key role in
the development of
modern France- and
of nationalism in
Europe

Brings Enlightened
Despotism to
France- Napoleon
rebuilds the nation
after chaos, restores
her glory, and
solidifies many of the
ideals of the
revolution- at the
prince of individual
liberty.
Rise
From Corsica (of Italian
descent, spoke with an
accent all his life)- joined
the army as a teenagerwould never have been
more than a mid-rank
officer w/o revolution (not
noble)
 Defeated Austria in
attacks of 1792-3,
invaded Italy and Egyptseemed to offer the
strength and
decisiveness the gov’t
was lacking


Military geniusspecialized in use of
artillery (which was seen
as less “noble” than
sending men in to be
slaughtered)
Consulate

When Directory overthrown 
Napoleon invited to join a 3
man executive “Consulate”
while a new constitution was
written. (Nap. Himself chose
title from ancient Rome) But
he quickly ousted other twoby 1801 he is lone executive
(1st Consul. Still a legislature,
but they are his puppets- he
is calling the shots

He is the most effective of
the Enlightened Despotsfrom the first behaved as
if he had absolute powerand was using it for your
own good. His personality
and convictions were so
strong no one disagreed
(such a relief for someone
to have a plan)
Demanded loyalty to
France (and therefore to
himself), to reward ability
(not birth) and create
effective bureaucracy
 1802 declared 1st Consul
for Life- virtually king….
Emperor

From 1789-1804 there
has been a king, a
constitutional monarchy, a
republic, and a federal
system. Now we are back
to a king (sort of) but
France has had kings- so
Napoleon makes himself
“Emperor”
Preemptive strike against
royalists (who were
plotting a Bourbon return)
and also a way of being
greater than any other
French leader. Gave titles
to his family too.
 An emperor needs an
empire- and Nap. Decided
the best way to expand
French influence and
spread the revolution was
to invade other countries.
Saw himself as a
“liberator” spreading the
ideals of the revolution.

Napoleon’s Rule


Military victories
made Napoleon
popular.
Rolled back some of
the radical changes(restored the RC
church, allowed
noble titles) but kept
equal rights and
equality before the
law

Educational reforms
(careers based on
talent) however, did
run a bit of a police
state- his “enemies
under constant
surveillance and
squashed any
political opposition
Careers Open to Talent
 People
should rise based on skills- not
birth. No buying military commissions,
promotion through victory
 Created a new imperial nobility (over
3600 titles created- for generals and
officials, loyalty) Amnesty for émigrés
who returned
Concordat of 1801
 Made
peace with church so they would
stop supporting the Bourbon claim to
throne.
 Emp. Kept church lands (paid $$ directly
to pope for them) deposed
priests/bishops reinstated, return to
Christian Calendar
Napoleonic Code


Napoleon’s most lasting
contribution is a new
organization of lawswill create base for legal
code to this day.
Strengthened
Bureaucracy and laws
over families


Protection of property,
legal unity- equality
before the law.
Freedom of religion,
inheritance rights for
women
Spread to other
countries he
conquered- allowed
them their first
opportunities for elected
legislatures (Not in
France)
Financial Reform
 Created
the Bank of France in 1800.
Ruled with a balanced budget (overspent
on military at times, but made it up in
plunder from other countries- like art
from Italy….Mona Lisa….)
 Issued a new currency (again)
 Econ reform for econ stimulation- kept
food prices low, increased employment.
 Low taxes for farmers- redistribution of
church lands to farmers
Military Expansion
A very aggressive and successful commander.
Attacked countries multiple directions- by 1810 he
was a war with EVERY major power in Europeand beat most of them (1802-1805 most peaceful
part of reign- sold Louisiana after failed Haitian
expedition)
 As he conquered, Nap. Changed social structure to
destroy aristocratic privilege, and suit himself. (elim
HRE, creates Confederacy of the Rhine- which
awakened German nationalism)
 Had occasional problems- like Peninsular War in
Spain

Haitian Revolution (turn the
page)




1789 St. Domingue (Haiti) was one of the richest
colonies in the world (sugar/slave labor)
Inspired by Fr. Rev and Dec. of Rights of Man- the
Gens de Couleur (mulattos) sought first equality
with whites- and then overthrew them . Led by
Toussaint L’Overture- it was the only successful
slave rebellion ever in new world.
1802 Napoleon sent troops to regain the islanddecimated by yellow fever- he decided to cut his
losses and ignore new world.
Haiti’s success helps inspire Latin American
independence movement- esp after Nap invades
Spain
Napoleonic Wars
 Liked
to keep his wars short and
decisive- only with Britain did he fight
long-term (that was in part b/c they rarely
engaged in his style of battle)
 Great powers generally fought
separately or in paired alliances (sign of
issues they were having themselves)kept them from allying as a whole to stop
him until 1815- and one on one Nap.
Was a match for any of them
War of 2nd Coaltion
 1798-1801-
this war takes Nap. From
creative general to 1st Consul.
 Napoleon invaded Egypt- and was
defeated by British Navy at the Battle of
the Nile- but beat the British army at the
Battle of the Pyramids
 Took Austria’s lands in Northern Italy
(spurs Italian nationalism) and extended
eastern border of France to the Rhine
The Grand Empire
 From
1805-1815 France was constantly
at war.
 Napoleon created the largest empire in
Europe since Rome. Included France,
German states, Holland, a chunk of Italy,
Spain. Allied to Austria, Prussia and
Russia
War of 3rd Coalition





