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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Belongingness in Higher Education: Fostering Decent Education to Sustain Academic
Progress and Equitable Access to Decent Work
Maureen Kenny
Zhushan Li
Jihang Chen
BOSTON COLLEGE
Lynch School of Education and Human Development
Department of Measurement, Evaluation, Statistics, and Assessment
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Abstract
Given the critical role of higher education in fostering social mobility and access to decent work,
our study investigates how the college experience, shaped by social marginalization and
economic constraints, influences students’ academic engagement and work volition before and
during COVID-19. Drawing from the psychology of working theory (PWT) and decent
education, we assess the mediating role of school belongingness and the moderating effect of
COVID-19 timing through structural equation modeling. Our findings suggest that COVID-19
exacerbated the negative effect of social and economic marginalization on work volition and the
negative effects of economic constraints on academic engagement, while also diminishing the
moderating effect of school belongingness. These insights are crucial considering the profound
disruptions in higher education due to the pandemic and underscore the importance of fostering
school belongingness as a component of decent education to sustain student engagement and
positive views of their work futures.
Keywords: Higher Education; Psychology of Working Theory; Decent Education; Structural
Equation Modeling; Social Marginalization
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Belongingness in Higher Education: Fostering Decent Education to Sustain Academic
Progress and Equitable Access to Decent Work
Across many industrialized countries that rely on a highly skilled workforce, higher
education is recognized as a gateway to decent work and decent lives (Kenny & Walsh-Blair,
2012). College graduates typically experience lower rates of unemployment, achieve higher
earnings, demonstrate higher rates of civic participation, have more access to powerful social
networks, and enjoy better physical health than those without a college degree (Museus et al.,
2010). While higher education has been heralded as a vehicle for social mobility within the
United States (US) and other industrialized nations, racial, gender, and economic disparities
persist with regard to entry into and completion of higher education and advancement in the
world of work (Duffy et al., 2016; NCES, 2023a,b). While college persistence and completion
are related to many factors, a plethora of evidence reveals that college can be a challenging
environment for low-income students of color (Harper, 2015; Jack, 2019), who often report high
levels of racial stress, intellectual and social isolation, and struggle to attain a sense of belonging,
especially when attending universities with relatively low numbers of students and faculty of
color (Gin et al., 2017; Harper, 2013; Jack, 2019).
Long-standing educational and occupational inequities in higher education have also
been exacerbated in recent years in response to technological and global changes in the labor
market and experiences accompanying the global pandemic (Kantamneni, 2020). The college
experience was disrupted for almost all students during COVID-19 when many campuses closed
or switched to online learning. College students from minoritized groups reported more COVIDrelated stressors including financial strain, social isolation, and illness among family members,
than students from dominant groups, with higher COVID-related stressors associated with higher
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
levels of depression and anxiety and a diminished sense of purpose (Lai et al., 2021). Some
students returned to college in the Fall of 2020, but many did not return (NCES, 2022). Others
resumed their studies with increased levels of stress, anxiety, and depression and less confidence
in the value of their education and their future career goals and work prospects (Equitable
Futures, 2020). While employment has rebounded in the aftermath of the pandemic, skepticism
about the value of higher education has lingered, especially among minoritized youth and young
adults, who are enrolling in colleges at lower rates than before the pandemic (NCES, 2022).
While these views are attributable to systemic factors, organizational factors in the college
setting could serve to reduce distress or promote positive adaptation despite the presence of risk.
In this study, we explore whether and how college students’ perceptions of their
campus experiences contribute to their academic engagement and their view of their work
futures both before and during the first year of the COVID-19 pandemic. This is potentially
important as the college experience could add to student risk or could serve as a promotive
environment that sustains student engagement and supports a positive view of one’s work future.
Theoretical Framework
We adopt the psychology of working theory (PWT; Duffy et al., 2016) and decent
education (Duffy et al., 2022) to explore whether and how students’ college experiences
contribute to their perception of their work futures, especially for those students experiencing
economic constraints and marginalization. We explore these relationships in general and in the
context of COVID-19. PWT is a helpful lens for this study as it seeks to explain the role of
economic and social conditions in access to decent work and seeks to identify mechanisms that
limit and promote decent work access and well-being.
