SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Possess a basic knowledge of respiratory anatomy sufficient to understand basic respiratory physiology and its relation to speech sound generation.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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Structure and Mechanics of Respiratory
System
• Pulmonary system
– Lungs and airways
• Upper respiratory system
• Lower respiratory system
• Chest wall system
– Necessary for normal vegetative and speech breathing
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Rib cage wall
• Abdominal wall
• Diaphragm
• Abdominal contents
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Lungs not physically attached to the thoracic walls
• Lungs: visceral pleura
• Thoracic wall: parietal pleura
• Filled with Pleural fluid
• P pleural
< P atm
- “pleural linkage” allows the lungs to move with the thoracic wall
• Breaking pleural linkage P pleural
= P atm
- pneumothorax
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Diaphragm
• External intercostals
• Internal intercostals
(interosseus & intercartilaginous)
• Costal elevators
• Serratus posterior superior
• Serratus posterior inferior
• Sternocleidomastoid
• Scalenes
• Trapezius
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Pectoralis major
Pectoralis minor
Serratus anterior
Transverse throacis
Rectus abdominis
External obliques
Internal obliques
Transversus abdominis
Quadratus lumborum
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Describe how physical laws help explain how air is moved in and out of the body.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Patm: atmospheric pressure
Palv: alveolar pressure
Vt: thoracic volume
P = k/V: Boyle’s Law

V t
=

P alv 
V t
=

P alv
P alv
< P atm
(- P alv
)
P alv
> P atmos
(+ P alv
)
P differential = density differential
 air molecules flowing into lungs = inspiration
P differential = density differential
 air molecules flow out of lungs = expiration
SPPA 4030 Speech
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t
Strategies
• ∆ Length
• ∆ Circumference
SPPA 4030 Speech
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
V lung
• pleural linkage:

V lung
• 
V thoracic is
=

V thoracic
– raising/lowering the ribs (circumference)
• Raising: 
V thoracic
= inspiration
• Lowering:

V thoracic
=expiration
– Raising/lowering the diaphragm (vertical dimension)
• Raising:

V thoracic
=expiration
• Lowering: 
V thoracic
=inspiration
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Contrast the goals of non-speech breathing and speech breathing.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Non-speech (e.g. rest) Breathing
– Ventilation
• Requires exchanging volumes of air
• Speech Breathing
– Ventilation
• Requires exchanging volumes of air
– Communication
• Requires regulating alveolar pressure on expiration
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Outline the output variables associated with breathing.
• Briefly describe the methods used to measure lung volume change.
• Describe the functional subdivisions of the lung volume space.
• Be aware of the lungs volumes required for various respiratory activities.
• Differentiate speech and rest breathing in terms of volume measures.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• “Wet” Spirometer
– Volume measured directly
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Pneumotachograph
– Sometimes called “dry” spirometry
– Vented mask the covers mouth and nose
– Airflow signal is then integrated to determine volume
SPPA 4030 Speech
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(REL)
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Tidal Volume (TV)
– Volume of air inspired/expired during rest breathing.
• Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV)
– Volume of air that can be forcefully exhaled, “below” tidal volume.
• Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV)
– Volume of air that can be inhaled, “above” tidal volume.
• Residual Volume (RV)
– Volume of air left after maximal expiration. Measurable, but not easily so.
• Total Lung Capacity (TLC)
– Volume of air enclosed in the respiratory system (i.e. TLC=RV+ERV+TV+IRV)
• Inspiratory capacity (IC)
– TV + IRV
• Vital Capacity (VC)
– Volume of air that can be inhaled/exhaled (i.e. VC=IRV +TV+ERV)
• Functional Residual Capacity (FRC)
– Volume of air in the respiratory system at the REL (i.e. FRC=RV+ERV)
• Resting Expiratory End Level/Resting Lung Volume (REL or RLV)
– Place in lung volume space where resting tidal volume typically ends
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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Rest Breathing vs. Speech Breathing
Typical Volume Values
• Vital Capacity: 4-5 liters
• Total Lung Capacity: 5-6 liters
• REL: 40 % VC (upright)
Rest Breathing
• Tidal Volume: ~ 10 % VC
• Insp/Exp Timing: ~50:50
• Respiratory Rate: 12-15 breaths/minute
Speech Breathing
• Tidal Volume: 20-25 % VC
• Insp/Exp Timing: ~10:90
• Respiratory Rate: variable
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Briefly describe the methods used to measure/infer alveolar pressure.
• Contrast speech and rest breathing in terms of alveolar pressure.
• Be aware of the alveolar pressure required for various respiratory activities.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Termed Manometry
• pressure transducers may be placed at various locations in the body
– Mouth
– Trachea
– Thoracic esophagus
– Abdominal esophagus
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Quantifying aerodynamic Pressure
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Typical Values
Resting Tidal Breathing
Palv: +/- 1-2 cm H20
Speech Breathing
Palv: +8-10 cm H20 during expiration
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Briefly describe methods used to measure changes in chest wall shape.
• Be aware of the factors that influence changes in chest wall shape.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Rib cage wall and abdominal walls are free to move
• Changing either can influence lung volume
• A wide variety of chest wall configurations are possible.
• Configurations appear to be a function of biomechanical and task-based factors.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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Volume, pressure and Shape Changed during speech breathing
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Describe the elasticity of the respiratory system and its relation to REL.
• Apply the bellows analogy to the respiratory system.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• It is spring-like (elastic)
• Elastic systems have an equilibrium point (rest position)
• What happens when you displace it from equilibrium?
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium equilibrium
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Longer than equilibrium

Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium
Shorter than equilibrium equilibrium
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Displacement away from equilibrium
Restoring force back to equilibrium
Shorter than equilibrium equilibrium
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Longer than equilibrium

SPPA 4030 Speech
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Displacement away from REL
Restoring force back to REL
Lung Volume
Below REL
REL
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Lung Volume
Above REL

Is the respiratory system heavily or lightly damped?
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Respiratory Mechanics: Bellow’s Analogy
• Bellows volume = lung volume
• Handles = respiratory muscles
• Spring = elasticity of the respiratory system – recoil or relaxation pressure
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• No pushing or pulling on the handles ~ no exp. or insp. muscle activity
• Volume ~ REL
• P atmos
= P alv
, no airflow
SPPA 4030 Speech
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


 pull handles outward from rest
V increases ~ P alv decreases
Inward air flow
INSPIRATION
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science muscle force elastic force muscle force

muscle force elastic force



 push handles inward from rest
V decreases ~ P alv increases outward air flow
EXPIRATION
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science muscle force

Respiratory Mechanics: Bellow’s
Analogy
Forces acting on the bellows/lungs are due to
• Elastic properties of the system
– Passive
– Always present
• Muscle activity
– Active
– Under nervous system control (automatic or voluntary)
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science

• Use the modified pressure-relaxation curve to explain the active and passive forces involved in controlling the respiratory system.
• Provide muscular solutions for producing target alveolar pressures at various regions of the lung volume space.
• Differentiate between volume and pulsatile demands during speech breathing.
• Outline the differences in the muscular strategies used for rest and speech breathing.
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science

Forces due to elasticity of system
(no active muscle activity)
• Recoil forces are proportionate to the amount of displacement from rest
• Recoil forces ~ P alv
• Relaxation pressure curve
– Plots P alv due to recoil force against lung volume
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Traditional Relaxation Pressure Curve
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Hixon, Weismer & Hoit

Relaxation Pressure Curve
(Our modified version)
SPPA 4030 Speech
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60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
100
REL
80 60 40
% Vital Capacity
SPPA 4030 Speech
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20 0

Breathing for Life: Inspiration
 pulling handles outward with net inspiratory muscle activity
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Breathing for Life: Expiration
 No muscle activity
 Recoil forces alone returns volume to REL
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Breathing for Life
60
40
20
0
~ 2 cm
-20
-40
-60
100 80 60
10 %
40
Science
20 0

• Conversational speech requires
– “constant” tracheal pressure for driving vocal fold oscillation
– brief, “pulsatile” changes in pressure to meet particular linguistic demands
• emphatic and syllabic stress
• phonetic requirements
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Conversational speech
– Volume solution
• Constant tracheal pressure 8-10 cm H
2
0
– Pulsatile solution
• Brief increases above/below constant tracheal pressure
• Driving analogy
– Volume solution
• Maintain a relatively constant speed
– Pulsatile solution
• Brief increases/decreases in speed due to moment to moment traffic conditions
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Breathing for Speech: Inspiration
 pulling handles outward with net inspiratory muscle activity
 rest breathing
Science

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
100
~ 8-10 cm
80
Breathing for Speech
60
20 %
40 20
Science
0

60
40
20
0
-20
-40
-60
100
~ 8-10 cm
80
Breathing for Speech
60
20 %
40 20
Science
0

Breathing for Speech: Expiration
 Expiratory muscle activity & recoil forces returns volume to REL
 Pressure is net effect of expiratory muscles (assisting) and recoil forces
(assisting)
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science