1805-1807
England made an alliance with Austria and Russia,
convincing them that Napoleon was a threat to the
balance of power.
Battle of Trafalgar- (Oct 1805), Napoleon tries to
invade England- and fails. Made England dominant
sea power for 100 years
BUT at Battle of Austerlitz (Dec 1805) Napoleon
wins one of his greatest victories- stomping down
Austria- and he wins the war overall.
Arc de Triumph built to commemorate Austerlitzthis is Napoleon’s high water mark…
 To
avoid further conflict with Austria- in 1810
Napoleon divorced his wife Josephine and
married the 18 year old daughter of the
Austrian Emperor (a cousin of Marie
Antoinette)
The Continental System


Wanted to invade
England- but knew
France’s navy was no
match for England
(already been spanked
at Battle of Trafalgar)
So- Nap decided to
soften them up by
hurting their econmaking them easier to
invade
Berlin Decree 1806- no
French territory or ally
would trade with
England


England responds with
“Order of Council”
Neutral nations could
trade only if they stop in
England 1st.
France forgot that the
majority of English trade
is with Americas and
colonies (75%) actually
hurt Europe more than
England- and made
English determined to
beat Napoleon
Peninsular War
 1808-1814
 Nap
invaded and conquered Spain fairly
easily (made his brother Joseph king)
but found it hard to hold.
 Spanish fought Guerilla style (which is
not Nap’s style, he likes to stand and
fight) Aided and supplied by Britain- but
Napoleon decided to blame Russia, and
break his alliance to invade
Russian Campaign






1812
Russia is the big prize- literally, if he can conquer that
Napoleon will have built the largest empire in European
history
Invades with “Grand Army of 600,000 (only about 1/3
French- the rest conscripts)
Russians retreat- and use scorched earth policy- which
leaves Nap stranded in Moscow in winter with NO
supplies- and no choice but to give up a fight that isn’t
happening.
Only about 30,000 make it back to France- 400,000
FREEZE/STARVE, 100,000 KIA, 70,000 taken prisoner.
How do you spell disaster? Shatter’s Nap’s myth of
invincibility
War of 4th Coalition
1813-1814
Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia join
together to defeat Napoleon (Quadruple
Alliance)
 And to make matters worse- the people of
France are turning against him- they have
had enough
 1813 Battle of Leipzig (Battle of Nations) a
severe defeat. (Largest battle in history until
20th century- 500,000 on field, and 50,000
killed in 3 days of fighting)
 Napoleon offered terms- he could keep
crown if he restored France to original sizehe refuses


Downfall

Quadruple Alliance
pushed into France
to finish Napoleon.
Prussia and Russia
attacked Paris in
1814- captured
Napoleon and forced
him to abdicate

Exiled to island of
Elba in
Mediterranean in
1814- allowed to
keep title as
“emperor of French”,
but Bourbon king
was restored to
throne. Kept under
guard by British
Congress of Vienna
Quadruple alliance (or at
least their
representatives) met
from Sept 1814-June
1815 to decide what to
DO with this defeated
France.
 CONSERVATISM- Put
Europe back where it
had been in 1789
 Stabilized Europe for the
next 50 years
 Concert of Europe- these
countries will meet
periodically from 18151848 to avoid issues

Prince Clemens Von
Metternich of Austria in
charge.
 Known as the “dancing
congress” lots of balls
and pageantry.
 Reward states that had
sacrificed to defeat Nap:
Eng gets Malta &
Ceylon, Austrian get
Lombardy (back) and
Illyria, Russia gets more
Poland, Prussia gets
Rhineland

Balance of Power


Restabilize the
continent by encircling
France with strong
countries. Ex. Austrian
Netherlands combined
with Holland, German
Confederacy (end of
HRE- 39 states)
Switzerland neutralized


The goal was to avoid
further problems by not
having a “leader”
nation. But…..
With France fairly out of
the picture, Austria
struggling, Russia still
catching up, and
Germany not yet
together- this leaves the
path clear for British
domination
Legitimacy
 Put
all the traditional ruling families back
in power- Bourbons in France, Spain,
and Naples
 Other ruling houses restored as well
 Glorify absolutism and traditions (with
occasional nods to revolutionary ideas to
keep the lid on)
100 Days- it ain’t over yet…..
March 1815 Napoleon escaped from Elbaand marched on Paris, gathering
supporters as he went. (France didn’t like
being defeated, and Louis XVIII was not a
fun king- Nap seemed like a better idea)
 Took Paris without a shot fired- but the
alliance can’t let this go- they gather and
defeat Napoleon one last time at Waterloo
in June of 1815 (under command of Duke
of Wellington)
 Exiled to St. Helena (far off coast of Africa)
died 1821

Evaluation of Napoleon


France as been on a
merry go round of gov’t
since 1789- and it’s not
over yet. Next 50 years
will see continued
change as France
struggles between
conservative and liberal
(and radical) ideas
Nationalism had
become a major
component of European
society



1st egalitarian
dictatorship
Spread ideas and
achievements of
revolution (dec of rights
of man, nap code)
throughout Europe
On the other handenormous loss of life,
repression of individual
liberty