Edmund Malesky, Ph.D
Politics of Southeast Asia
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Extent of Islam in Region
History of Islam
Colonial Patterns
Modern Political Islam (Islamic and Isamist
Parties)
Radical Islam
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240 million adherents in Southeast Asia
(roughly 40% of the region’s population).
Muslim majorities exist in Indonesia (84%) of
population, Malaysia, and Brunei.
Smaller but significant populations exist in
Philippines, Thailand, Singapore (16%), and
to a much lesser extent Cambodia and
Burma.
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Islam has a long an rich history in Southeast
Asia.
Muslim merchants first began to make contact
in the 7th century and there is evidence of small
colonies in Sumatra in the 9th century.
Full-scale conversion was kept at bay for a long
time by the strength of the Svrijaya empire.
As the power of Svirijaya began to wane in the
13th Century, however, Islam began to take hold
in many communities.
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Observers often remark that a more
“modern” form of Islam is practiced
throughout Southeast Asia, as opposed to
“traditionalist” practices elsewhere.
This can sometimes be confusing, because
the more puritanical approaches are actually
the newcomers, especially in Southeast Asia.
The modern and more tolerant approaches
have existed much longer.
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The dominant source of Islamic influence in the early years on Southeast
Asia was from India.
The first individuals to bring Islam from India were known as the Walis.
Indian Islam was highly influenced by Central Asia and therefore had a
more mystical quality, known as Sufism.
This Indian-influenced Islam thrived in Southeast Asia, because it was
entering on top of a predominantly Indian-influenced Hindu-Buddhist
civilization.
In order to win converts, Sufi “missionaries” allowed local populations to
continue pre-Islam packages that would not be accepted by more
orthodox scholars (i.e. the role of women in local markets).
As a result, Islam in Southeast Asia for centuries (beginning in the 14th
century) developed a spiritualism that made it distinct from other areas
of the World.
At that time, the areas now called Malaysia were primarily trading
centers, and the Sumatra and Java served as the cultural centers. They
also had higher literacy rates and education.
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On the mainland the key to widespread conversion was the
powerful trading city of Malacca, whose smaller trading empire
had replaced the fallen Shrivijaya.
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From the capital at Malacca, Islam spread down the east coast of
Sumatra, up the east and west coasts of Malaya, to the island of
Borneo, and to the trading center of Demak on the north coast of
Java. From Demak, the most powerful of the trading states on
north Java, the Muslim faith was disseminated to other Javanese
ports and, after a long struggle with a Hindu-Buddhist kingdom in
the interior, to the rest of the island. From Demak, Islam was also
carried to the Celebes, the spice islands in the eastern archipelago,
and from there to Mindanao in the southern Philippines.
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This progress of Islamic conversion shows that port cities in
coastal areas were particularly receptive to the new faith.
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Here, the trading links were critical. Once one of the key cities in a
trading cluster converted, it was in the best interest of others to
follow suit in order to enhance personal ties and provide a
common basis in Muslim law to regulate business deals.
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Conversion to Islam also linked these centers, culturally as well as
economically, to the merchants and ports of India, the Middle
East, and the Mediterranean. Islam made slow progress in areas
such as central Java, where Hindu-Buddhist dynasties contested
its spread.
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Beginning in the 19th century, Yemeni traders began to
make contact with Southeast Asia, along the coasts of
Malaysia, Sumatra, and Java.
Many of these Yemenis settled, inter-married, and
became deeply entrenched in local communities.
The connections still run quite deep. One can see
evidence of Malay-influenced clothing in Yemen.
Yes… the Bin Laden’s are originally from Yemen. This
connection has been considered important by those
looking for Al Qaeda connections in Southeast Asia.
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Sidel argues that to best understand the
current struggles of political Islam we need to
fully appreciate the way Islam was sidelined,
disadvantaged, oppressed, and neglected
under Colonial rule.
