The Age of Enlightenment
APERO – Chapter 17
18th Century – The Age of
Enlightenment
An intellectual
movement
 That spread
throughout Europe’s
literate circles

Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
1. Reason – Truth through logic
 Informed thinking about social issues
 Absence of superstition, intolerance
 Humans should rely on reason, not
miracles, to improve society

Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
2. Nature, Natural Laws, Natural Rights
 Natural laws can regulate both the
universe and human society
 Natural laws can be discovered by human
reason
 Liberty & Freedom a natural right

Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
3. Happiness
 Happiness as an inalienable human right
 Humans should not accept misery in this
world to find salvation in the hereafter
 (social reform is possible)

Key Ideas of the Enlightenment
4. Progress
 The belief in social progress
 Political and economic reform would
improve society and allow for progress

“Philosophes”
Critical of everything!
 Political
Philosophers/Social
Critics
 Applied rules of
reason, criticism, and
common sense to
their writings

The Spread of Enlightenment
Ideas
1. The Rise of Print
Culture:
 Books, journals,
newspapers,
magazines reached
wider audiences in
the 18th century
 People exposed to
new ideas

The Spread of Enlightenment
Ideas

2. Writers as Social
Critics
Philosophes able to earn
a living through writing
 Exchanged
ideas/opinions/perspectiv
es
 Allowed for the
emergence of public

opinion
The Spread of Enlightenment
Ideas
3. Coffeehouses
 Allowed for public
discussion of social/
Political issues
 A place for
intellectuals to
exchange ideas

Voltaire (1694-1778)
Most influential of the
philosophes
 AKA: Francois- Marie
Arouet
 Prolific writer
 Wrote: Candide
(1759) – a satire
attacking war,
religious persecution,
and human optimism

The Quotable Voltaire

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


1. “I do not agree with what you have to say, but I’ll defend
to the death your right to say it”
2. 2“God gave us the gift of life; It is up to us to give
ourselves the gift of living well”
3. “Common sense is not so common”
4. “ Judge a man by his questions rather than his answers”
5. “everyman is guilty of all the good he did not do”
The Encyclopedia
Printed 1751-1772
 Denis Diderot chief editor
of the Encyclopedia
 Collective effort- 100
authors
 importance:
 1. Disseminated
Enlightenment thinking
 2. Freedom of expression
 3. Source of knowledge

Quotable Diderot

“all things must be examined, debated,
investigated without exception and without
regard for anyone’s feelings” – Denis Diderot
Shift in Political Ideology
Old idea:
 “ a monarch’s rule is
justified through
divine right”

New Idea:
 “ a government’s
power comes from
the consent of the
governed”

Baron de Montesquieu (16891755)

Wrote: Spirit of Laws
(1748)
Concluded that the
Ideal government
would separate power
into:
 Executive, judicial, &
legislative branches

Quotable Montesquieu
Jean -Jacques Rousseau (17121778)




Committed to defending
freedom and changing
existing social order
1. Novel Emile – argued
for a “natural education”
Children are entitled to an
education
Education should be
individualized “every
mind has its own form”
Jean -Jacques Rousseau (17121778)
2. Social Contract
 agreement among
free individuals to
create a society &
government


“ man is born free,
and everywhere he is
in chains”
Adam Smith (1723-1790)

Wrote: Wealth of

Governments should
not interfere with
business

Laissez -faire
Nations (1776)
economics (let them
be)
 Emergence of
classical economic
thought
Mary Wollstonecraft:

Wrote: A Vindication
of the Rights of
Women





Argued :
that women, like men,
needed education to
become “virtuous &
useful”
That women, like men
had the capacity of
human reason
Criticized Rousseau’s view
of women
Quotable Mary Wollstonecraft

“Strengthen the female
mind by enlarging it,
and there will be an
end to blind obedience”
Enlightenment Ideas…
1. Inspired
Revolutions and
Independence
Movements of the
1700’s and 1800’s
 2. Redefined the
relationship between
government and
those governed

Enlightened Absolutism

Philosophes urged Europe’s absolute rulers
to use their power for the good of the
people
Catherine the Great (ruled 17621796)
German princess
married off to
Russian heir, Peter
III (1745)
 A few months after
he was crowned
tsar, he was
murdered 

Catherine The Greats’
Enlightened Reforms
1. Corresponded
with Voltaire,
invited Denis
Diderot to her
court
 2. supported
Russia’s first
private printing
press

Catherine The Greats’
Enlightened Reforms
3. Restricted the
act of torture
 4. limited reform to
her own authority

Catherine the Greats’ Not so
Enlightened Policies
1. Territorial
expansion
 Along with Prussia
and Austria,
divided (and took
control of) Poland
between 17721795

The French Revolution
APEURO – Chapter 18
Causes of The French Revolution
1. Inequality/ Unfair Social Order
Society divided into
The “Three Estates”
 3 Social Classes
determined a person’s
status, and their
rights!