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
PWT evolved based on the recognition that the pathways through education to decent
work are often constrained for individuals who experience substantive barriers, related to
poverty, racism, sexism, heterosexism, classism, and other forms of social oppression (Blustein
& Kenny, 2020). PWT highlights how such barriers often serve to undermine the development of
psychological resources that influence access to decent work (Duffy et al., 2016). Based on
evidence that experiences of economic and social marginalization reduce one’s perceived and
actual ability to choose desired occupations, work volition, or the perceived capacity to make
career-related decisions and attain career goals despite barriers, was specified in PWT as a
psychological factor mediating the relationship between economic and social barriers and access
to decent work. A substantive body of PWT derived research with college students and working
adults has supported the role of work volition as a mediator between experiences of
marginalization and decent work (Allan et al., 2019; Duffy et al., 2018; England et al., 2020).
Among college students, work volition has been positively associated with career maturity,
academic satisfaction, and high expectations of attaining decent work (see Duffy et al., 2023).
Although PWT specified social and psychological resources that mediate and moderate
the contribution of economic constraints and marginalization to decent work, the role of
education in the pathway to decent work was not included in the 2016 model. Duffy et al. (2022)
noted this as a glaring omission given the important role of education in preparing young people
for work and in recognition that education quality is generally impacted by the same structural
factors related to poverty and social marginalization that affect access to decent education.
Adopting a PWT perspective, Masdonati et al. (2022) noted that the transition from school to
work represents a challenging developmental transition, which can be facilitated or impeded by
the quality of one’s educational experience. While those with marginalized social identities are
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less likely to have access to quality education, quality education can also mitigate the typical
negative impacts of economic constraints and marginalization.
Duffy et al (2022) have conceptualized the quality of K-12 educational experience,
which they label as decent education, as a contextual mediator of marginalization and economic
constraints. Drawing from research assessing the importance of students’ subjective experience,
Duffy et al. (2022) identify school belongingness as one characteristic of decent education, in
addition to physical and psychological safety and college and career preparation. Although the
construct of decent education was drawn from K-12 research, the value of school belongingness
in relation to psychological well-being and academic progress has been well documented at both
the K-12 and college levels (Duffy et al., 2022; Museus et al., 2018; Stebelton et al., 2014), but
has received less attention in relation to vocational outcomes. From a PWT perspective,
belongingness satisfies the human need for social connection, which is vital for feelings of
fulfillment and overall well-being (Duffy et al., 2016). Duffy et al. (2022) suggest that in
addition to offering quality instruction and career information, decent education can promote
work volition by providing students with an increased sense of choice in the world of work.
Duffy et. al (2022) note that work volition represents just one of many possible
psychological resources, such as career adaptability, academic and career motivation, and social
capital that are cultivated through decent education. Consistent with Duffy et al.’s (2022)
conceptualization of decent education, we expect that school belongingness at the college level
can influence access to decent work over time. This might occur more proximally by its effect on
students’ engagement in their academic studies and by also shaping students’ sense of work
volition. School engagement entails students’ active participation in classes, emotional
engagement with the class material, and learning effort and is related to academic performance
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
and goal orientation among college students (Handlesman et al., 2005; Kuh, 2003). Aligned with
the psychology of sustainability and sustainable development (Di Fabio, 2017), belongingness
represents a psychological resource that may be fostered through primary prevention to enable
persons to sustain their effort towards and belief in the attainability of future work goals despite
barriers. The experience of belongingness in college could help students envision positive
expectations around work choice.
The Current Study
We draw on PWT and the construct of decent education to explore the role of school
belongingness as a mediator between social marginalization and economic constraints and work
volition and academic engagement for university students. Given that COVID-19 was a
significant disruptor to the educational experience, we were interested in assessing whether and
how these relationships were similar or different for students before and during the COVID
pandemic. We use structural equation modeling to document how economic constraints and
marginalization link with work volition and academic engagement, as mediated by school
belongingness. We also compare the model fit and pathways in relation to COVID-19 timing.
