The U.S. as
Imperial Power
U.S. Foreign Policy & Ideals,
1865-1914
U.S. Standing in the World –
Contradictions
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Post-Civil War army smaller than Bulgaria’s
Navy old and decrepit
But expansionist tendencies
An industrial, financial, economic power
Growing economic internationalism
Increasing involvement in world diplomacy
Strong imperial sentiments based on race,
nationalism, power
Expansionist Tendencies
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Treatment of Native Americans
Philosophy of civilizing Native Americans,
such as the Dawes Act
Manifest Destiny – rationale for U.S. right to
territorial expansion
Religious explanations for expansion – Godgiven right
Frontier thesis – end of frontier, what now?
John Gast, Manifest Destiny, 1872
Economic Expansionism
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Search for new markets for goods produced
by growing industrial power – oil, machinery,
steel, etc.
Needed to export goods to maintain prices
and employment since many in U.S. couldn’t
buy goods themselves - underconsumption
Search for raw materials
Desire for new exotic, luxury, and leisure
goods, new consumer goods for growing
middle-class
Cuba and the SpanishAmerican War, 1890s
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American interests:
Pro-intervention in Cuba – Jingoists
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Pro-Cuban independence – those Americans who
believed in self-determination; against Spanish
military atrocities
Pro-war expansionist imperialists
William Randolph Hearst, yellow journalism, trying
to sell papers
Rising tide of American public; sinking of Maine
USS Maine Entering Havana
Harbor, Jan. 1898
USS Maine Sunk, Feb. 1898
“Remember the Maine”
Souvenirs (on Ebay)
Specifics of the War
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War began April 24, 1898
Two fronts: Cuba in Atlantic; Philippines in
Pacific
Cuba: U.S. badly prepared to go to war, but
Spain weak and demoralized
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More men on both sides died from disease than
fighting
Philippines: Dewey defeated Spanish fleet
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Base for economic interests in China
Basis for acquisition of other territories: Hawaii,
Guam
Jacksonville, FL Fever Ward
for U.S. Soldiers, 1898
Teddy Roosevelt: War, Race,
and Masculinity
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War was a chance to “manufacture manhood”
(Senator Beveridge)
Teddy Roosevelt and the Rough Riders
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War could prove U.S. power and might
Could replace frontier as crucible of American “race” and
masculinity
TR’s new American Race: chose a mix of diff. types and
races for RR: cowboys, miners, Scots-Irish, Ivy-Leaguers,
Native Americans, a Jew, Italians, Scandinavians, 4 NY
policemen – a chance for in-between people to become
American
No blacks or Asians, the weaker races would dilute and
weaken the race
Fears of Over-Civilization
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Neurasthenia, an official,
diagnosed illness
“American Nervousness” –
the stress and strain of
modern life
Threat of “brain work” and
becoming too cultured
Debilitating to middle-and
upper-class men and women
Various cures:
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Rest for women
Strenuous exercise &
masculine pursuits for men
Western hunting trips, vacations
Patent Medicine Cures
Get Some Moxie
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Moxie Nerve Food
Invented in 1876 by
Dr. Augustin
Thompson
To cure everything
from "softening of
the brain" to "loss of
manhood"
TR and the National Parks
Thomas Moran, “Tower
Creek,” 1871
Yellowstone
Survey
Expedition
The West
& the
American
Vacation
Race and Masculinity on San
Juan and Kettle Hills
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TR led RR charge up hills, rallied regular troops,
won control of positions, affirming superiority of
American “race”
But U.S. black regulars had major role in winning the
hills, complicating the story
At the time, TR and press gave credit to black
troops: “an excellent breed of Yankees”
But when he wrote history of RR, he criticized black
troops for being “dependent” on white officers, had
been cowards
He rewrote history of event to affirm racial
superiority of American “race” w/o blacks
War as Crucible
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War heightens ideology, differences, conflicts, and
meaning
War seen as test; symbols, rhetoric, ideals = what is
America?
Groups and individuals used war as means to
achieve status and self-worth
In-between people, new immigrants, and blacks saw
war as means of achieving higher status and
recognition as true Americans
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In-between new immigrants succeeded and would again in
WWI and WWII
Black soldiers did not; their role edited out of victory
Editing out Black Troops: TR and
the Rough Riders on San Juan Hill
The Rough Riders by Mort
Kunstler
Black Soldiers,
Circa 1898
For Love of Liberty
Video Link
Colored Cavalry, Battle of
Quasimas, Cuba
Outcome: U.S. Empire
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Treaty of Paris, 1898, ended Spanish-Am.