1. Inequality/ Unfair Social Order
1st Estate:
 Clergy
 Make up 1% of the
population
 Does Not pay taxes!

1. Inequality/ Unfair Social Order
2nd Estate:
 Nobility
 2% of the population
own 25% of the land
 High positions in
government, military



DO NOT PAY TAXES!
(a noble privilege)
1. Inequality/ Unfair Social Order

3rd Estate:

Everyone Else!
“Bourgeoisie” –

middle class
professionals
 Free Peasants
 Serfs (un-free
peasants)
 HAVE TO PAY TAXES!
2.France is in Debt!
From previous wars
 Send $ to the
American colonists
 Louis XVI & Marie
Antoinette’s
extravagant spending

2.France is in Debt!
Jacques Necker – Minister of Finance
Publishes the “Necker Report” 1781
 “Everything’s Fine!”
 Report discloses economic
mismanagement
 People are upset
 By 1786 Banks refuse to lend $ to France!

2.France is in Debt!
Charles Alexander
Calonne’s Economic
Reform Plan 1786 :
 Why not tax landed
nobility?


He is quickly
replaced…
2.France is in Debt!

Marie Antoinette’s
extravagant spending
sprees…

1 dress cost 20X’s
what a skilled
worker earned in a
year!
Spent $ on clothes,
shoes, accessories,
parties, re-decorating
Versailles…

2.France is in Debt!

Marie Antoinette is
nicknamed…
“Madame Deficit”
3. Cost of Living Increases





Peasant situation
worsened:
Price of food rose
Crop failures 17881789 led to
bread shortages!
Peasant’s anger rose
Causes of the French Revolution







1. Inequality of Social Classes
Taxes
2. France in debt
Extravagant spending of Marie A. & Louis XVI
3. Cost of Living Increased
Tensions rose
No money for food or basic necessities
Louis XVI & Marie Antoinette

**
Palace of Versailles
Was Built by Louis
16th’s grandfather
 “The Sun King” Louis
14th
 Most extravagant
palace in all of Europe

Marie Antoinette
Born in 1755
 Austrian Princess
 Had 14 Brothers and
Sisters
 Marie the favorite

@ Age 15…
A marriage arranged
 To the Crown Prince
of France, Louis 16th


“an advantageous
match”

She was sent to
Versailles
The Wedding, 1770
Marie and Louis are
married
 They are both 15

The Coronation, 1774
Louis’ Father died
 And
 Louis and Marie were
crowned King and
Queen of France
 AT AGE 19!!!

Louis XVI
Described as “homely,
awkward & antisocial”
 he’s obsessed with
collecting KEYS, and
CLOCKS.
 Ignored Marie for the
first 7 years of their
marriage

Louis XVI ‘s Hobby

**
What is Marie To Do?
She spent Money!
 Fashion - her passion!
 Named her designer
Rose Bertin as 
“Minister of Fashion”
 Threw lavish
Banquets

Marie’s Hobby…

Fashion, Jewelry, Accessories, Entertaining
In France,

The official duty of the Queen was to
produce a male heir…
Controversial Marie





Decided to “act” in
the theatre!
(scandalous!)
Decided to be a
“trendsetter” !

Longed for the
“simple life” builds a
peasant village
and People gossip…
Royal Children
Meanwhile…
Fall, 1788. Financial Desperation!
 Louis XVI agreed to call on the Estates

General
Estates General – representative assembly
of Three Estates
 Last time assembly was called: 1614!

The French Revolution: 1789-1799
Napoleonic Era: 1799-1815



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

Six Phases:
1. Estates General – 1789
2. National Assembly Phase: June ,1789 - 1791
3. The Legislative Assembly Phase: 1791-1792
4. National Convention Phase: 1792-1795
5. The Directory Phase: 1795-1799
6. Napoleon Phase: 1799-1815
1. Estates General -1789
Estates General
 Problem: 1st & 2nd Estate usually outvoted
the 3rd estate
 Solution: the 3rd estate allowed to send
as many delegates as the other 2 estates
combined.

1. The Estates General- 1789

1789 Joseph Sieyes
wrote pamphlet:
“What is the 3rd
Estate?”
Argued that the
clergy & nobility
contributed little to
the country
 3rd estate however,
the “heart” of the
country!