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Indonesia:
When the Dutch began to consolidate rule in the 17th
century, they centralized activities in Java and
consequently stripped the authority away from the
sultanates that pre-existed their arrival. Secular
education supplanted religious teachings.
2. Dutch supported “comprador” capitalist class of
Chinese revenue farmers (under the cultivation
system) and merchants, sidelining Muslim rulers.
3. Christians were privileged in the bureaucracy. (As
late as the mid-80s all of the key economic
portfolios in the Suharto regime were in Catholic or
Protestant hands).
1.
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Indonesian Islamic Organizations
 Nahdlatul Ulama (NU), the revival of religious
scholars, founded in reaction to “modernist
movements.” Focused on welfare, education, and
health
 Under Japanese, Muslim organizations were
organized into a single group called the Masjumi.
▪ Some talk of an Islam State began at that time.
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Malaysia
 Like Indonesia, non-Muslim Chinese and Indians
were privileged in the market and bureaucratic
positions
 But Britain also imported labor, thereby lowering
the relative proportion of Muslims in Malaysia.
 Britain subordinated Islamic education to local
sultanates of Malay states, thus Islamic education
was used to facilitate the imperatives of the
Malaysians.
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Philippines
 Muslim Mindanao was virtually untouched under the
Spanish period.
 They were pacified and brought under central control
during the American period.
 But they were systematically disadvantaged by a
process of migration that encouraged Christian to
move there and kept rewarded the key patronagegranting position to the “Luzon Carpetbaggers.”
▪ Land, logging concession, pasture leasing…
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Thailand
 Bowring Treaty of 1855 granted Thailand the
Malaysian-speaking territory.
 Thailand struggled to integrate
them, eventually losing them
to England in 1909
 The Southern Thailand states
that remained were only loosely
integrated into Thai society.
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Sukarno Era
 Darul Islam: 1940s-1960s
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Nationalism Pancasila
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Belief in the one and only God
Just and civilized humanity
The unity of Indonesia
Democracy guided by inner wisdom
Social justice for the whole of the people of
Indonesia
Suharto Era
 Co-option of moderate Islam into the regime
▪ The PPP (United Development Party) is an
combination of four smaller Islamic parties.
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Repression of radical Islam
The role of Malaysia as refuge
The role of Afghanistan for radicalization
The growth of madrassas
Parties
Golkar (Partai Golkar)
Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle (Partai Demokrasi Indonesia Perjuangan)
National Awakening Party (Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa)
United Development Party (Partai Persatuan Pembangunan)
Democratic Party (Partai Demokrat)
Prosperous Justice Party (Partai Keadilan Sejahtera)
National Mandate Party (Partai Amanat Nasional)
Crescent Star Party (Partai Bulan Bintang)
Reform Star Party (Partai Bintang Reformasi)
Prosperous Peace Party (Partai Damai Sejahtera)
Concern for the Nation Functional Party (Partai Karya Peduli Bangsa)
Justice and Unity Party (Partai Keadilan dan Persatuan Indonesia)
United Democratic Nationhood Party (Partai Persatuan Demokrasi Kebangsaan)
Freedom Bull National Party (Partai Nasional Banteng Kemerdekaan)
Pancasila Patriots' Party (Partai Patriot Pancasila)
Indonesian National Party Marhaenism (Partai Nasional Indonesia Marhaenisme)
Vanguard Party (Partai Pelopor)
Indonesian Nahdlatul Community Party (Partai Persatuan Nahdlatul Ummah Indonesia)
Indonesian Democratic Vanguard Party (Partai Penegak Demokrasi Indonesia)
Freedom Party (Partai Merdeka)
Indonesian Unity Party (Partai Sarikat Indonesia)
New Indonesia Alliance Party (Partai Perhimpunan Indonesia Baru)
Regional Unity Party (Partai Persatuan Daerah)
Social Democrat Labor Party (Partai Buruh Sosial Demokrat)
Total
Total Moderate Islamic Party
Total Islamist Party Votes
Votes
%
24,480,757
21,025,991
11,994,877
9,248,265
8,455,213
8,324,909
7,302,787
2,970,320
2,763,853
2,425,201
2,398,117
1,423,427
1,313,654
1,230,455
1,073,064
922,451
897,115
895,566
855,218
841,821
679,296
672,952
657,907
635,182
113,488,398 -
Seats
21.6
18.5
10.6
8.1
7.5
7.3
6.4
2.6
2.4
2.1
2.1
1.2
1.2
1.1
0.9
0.8
0.8
0.8
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
128
109
52
58
57
45
52
11
13
12
2
1
5
1
1
2
1
550
19.5
12.3
 Islam intertwined with Malay identity.