War
Granted U.S. control of:
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Cuba & Puerto Rico in the Caribbean
Guam and the Philippines in the Pacific
How would new empire affect U.S. history?
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Mentality about the world
Interests
Military
Economics
The Problem of Empire: FilipinoAmerican War, 1898-1902
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Philippines problem: Can U.S. live up to ideals as
head of American empire, subjection of people?
What to do with the Philippines?: just keep base,
partition, independence?
Filipino independence movement led by Emilio
Aguinaldo; wanted Philippine Republic; Freedom
Fighters – what would Americans do?
Pres. McKinley: “we could not leave [the Filipinos] to
themselves – they were unfit for self-rule – and they
would soon have anarchy and misrule over there
worse than Spain’s was”
John Sayles’ Amigo trailer
Filipino-American War, 18981902
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Anti-imperialists: to have empire was against Am.
ideals, anti-colonial past
Other anti-imperialists didn’t want to deal with lesser
people like Filipinos, afraid that they would be
incorporated into U.S.
Guerilla war: U.S. resorted to Spanish methods:
concentration camps, attacks on villages, atrocities
TR defended U.S. troops and war of “civilization”
against “savagery”
How does a nation live up to its ideals when fighting
a war?
Anti-imperialist cartoon by Charles Nelan: the risks of “incorporating” the
Philippines into the U. S.; Filipinos were “savage” and incapable of exercising
political rights and would threaten U.S. institutions
Pictures of dead
Filipinos were often
taken by U.S. troops
and labeled with
captions such as
this: “‘Can the __d
Regiment boys shoot?
You bet they can.
Count the dead
niggers.’
Conclusions
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Growing U.S. internationalism: diplomatic,
economic, imperial
Internationalism and war created conflicts over
American ideals
War as Crucible – heightened emotions, use of
symbols
Spanish-Am. War used as means to solidify racial
and gender lines
In-between people used war to gain American
identity and acceptance
Race wars and empire threatened American ideals
U.S. Global Power &
WWI
Major Themes
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Growing U.S. interventionist foreign policy
Foreign policy differences
Increasing power of state during wartime
War as Crucible
Defining the nation during wartime – who is
included?
War as method of assimilation for immigrants
T.Roosevelt and
U.S. Foreign Policy
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Role in Spanish-American War
Presidential Policies:
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Alliance with Britain
Feared world war
Believed he and U.S. should take active role in
world affairs
Powerful nations had right to dominate weaker
T.R. – speak softly: negotiated peace settlements
(Japan vs. Russia, 1905)
Theodore Roosevelt and his Big Stick in the Caribbean, 1904
by William Allen Rogers
T.R.’s Big Stick
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T.R.: Exert military power when necessary
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Need for modern navy to exert world power
U.S. intervention in Western Hemisphere (Monroe
Doctrine): Caribbean and Latin America: Haiti,
Dominican Rep., Nicaragua, Cuba
Panama Canal: U.S. incited rebellion to get
access
China: U.S. contributed troops to put down Boxer
Rebellion, maintain China’s Open Door to
Europeans and Americans
T.R.’s ‘New Nationalism’ on Economic
Matters
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Relationship between economic, social, and
foreign policies
Modern world creates powerful institutions – can
be harnessed to improve people’s lives
Govt. power must rival corporate power
Govt. protects the public interest
“Combinations in industry are the result of an imperative
economic law which cannot be repealed by political
legislation. The effort at prohibiting all combination has
substantially failed. The way out lies, not in attempting to
prevent such combinations, but in completely controlling
them in the interest of the public welfare” (1910 New
Nationalism speech)
Taft and Dollar Diplomacy
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W.H. Taft became Pres. In 1908
Quickly distanced himself from T.R.
More conservative personality
Believed economic interests and trade should
be at forefront of foreign policy
Economic investment = better relations
Continued T.R.’s interventionist policies in
Latin America
But supported arbitration of disputes, rather
than war
Wilson’s Foreign Policy
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U.S. foreign policy should not be based on
economic interests (against Taft)
Foreign policy should be based on American
ideals
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Freedom
Self-determination of all nations (anti-T.R.)