1. The Estates General- 1789

All invited to submit
(by estates):

Cahiers de doleances
(grievance lists)

Petitions showed:
desire for
constitutional
monarchy, restructured tax system,
guaranteed liberties
1. The Estates General -1789
Estates General
convened May, 1789
 3rd estate refused to
act until King ordered
the 2 other estates to
meet with them
 6 week standoff,
Some Priests joined
the 3rd estate

2.National Assembly Phase –
June, 1789-1791
Transition:
 The 3rd Estate
Declared itself the

National Assembly

June , 1789 assembly
moved to an indoor
tennis court…
2.National Assembly Phase 17891791
And swore to continue to meet until
France had a new constitution…
 Pledge called: The Tennis Court Oath

2.National Assembly Phase 17891791

July, 1789 –
Storming of the
Bastille

Parisian Mob attacked the
Bastille Prison
Symbol of injustice,
inequality
Hoped to seize weapons,
free prisoners
Soldiers fired at mob



2.National Assembly Phase 17891791
July, 1789
 Breakdown of law and
order
 Peasants broke into
manors, quit paying
taxes
 Some nobles flee
(emigres)

2.National Assembly Phase 17891791
The King Accepted
the National Assembly
as new government
 Tri-color flag adopted
 Gave peasants
hunting rights

2.National Assembly Phase 17891791

August, 1789

Declaration of
Rights of Men and
of the Citizen
Listed basic human
rights
 “all men are born free
and equal in rights”
 Excluded women

2.National Assembly Phase 17891791

Response: Olympe
de Gouges wrote:
“ Declaration of Rights
of Men and of
Women”
Declared women’s rights to
education, property
within marriage, right to
initiate divorce
2.National Assembly Phase 17891791
October 5,1789
 Women’s March to
Versailles
 Mob of over 100,000
women demand
bread
 Demanded King Louis
XVI move to Paris

3. The Legislative Assembly,
1791-1792
Factions:
 1. Conservatives sat on the right (Loyal to
King)
 2. Moderates sat on the center
 3. Radicals sat on the left

3. The Legislative Assembly,
1791-1792

Leftist Radicals divided into 2 groups:

1. The Jacobins – Wanted to overthrow
monarchy and create a republic.

2. The Girondists- wanted to involve
France in a war that would discredit the
monarchy and extend revolutionary ideas
across Europe.
3. The Legislative Assembly,
1791-1792
June 21, 1791
Royal family attempted
to flee
 500 miles away from
border…
 Recognized &
Arrested

3. The Legislative Assembly,
1791-1792
Marie Antoinette’s brother King Leopold of
Austria threatened to send troops to
France to restore order…
 If other European nations joined him…
 No one joined him
 Leopold died unexpectedly

4.National Convention Phase
1792-1795
New French Constitution went into effect
 September 1, 1791
 The “National Assembly” achieved their
Tennis Court Oath and changed their
name to…
 “The National Convention”

4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
A wave of patriotism spread throughout
country
 September 1792 , France declared a
Republic


Slogan: “Life, Liberty, and Fraternity”
4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
New Government
Created :
 A new calendar!
(began September
1792 as month 1)
(months renamed
according to season)
 The Metric System!

4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
People now
addressed as
“citizens” (everyone
equal)
 Churches converted
to “Temples of

Reason”

Religious celebrations
and holidays were
secularized
4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
National
Convention STILL
divided
 1. Girondists“revolution has gone
far enough!”
 2. Jacobins – radicals
“anyone who opposes
new govt. is antirevolutionary!”

4. National Convention Phase1792-1795
The Working Class
 “Sans Culottes” –
(those who wear the
long pants)
 Pressed for more
extreme measures

4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
Reign of Terror 17931794
 Radical Jacobins took
over the National
Convention under the
leadership of
 Maximillien
Robespierre

4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795
Robespierre sought to eliminate all
enemies of the Jacobins
 Established the Committee of Public Safety
 Between 20,000- 40,000 people
guillotined (from all three former estates)
 Most violent period

4. National Convention Phase
1792-1795




King Louis XVI executed
for treason January, 1793
Marie Antoinette
executed Late 1793
Daughter Maria Therese
survived in Austria
Son Louis Charles died in
prison a year after
mother’s death
4. The National Convention 17921795
The Feminine symbol
of the revolution
 “Marianne” 
 Second Constitution
of 1793, is never used