20
0
60
40
-20
-40
-60
100
P relax
> P alv
Requires
“braking”
Add P insp
Meet P alv to
Optimal region
P relax
> 0 assists P alv
Add P exp
Meet P sg to
Below REL
P relax
< 0 opposes P alv
Add P exp meet P alv to
& overcome
P relax
Target P alv
~ 8-10 cm
80 60
20 % VC change
40
P relax
: relaxation pressure
P alv
: target alveolar pressure
P exp
: net expiratory muscle pressure
P insp
: net inspiratory muscle pressure
20
% Vital Capacity
0

Muscle activity for Inhalation
• Life
– Active inspiration to overcome elastic recoil
• Speech
– Active inspiration to overcome elastic recoil
– Greater lung volume excursion
• Longer and greater amount of muscle activity
– Rate of lung volume change greater
• Greater amount of muscle activity
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science

Muscle activity for exhalation
• Life
– Minimal active expiration (i.e. no muscle activity)
– Elastic recoil force only
• Speech
– Active use of expiratory muscles to maintain airway pressures necessary for speech (8-10 cm water)
– Degree of muscle activity must increase to offset reductions in relaxation pressure
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Explain how the respiratory system is “tuned” for speech breathing.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Speech breathing demands a ‘welltuned’ respiratory system
• Brief, robust expiratory muscle activity
• Chest wall must be ‘optimized’ so that rapid changes can be made
• Optimal environment created by active muscle activity
• This is our ‘modern’ view of speech breathing
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• “Classic” studies of speech breathing
– University of Edinburgh
– Draper, Ladefoged & Witteridge (1959, 1960)
• “Modern” studies of speech breathing
– Harvard University
– Hixon, Goldman and Mead (1973)
– Hixon, Mead and Goldman (1976)
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Abdominal wall is active
throughout the speech breath cycle –even during inspiration!
• Why??
• Speculations include
– Stretches diaphragm and rib cage muscle to a more optimal length-tension region, which increases ability for rapid contraction to meet pulsatile demands.
– During expiration, a strong abdominal platform prevents energy being ‘absorbed’ by the abdominal contents.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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Rib Cage Wall (inspiratory)
Rib Cage Wall (expiratory)
Abdominal Wall
Muscle Activity
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Suggests speech breathing is more ‘active’ than originally thought
• Passive pressures (recoil forces) of the system is heavily exploited in life breathing
• speech breathing requires an efficient pressure regulator and therefore relies less on passive pressures
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Inspiration
Life
• Active inspiratory muscles
Speech
• COACTIVATION OF
– inspiratory muscles
– expiratory muscles
(specifically abdominal )
• INS > EXP = net inspiration
• System ‘tuned’ for quick inhalation
Expiration
Life
• No active expiration (i.e. no muscle activity)
Speech
• Active use of rib cage expiratory muscles
• Active use of abdominal expiratory muscles
• System “Tuned” for quick brief changes in pressure to meet linguistic demands of speech
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Describe how body position can affect speech breathing patterns.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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SPPA 4030 Speech
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Sustained Vowel
Upright Position
Sustained Vowel
Supine Position

• Describe how various respiratory impairments can lead to diminished speech production abilities.
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Parkinson’s Disease
• Cerebellar Disease
• Spinal cord Injury
• Mechanical Ventilation
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Rigidity, hypo (small) & brady (slow) kinesia
Speech breathing features
•  muscular rigidity
  stiffness of rib cage
•  abdominal involvement relative to rib cage
•  ability to generate P trach
•  modulation P trach
• Speech is soft and monotonous
SPPA 4030 Speech
Science

• dyscoordination, inappropriate scaling and timing of movements
Speech breathing features
• Chest wall movements w/o changes in LV
(paradoxical movements)
•  fine control of P trach
• Abnormal start and end LV (below REL)
• speech has a robotic quality
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Remember those spinal nerves…
• Paralysis of many muscles of respiration
Speech breathing features
• variable depending on specific damage
•  abdominal size during speech
•  control during expiration resulting in difficulty generating consistent P trach and modulating P
• Treatment: Support the abdomen (truss) trach
SPPA 4030 Speech
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• Breaths are provided by a machine
Speech breathing features
•  control over all aspects of breath support
• Length of inspiratory/expiratory phase
• Large, but inconsistent P trach
• Inspiration at linguistically inappropriate places
• Speech breathing often occurs on inspiration
• Treatment: “speaking valves”, ventilator adjustment, behavioral training
SPPA 4030 Speech
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Other disorders that may affect speech breathing
• Voice disorders
• Hearing impairment
• Fluency disorders
• Motoneuron disease (ALS)
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