Free markets
Spreading opportunity
“make world safe for democracy”
World War I:
International Context
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European Imperialism – divided up Africa,
Middle East, South America
European Alliance System
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Competition for power, status, colonies, empire
among European nations
Formation of alliances with other nations
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Triple Alliance: Germany, Austro-Hungary, Italy
Triple Entente: UK, France, Russia
If one nation in alliance was attacked, others
would come to aid
U.S. Anti-Interventionists
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Many different, sometimes contradictory,
sentiments against U.S. interventionist
foreign policies
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no entangling alliances, particularly in European
affairs (George Washington)
isolationism
peace movements
against colonialism/imperialism/racism
against corrupting influences of foreign affairs
American exceptionalism - ideals and institutions
should keep us separate
Immediate Causes of War
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1914 Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian terrorist,
assassinated Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the
Austro-Hungarian throne, in Sarajevo
Princip wanted independence of Slavic
peoples from Austro-Hungarian Empire
Caused all of the alliances to come into effect
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Germany invaded Belgium, Luxembourg, France
Austro-Hungary invaded Serbia
Russia attacked Germany
UK entered war to defend France
War Conditions & Fronts
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Increased technology from U.S.: machine-gun,
long-range rifles created advantage for defensive
positions (trench warfare/stalemate)
German advance on Paris halted - Western front fight over swath of land across Belgium and
northern France
Eastern front - Germany attacked Russia (led to
Russian Revolution)
Attempts to break stalemate: German attack at
Ypes in 1915 used poison gas; Verdun in 1915,
huge casualties of near 500,000 on both sides
U.S. Attitudes Towards WWI
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Opposition to U.S. entry into the war:
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Socialists and the Left
African American leaders not interested in war among
white imperialist nations
Carnegie and Ford
LaFollette and other politicians
Women’s Peace Party
Divided loyalties of other Americans: pro-British,
anti-British Irish, pro-German, immigrants from
various parts of A-H empire
Pressures for War
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Growing ties with Allies
Imbalance of trade favored Allies, not Germany
Official neutrality, but trade on seas not allowed
with either side, dragged U.S. into war
German U-boat attacks to prevent shipments to
Allies, sinking of Lusitania in 1915
Wilson ran on Progressive and antiwar planks,
narrowly won 1916 election
Wilson changed opinions: supported buildup of
U.S. military after Lusitania and failures to broker
peace
Pressures for War (continued)
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Jan. 31st, 1917 Germany declared unlimited submarine
warfare
Zimmerman telegram from Germany to Mexico promised
M that they could recover lost territories if M joined Triple
Alliance – angered U.S.
Growing bellicose attitude b/c of German telegram,
Mexican incursions in SW, and U-boat sinkings
April 2, 1917 Wilson requested declaration of war, make
world “safe or democracy,” not material gain
Four days later, Congress declared war; Europe
requested troops
To Build an Army
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U.S. had never fielded large army that quickly
Selective Service Act of May 1917 – wartime
draft
Local draft boards examined recruits
Diversity of AEF: 49 diff. language readers
for censoring U.S. servicemen’s mail
Segregated armed forces - much higher rate
of conscription for black soldiers – didn’t have
connections to get out of service
To Build an Army (continued)
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First military action was to escort troop and merchant
ships to Europe, cutting losses by more than half
Pershing waited to use AEF ground forces until fully
trained
Russian Revolution ended Eastern Front
Germany made push for Paris
U.S. committed first 60k troops at Chateau-Thierry and
Belleau Wood in May and June 1918
Put in 1million men to push Germans back
Helped end war by Nov. 1918
The Home Front: Economics
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¼ of gdp went to war at height
Combination of voluntarism and growth of
govt. power – largely successful
U.S. became creditor nation
Used income tax to pay for war, on wealthy
and excess profits of corporations
Liberty Loans
The Home Front: Building a
New U.S. State
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T.R.’s New Nationalism put into practice
War Industries Board under Bernard Baruch – gathered
data, allotted scarce resources, ordered factories to
convert to war production, set prices
Drastic measures: Fuel Administration closed all eastern
factories for 3 days and raised price of coal to deal with
coal shortage; seized control of railroads
Food Administration very successful - Herbert Hoover
increased production, decreased consumption
