What is Democracy?
Lubomir Kopecek
November 2011
Word Democracy
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Greek word démokratiá = démos – the people and
kratein – to govern
Development of Democracy (Robert
Dahl)
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1st STAGE: small and homogeneous city-states –
Direct Democracy.
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Greek ‚polis‘ – participation of citizens (free adult male
citizens) at the meetings of popular assembly (5th century
A.D.) – the people could make directly decisions.
Florence, Genoa, Venice (Italy), 12th, 13th, 14th century,
also in other small communities around Europe.
Direct democracy = in fully form is possible in small states
(districts) with small number of participants!
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Development of Democracy
 2nd STAGE: some European nation-states (since 18th and
mainly 19th century).
 Direct form of democracy replaced by the representative
form of governance – representative democracy.
 The large size of these new democracies (USA, Great Britain,
France, Netherlands etc.).
 The growing number of citizens involved.
 The principle of representation: Citizens do not exercise
power directly, but through their elected representatives.
(deputies, presidents etc).
Instruments of direct democracy in
contemporary representative democracies
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The most common: referendum - citizens decide on
a question(s) by either accepting it or rejecting it
through a direct vote (typical possible answer: Yes or
No).
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Referendums: types - mandatory (it must be held on a
particular question) or facultative (it can be called at the
request of a certain number of citizens), national and
local.
Two important backgrounds of representative
(liberal) democracy:
 Political equality = democratic background:
extension of voting rights, establishment of
general and equal voting rights.
 Liberal freedoms = liberal background: civic
and political rights (freedom of speech, freedom
of religion, freedom of association etc.).
Procedural Democracy (important for democratic
background of liberal democracy)

Joseph A. Schumpeter´s definition of democracy has
become known as procedural democracy (or minimal
democracy, electoral democracy).
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Basic criteria: free competition among political parties
(the citizen/voter must be able to freely chose
between at least two political parties).

Citizens have the chance to elect the government in
free elections. Free elections as the fundament of the
democracy.
Procedural Democracy

The fundamental element is the holding of regular
elections in which political parties offer a certain
program (existence of political market).
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Political parties compete under equal conditions for the
votes of the citizens.
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The winner of elections exercises power and is given
the opportunity to realize his program.
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Key elements of procedural democracy: free elections,
political competition, and political parties.
Liberal freedoms

Liberalism is based on the idea that the government must
protect the freedoms of the citizens (right to live, private
property, freedom of speech, freedom of assembly, fair trial,
etc.): protection of freedoms is connected with rule of law.

Adam Smith later elaborated on the idea of economic
freedom and the free market as indispensable for the
functioning of a free society.
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Charles Louis Montesquieu brought another aspect –
separation of powers (executive, legislative and judiciary).
Political institutions

Executive power: Government (cabinet) and President (or
monarch).
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Legislative power: (Parliament) - making the laws.
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Representative (liberal) democracy can be divided into two basic
categories : parliamentary and presidential democracy.
Parliamentary democracy
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Executive power (prime minister, cabinet) is derived from
legislative power. The government is responsible to the
legislative power and is dependent upon it.
Parliament represents the sovereignty of the people - gains
legitimacy through the electoral process.
Executive power is headed by prime minister (premier).
Head of state: president is elected by the parliament, or
monarch (traditional authority).
President or monarch has symbolic and limited role:
represents the state outside, moderate political crises etc.
Example: Great Britain, Netherlands, Czech Republic…
Presidential democracy
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Legislative power and executive power are strictly
separated, and independent of one another.
Sovereignty of people is represented both by the legislative
power and the executive (president). Parliament and
president are elected by the people, and has an independent
mandate.
The head of state (president) govern the executive branch,
and therefore the government.
President has much greater power than in parliamentary
democracies („strong man“).
Example: The United States
Semi-presidential democracy
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In semi-presidential democracies there is a division of
executive power between the president and the prime
minister.
President is elected by th people.
Both the prime minister and the president are formally
independent of one another.
President has strong powers.
The result of parliamentary elections is very important:
victory of party (or party coalition) of president means
strong support of president.
Example: France
The consotional democracy

Consotional democracies: a special group among the
parliamentary democracies.

The consotional model has proven itself as a way to
maintain democracy in countries sharply divided along
religious, ethnic, cultural, or other lines – many
conflicts, risk of civic war etc.
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What is necessary is a willingness by the elites of the
individual social groups to maintain a consensus pacts, agreements etc.
Transition to democracy

Since mid 1970s – increase transition of countries
towards democracy in the world (Third wave of
democratization):
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Europe: dictatorship fell in Spain, Greece and Portugal
Latin America: Argentina, Chile, Brazil etc.
Asia: Turkey, Philippines, South Korea, Taiwan etc.
Late 1980s – Central and Eastern Europe (countries
that were previously in the sphere of the Soviet
influence).
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Transition and consolidation
Democratic transition: change from the original non-democratic
regime:
 removal of the old non-democratic regime;
 establishment of the democratic institutions and procedures.
Democratic consolidation: stabilization of these democratic
institutions and procedures + their acceptance by all important
actors (political parties, army, religious leaders etc.)
Democratic transition does not have to lead to the democratic
consolidation (may result in new non-democratic regime or
hybrid forms of regime).
Hybrid regimes: frequent mainly in 1990s
Regimes that are neither liberal democracies, nor can be considered
non-democratic regimes.
Concept of Illiberal democracy (Fareed Zakaria):
 Use of some mechanisms of democratic governance, including
formal legitimization of governmental elites through elections;
 Elections: electoral manipulation, fraud, repression of opposition
candidates, etc. – only partially competitive elections.
 Weak rule of law, no chance to achieve justice.
 Centralization of power. Personality of leader is important, holds
regime together.
 Today, hybrid regimes are rare: former hybrid regimes moved to
procedural or liberal democracy (Slovakia, Croatia, Argentina) or
to new dictatorship (Russia).
THANK YOU
I will be glad to respond on your questions.