 UMNO and PAS struggle to define the role of Islam in Malaysian
Society.
▪ PAS-More conservative, advocates for an Islamic State.
▪ Powerful in Kelantan and Terengganu
▪ Performed very well in 1999 election after Anwar Ibrahim Incident and Asian Financial
Crisis.
▪ UMNO-Secular, but has tried to “beef-up” its Islamic credentials when
it is threatened politically by PAS.
▪ But has also been critical of too much Islam in public life and has asserted
itself to prevent PAS from instituting Islamic Criminal Codes in PAS-run
states.
▪ Shown itself willing to crack-down on more radical groups within its borders
Party
National Front (Barisan Nasional):
United Malays National Organization (Pertubuhan Kebangsaan Melayu Bersatu, UMNO)
Malaysian Chinese Association (Persatuan Cina Malaysia, MCA)
Malaysian Indian Congress (Kongres India Se-Malaysia, MIC)
Malaysian People's Movement Party (Parti Gerakan Rakyat Malaysia, Gerakan)
United Traditional Bumiputera Party (Parti Pesaka Bumiputera Bersatu, PBB)
Sarawak United People's Party (Parti Rakyat Bersatu Sarawak, SUPP)
Sarawak Progressive Democratic Party (Parti Demokratik Progresif Sarawak, SAPP)
United Sabah Party (Parti Bersatu Sabah, PBS)
United Pasokmomogun Kadazandusun Murut Organisation
Sabah Progressive Party (Parti Maju Sabah, SAPP)
United Sabah People's Party (Parti Bersatu Rakyat Sabah)
People's Progressive Party (Parti Progresif Penduduk Malaysia, PPP)
Liberal Democratic Party (Parti Liberal Demokratik, LDP)
Democratic Action Party (Parti Tindakan Demokratik, DAP)
Alternative Front (Barisan Alternatif) coalition:
Islamic Party of Malaysia (Parti Islam SeMalaysia, PAS)
People's Justice Party (Parti Keadilan Rakyat, PKR)
Non partisans (and others)
Overall total
Votes % of vote
4,420,452
63.9
2,483,249
35.9
1,074,230
15.5
221,546
3.2
257,763
3.7
383,664
5.5
687,340
1,668,998
1,051,480
617,518
139,438
6,916,138
9.9
24.1
15.2
8.9
2.1
100
Seats % of seats
198
90.4
109
49.8
31
14.2
9
4.1
10
4.6
11
5
6
2.7
4
1.8
4
1.8
4
1.8
2
0.9
1
0.5
1
0.5
12
8
7
1
1
219
5.5
3.7
3.2
0.5
0.50%
100
+/51
38
2
2
4
5
2
-24
-20
-4
-2
26
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400-year—old Secessionist Movement in
Mindinao
Separatists use the term Moro, but there
really are 3 major and 10 minor ethnicities
incorporated under that umbrella.
Big division with Luzon came when Philippine
government did not recognize successor to
Sulu court AND US promoted non-Muslim
migration into region
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Moro National Liberation Front
 Founded by Nur Misuari, Prof. at Univ. of Philippines,
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in 1970.
Supported by Libya and Malaysia (Tun Mustapha) was
able to field 30,000 soldiers.
Early rebellion suffered a number of issues (lack of
universal support, factionalism..