4. National Convention – 17921795
Members of National Convention turned against
Robespierre
 July 1794 Maximillien Robespierre executed
 July = Thermidor (heat)
 The revolt against Robespierre is called The

Thermidorian Reaction
5. The Directory Phase 1795-1799
France now ruled by a committee of 5
men
 Legislature made up of 2 houses: the 500,
and the elders
 September ,1797 a coup d'état reduced
the directory to 3 members

5. The Directory Was Overthrown
By a young , successful general in 1799
 By the name of…
 Napoleon Bonaparte

6. The Napoleonic Era
1799-1815
The “post” revolution years
About Napoleon…
Born in island of
Corsica
 Was not French!
 Won a scholarship to
attend a prestigious
French Military
Academy

In 1796
Napoleon Married
 Josephine
 She was 32 (six years
older!), a divorcee
with grown sons
 She helped him get a
high ranking military
position

In November, 1799
Napoleon overthrew the Directory
 Although his new government appeared to
be “democratic”, he was really a dictator
 And…
 He was only 5 ft 2 … Or was he????

Napoleon Restored Order in
France




1. Everyone Must Pay
taxes!
2. Establishes a National
Bank! Balances budget!
3. Establishes Schools!
4. Replaces elected
officials with his trusted
friends (rewards them for
their talents)
Napoleon Restored Order in
France
5. Censorship – Newspapers cannot
critique him! # of Newspapers: from 7313
 6. Restores the Church, and Religious
Holidays
 7. Abandons the revolutionary calendar
 8. Keeps Metric System

1804 Napoleon Declares himself
Emperor !
Coronation : return to
extravagance
 Procession in Royal
Coach to Cathedral
of Notre Dame
 Crowned by Pope

Imagery of Napoleon





Bees- resurrection
Eagle- military victory
Hand of justiceauthority
References to Ceasar:
laurel crown, roman
column
Symbols of monarchy:
sceptre, robe, throne,
chain
Notable Napoleon Quotes:
“A picture is worth a thousand words”
 “If you want something done well, do it
yourself”
 “A man will fight harder for his interests,
than his rights”

Napoleonic Code
1. Divided into criminal code and civil code
 2. Citizens declared equal before law
 3. Freedom of religion
 4. Chapellier law forbids labor unions &
strikes
 5. Men control property
 6. Women had no right to her own
earnings

Society During Napoleon Years
Moving upward in
society requires
education, money,
and service to the
state…
 It is possible to “move
up”

Military Genius





France was not enough!
1. Attempts to defeat
Britain’s navy in 1805
Loses the BATTLE OF
Trafalgar
RevengeThe Continental System
1806: Forces French allies
to boycott British goods.
Hopes to destroy their
economy
Military Genius
2. 1805 Defeats Austria
 3. 1806 Dissolves The Holy Roman Empire
(German Principalities)

Military Genius
4. 1807-1808 Invades
Spain
 forces King to
abdicate
 places his brother
Joseph on the throne

Military Genius

1807 singned nonaggression pact with
Czar Alexander of
Russia
Meanwhile…





Napoleon divorced
Josephine
No male heir!
Married 18 year old
Marie Louise (he’s 40)
She produced male
heir…
(1811-1832)
Napoleon Francois <Joseph Charles
By 1812
Napoleon ruled most
of Europe
 Placed bothers in
ruling positions in
conquered territories

And Then…
Czar Alexander of Russia decided to sign a
treaty with England, Betraying pact with
Napoleon!
 Napoleon married Marie Louise instead of
the TSAR’S SISTER

Napoleon Furious!
He invaded Russia
1812
 700,000 French
Troops
 ½ died due to
starvation , frostbite
and exposure to cold!
 DISASTROUS

The End
Napoleon forced to
abdicate 1814
 Failed suicide attempt
 Exiled to Elba
 Got to keep title &
income

After ALL THAT,
Louis XVIII brother of Louis XVI is
restored to the throne!
 “Constitutional Monarch”

But Wait!
Napoleon returns
1815, raises an army
and regains power!
 Only for 100 days

European Governments
Team up against Napoleon
Austrian, British, Prussian, Russian forces
Defeat NAPOLEON in Battle of Waterloo
(Belgium)
Napoleon
Sent to the island of
St. Helena
 He dies 1821

Congress of Vienna (1815)





1. Pre- Napoleon borders restored
2. Legitimate Bourbon Monarchy restored to
France
3. England, Austria, Prussia, Russia, France form
alliance “Concert of Europe” (harmony)
4. Agree to squash revolutions & maintain order
5. Balance of power – no 1 nation can become
“too strong”