Chapter 26
Civilizations in Crisis: The Ottoman Empire,
the Islamic Heartlands, and Qing China
Mrs. Patrick
AP World History
University High School
From Empire to Nation: Ottoman
Retreat and the Birth of Turkey
The Ottoman crisis was brought on by a succession of
weak rulers within a poorly constructed political and social
order.
Artisan workers saw the deterioration of Turkish goods
because of the influx of Western manufactured goods.
Internal fighting led to loss of territory.
In the late 1700‘s, the Russian empire became the main
threat to the Ottoman empire.
By 1870’s, Ottomans were driven from the Balkans.
From Empire to Nation: Ottoman
Retreat and the Birth of Turkey
The Ottomans survived because of divisions between
European nations.
The British supported the Ottomans to prevent the
Russians from controlling Istanbul.
Sultan Selim III attempted reforms at improving
administrative efficiency.
Sultan Mahmud II overthrew the Jannissaries with a
secret army.
Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1876) introduced Western
influences throughout the empire.
From Empire to Nation: Ottoman
Retreat and the Birth of Turkey
Western educated bureaucrats, military officers and
professionals threatened the power of the sultans.
Sultan Abdul Hamid nullified the constitution and
restricted civil liberties.
The military continued westernization.
Ottoman Society for Union and Progress (1889) led a
coup to overthrow Abdul Hamid.
Sultan was retained as a political figurehead and
authority on religion only.
Western Intrusions and the Crisis
in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
Napoleon invaded Egypt in 1789, hoping to
later destroy British power in India.
Napoleon dealt the Mamluks (living in Egypt) a
crushing defeat.
The British cut off supply lines from the French
and Napoleon was forced to end the conquest
of Egypt.
This showed a weakness in Islamic allies for
not defending this territory.
Western Intrusions and the Crisis
in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
After the French withdrawal, Muhammad Ali (not
Cassius Clay) emerged as the leader of Egypt.
Muhammad Ali updated the Egyptian military a
Western-style military.
He invaded Syria, built a war fleet and threatened
Istanbul on a few occasions.
He also tried many reforms that did not work.
After he died, his successors did not pursue
expansion.
Western Intrusions and
the Crisis in the Arab
Islamic Heartlands
Cotton expansion in Egypt made it dependent on a
single export.
Suez Canal (completed in 1869) connected the
Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea.
Its completion made Egypt one of the most
strategic places on Earth.
It made easier commercial and military links to
Europe and its colonies in Asia and east Africa.
Western Intrusions and the Crisis
in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
Many Muslim scholars and intellectuals met and
discussed how to ward off the growing power of Europe.
Many Muslim scholars and intellectuals discussed the
need to borrow learning and technology from the West.
There was a need for Muslim unity to face the growing
European threat.
Many Egyptians supported Ahmad Orabi and led a revolt
against the Egyptian rulers.
The British (who had an interest in the canal) crushed
Orabi’s rebellion.
Western Intrusions and the Crisis
in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
Egypt tried to conquer and rule the Sudan and
centered Egyptian administration in Khartoum.
Egyptians were resented by the peoples in Sudan.
Muhammad Achmad became a leader to unite the
Sudanese to fight back.
Muhammad Achmad proclaimed a jihad against the
Egyptians and British and it was one of the most
violent Islamic responses in history.
Within a few years, this Mahdist Revolt controlled
present day Sudan.
Western Intrusions and the Crisis
in the Arab Islamic Heartlands
Khalifa Abdallahi took over after Muhammad
Achmad died.
The Mahdists built a strong, expansive state.
Their society was very closely controlled.
British General Kitchener was sent to end the
Mahdist threat.
The Mahdist power ended within a year.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and
Fall of the Qing Empire in China
Manchu nomads had been living north of the Great Wall
for decades.
Nurhaci unified many of the Manchu tribes.
In the declining Ming dynasty, the Manchus were able to
seize power in China.
Manchus were used to suppress a rebellion in China,
but instead, seized the capital of Beijing (1644).
The Manchus take the dynastic name “Qing”.
The Qing maintained much of the political systems of
the Ming.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and
Fall of the Qing Empire in China
The Qing kept much of the conservative
politics in China.
Women remained confined to the household.
Men dominated society.
Qing rulers aimed to alleviate rural distress by
lowering tax and labor demands.
The gap between landowning and peasant
classes grew larger.
Commercial and urbanization expanded.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and
Fall of the Qing Empire in China
The bureaucracy began to deteriorate overtime
and led to the decline of the Qing.
Bribery and cheating on civil service exams was
rampant and common.
Revenue continued to decline and public works
projects were not completed.
In the 1860’s, the Yellow River flooded the
Shandong peninsula and thousands of peasants
died of famine and disease.
Food shortages and landlord demands prompted
mass migrations.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and
Fall of the Qing Empire in China
The Chinese and British were hostile because of trade
agreements.
The British ended up trading opium from India to the
Chinese.
Qing emperors issued edicts forbidding opium trafficking.
Lin Zexu (an official) ordered European trade blocked, the
opium to be confiscated and destroyed.
War broke out in 1839 and the Chinese were defeated.
This led to Europeans forcing the Chinese to open trade and
diplomatic exchanges.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall
of the Qing Empire in China
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1865)
Led by Hong Xiuquan
Established the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom (an
opposition force to the Qing) with its capital in
Nanjing
The Taiping proposed alternatives to the Qing
dynasty.
The Qing and the scholar-gentry were able to raise
armies that eventually defeated the Taiping.
An estimated 25 million people died.
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and
Fall of the Qing Empire in China
Manchu leaders repeatedly resisted reforms in
China.
Empress Cixi crushed movements of reform.
She had her nephew, the emperor,
imprisoned.
The Boxer Rebellion was an anti-imperial,
anti-Christian movement (1898-1901).
The Last Dynasty: The Rise and Fall
of the Qing Empire in China
Underground secret societies inspired
numerous uprisings against the dynasty.
Resistance was also seen from young men
who received Western educations.
The revolution of 1911 toppled the Qing
dynasty.
In 1912, the last emperor of China (Puyi) was
deposed and the republican government of
China was established.
Chapter 26 Discussion
Questions
How was it possible that the Ottoman Empire survived for
as long as it did?
In what aspects of Ottoman society were Western ideas
and technology seen?
How did the French invasion of Egypt show vulnerability in
Muslim lands?
Describe the two arguments by Muslim intellectuals and
scholars for how to deal with the growing threat of Europe.
Explain how the Qing dynasty followed the typical cyclical
pattern of Chinese dynasties.
How did the Opium War swing the balance of trading power
from China to Europe?