Marcos also undermined through Southern
Philippines Development Authority ($ and Mosque)
1976 Tripoli Agreement was reached.
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Moro Islamic Liberation Front
 Founded in 1977 in Mecca after dispute over Trioli
Agreement
 Criticisms of Misuari’s leadership style and goals
 More popular and powerful than MNLF
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Abu Sayaf
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Break-off group from MILF
Small organization, but well-armed.
Engage in banditry and kidnapping
Some connections to Al Qaeda
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Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindinao (ARMM)
 Agreement reached after President Ramos traveled to
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Libya and asked Khadaffy to put pressure on Moro Clients
to settle (October 1992)
Nur Misuari became head of the Southern Philippines
Council for Peace and Develoment
ARMM includes four provinces Sulo, Tawi-Tawi,
Maguidanao, Lanao del Sur
Approximately, 12,000 square kilometers (4% of
Philippines)
27 billion pesos and millions of USD, but there is little
evidence that ARMM has improved welfare in the region.
Big debates about why.
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Conflict has existed for some time, but
was somewhat muted prior to Thaksin due to
dominance of Democratic Party in the region
Thaksin’s attempt to replace local
bureaucrats exacerbated the economic
grievances of the community.
Since the beginning of 2004, there
have been 1200 deaths and 200
bombings.
Amirs
Abdullah Sungkar and Abu Bakar Ba’asyir
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Homegrown: Kampulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM)
Shura
 Founded in 1995 by a small group of
PAS defectors who had grown tired of the democratic
process.
Hambali and Abu Jibril
 Core group were veterans of the Soviet-Afghan war.
 Allegedly led by Nik Adli Nik Aziz, son of PAS spiritual leader, Nik Aziz.
Laksar Mujahidin
Lakshar Jundullah
International:
Jemaah Islamyia (JI)
 Founded in 1995 by Indonesians Abdullah Sungkar and Abu Bakar Ba’asyir, Afghan war
Operations
Communications
veterans,
who had fled imprisonment by Suharto.
 Found a safe haven in Malaysia, where they could operate under the radar.
 Recruited
fellow Indonesians Hambali and Abu Jibril, veteransSecurity
who were close to Osama Bin
Economics
Laden and pledged allegiance to Al-Qaeda.
 Recruited
at all levels throughout Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Malaysia  Linked up
Missionary
and worked with KMM.
 Created a decentralized organizational structure with 4 cells: Malaysia, Indonesia, the
Philippines and Papua/Australia.
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Malaysia Cell main base of operations until fall of Suharto in 1998.
Malaysia,
Sing,Cell important
Java
Sumatra
▪ Malaysia
for and
fundraising
and links to Al-Qaeda. Mindinao,
South. Thai
After 1998 became
Sulawesi, Malukus
Link to Al-Qaeda,
Center of Opts.,
Logistics, Acquiring
Finance,
Training, Madrassas
Papua, Aus.
Attempted to
start a cell to
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Aggressive Responses to Threat
 Prior to 9/11 arrested Abu Jibril and others under the ISA and has since used
the ISA liberally.
 Nik Adli Nik Aziz detained in 2001 as a member of the KMM, which was a
severe blow to PAS.
 Worked extensively with Singapore and the Philippines, but was frustrated by
Indonesian intransigence on collaboration—until the 2002 Bali Bombings.
 International Collaboration
 Called for greater intelligence sharing in ASEAN.
 Decried 9/11 attacks and works with the US on Southeast Asia Regional Center
for Counterterrorism.
 The US government has been less overtly critical of the ISA.
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Radical Islam in a
democratic society
 Islamist terrorism
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Laskar Jihad
Jemaah Islamiya
Bali Bombings
Australian Embassy
bombing
 Muslim democratic parties
 Sharia and the law
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Are current issues with Radical Islamic groups
a homegrown phenomena or have the been
exacerbated by international connections?
Variants
 Purely Domestic
 Purely International
 “Grafting on” to existing movements
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Back office
Taking advantage of states of convenience
Funder and supporter of local movements