Government controls dismantled by Wilson in 1918,
despite some calls to keep them to deal with postwar
problems
The Home Front: Labor
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Labor’s position improved during war, although got less
than owners
Gompers participated in National Defense Advisory
Commission - official recognition for labor, place at table
National War Labor Board dictated 8-hour day, pay for
overtime, equal pay for women
One million growth of AFL during war, growth in stature
and respect for labor movement
Black, Mexican, and women workers gained industrial
positions, but lost them when war ended
Great Migration of black workers to the north and
industry
The Home Front:
Economic Democracy
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Efforts to use war and war rhetoric to fight for
progressive and labor causes
War should spread real democracy at home as
well as abroad
Democracy not just political; there should be
economic democracy too
Use expanded power of state to benefit workers
Keep controls on industry after war to ensure
good wages, employment, economic equality,
prevent depressions
The Home Front: Women’s
Suffrage
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Women used war to gain suffrage
National American Woman Suffrage Association
put 2 million members behind Wilson’s war effort
Alice Paul and National Womens Party picketed
White House to push for vote
Wilson started suffrage vote as a “war measure”
Start worldwide democracy movement at home
Aug. 26, 1920, TN was last vote in favor of
amendment
The Home Front: AntiDemocratic Measures
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Question: How to get popular support for war? –
many opponents to war
Question: Does war effort require unanimous
support? Conformity?
Attempts to shape national unity
George Creel and wartime propaganda
1917 Wilson formed Committee on Public
Information to mold public opinion on war,
promote nationalizing ideology
Patriotic literature, 4-minute men to give
speeches
The Home Front:
Forced Consensus
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Creel & expectation of cultural conformity –
Get on board the war effort
Patriotism = Support for War
American Protective League, a vigilante
group: 250,000 self-appointed agents to
weed out draft evaders and traitors
Attacks on leftists, pacifists, and immigrants
The Home Front:
100% Americanism
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Public campaign for full loyalty
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Urged immigrants and others to become 100%
American
Anti-German campaigns, changed names
Espionage Act of 1917, Sedition Act of 1918: outlawed
disloyal speech, writing, and behavior
Crackdown on antiwar, socialists, leftists, Eugene Debs
Conviction of over one thousand people
Sept. 1917 arrest of 113 IWW leaders
The Home Front: Debs in Jail
The Home Front: War Posters
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Attempts to unify nation in support of war
Common methods
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Public displays, posters, parades
100% Americanism
Patriotism = Sacrifice
Different Roles for Men and Women
Creating the savage “Other” – use of fear and
racial imagery
Expansionism: The West
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Case study: Columbian Exposition, 1893: a site
where American racial and frontier ideas were
worked out, exhibited
Chicago: a western city, railroad city, cattle, grain,
immigration
1893 Exposition: 400th Anniv. of Columbus/New
World – festival commemorating Euro. settlement
The White City – white progress, civilization –
architecture, tech., arts
The Midway offered comparisons to other “races”,
“primitives”
Expo. offered vision of what whites wanted the rest
of the west to become
Staging the West: Turner and
Buffalo Bill
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2 versions, 2 men – enactment of western myth in 1893
F.J. Turner – historian, “frontier thesis”
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Frontier = progress = democracy
Democracy on frontier - farm families, Indians irrelevant,
individualism, new Americans, econ./phys. mobility
1890 U.S. Census declared frontier closed – Turner wondered
about what that would mean for American character
Buffalo Bill – story of frontier conflict, whites and N.A.,
whites under attack, justified fight against N.A.
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Used images of conflict, heroic martyr (Custer)
White frontier men “know” Indians, then beat them
Staging the West: Turner and
Buffalo Bill (continued)
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Similarities:
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Whites justified in taking over “empty” continent
Conquest = a good thing
A “clean” story of “progress”
Used symbols, images, and stories that
Americans knew, even if not historically correct
Turned attention away from Reconstruction and
‘nigger problem’ – the West was story of national
success, regeneration of democracy and nation
through frontier experience
Chicago -The Frontier
West
Reenacted:
Buffalo Bill,
The White City,
The Midway,
and
F.J. Turner
Indians and Conflict; Buffalo Bill Cody, the showman
Frontier Myth in American
History
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If American west closed in 1890, and it meant
so much to American psyche, then what?