Accordingly, our study addresses two research questions:
Research Question 1: Does school belongingness mediate the relationships of social
marginalization and economic constraints with work volition and academic engagement?
Research Question 2: Do the direct effects of marginalization and economic constraints on
work volition and academic engagement vary based on COVID-19 timing? Moreover, how do
the mediation effects of school belongingness assessed in Research Question 1 vary based on
COVID-19 timing?
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For research question one we hypothesize, consistent with the PWT model, that social
marginalization will be inversely related to work volition (Hypothesis 1), and, consistent with
decent education, that school belongingness will mediate the relationship between social
marginalization and work volition (Hypothesis 2). Similarly, we hypothesize that social
marginalization will be inversely related to academic engagement (Hypothesis 3) and that school
belonging will mediate the relationship between social marginalization and academic
engagement (Hypothesis 4). Also following from PWT, we hypothesize that economic
constraints will be inversely related to work volition (Hypothesis 5) and that school
belongingness will mediate the relationship between economic constraints and work volition
(Hypothesis 6). We hypothesize that economic constraints will be inversely related to academic
engagement (Hypothesis 7) and that school belongingness will mediate the relationship between
economic constraints and academic engagement (Hypothesis 8).
For research question two, we hypothesize, consistent with the role of macro factors
elucidated by PWT, that COVID might exacerbate the direct effects of social marginalization
and economic constraints on work volition and academic engagement (Hypotheses 9-12).
Furthermore, since many schools shut down during COVID-19, we hypothesize that COVID-19
might mitigate the mediation effects of school belongingness in the relationships of social
marginalization and economic constraints with work volition and academic engagement
(Hypotheses 13-16).
Method
Procedures
Participants for this study were recruited from a course taught through the school of
education at a private academically competitive university in the northeastern United States in
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
fall 2019, spring 2020, and fall 2020. The undergraduate student body of the university is 64%
White, with the remaining 36% self-identifying as Hispanic (13%), Asian/Asian-American
(13%), Black (5%), and two or more races (5.2%). Fifty-four percent of students self-identify as
female, with 80% of the students in the education school identifying as female. Participation in
this survey was offered as an option for course research credit. A total of 748 students elected to
participate in the survey, with 476 enrolling in the study in fall 2019 and spring prior to March
10, the date at which all students left the university following the outbreak of COVID-19, and
272 participating in spring 2020 after March 20 and during the fall semester of 2020. Participant
demographics are provided in Table 1.
All students 18 or older, enrolled in the designated course, were given the opportunity
to earn research credit by participating in a study examining the academic, social, and career
development attitudes of youth and emerging adults. Students could choose from several other
studies or could review a research article. Students chose to participate through an online system,
which assigned an anonymous study ID and linked them to a consent form through which they
indicated their agreement to participate in the voluntary study and affirmed that they were over
18 years of age. The consent explained that students were free to stop the survey at any time and
for any reason and would still, once begun, receive credit for research participation. The research
was reviewed and approved by the university IRB. For the pre-COVID group, 538 students
logged into the survey, with 37 then students choosing not to participate and 25 students
discontinuing the survey early in the process. For the post-COVID sample, 278 students signed
into the survey, five did not agree or begin the survey and one student discontinued participation
after beginning.
Survey Measures
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Work volition
We used the volition subscale of the Work Volition Scale – Student Version (WVS-SV;
Duffy et al., 2012) to assess college students’ work volition or their perceived capacity to make
career-related decisions despite barriers. The volition subscale was derived through factor
analysis and consists of 7 items (i.e., “I will be able to do the kind of work that I want to, despite
external barriers”, “I will be able to choose jobs that I want’). With regard to validity, the
subscales correlated in expected directions with theoretically relevant measures, including career
decision self-efficacy, core self-evaluation, and career barriers (Duffy et al., 2012). Duffy et al.
(2012) report an alpha of .78 among college students. For the current study, the alpha was .76.
Academic Engagement
The 23-item Student Course Engagement Questionnaire (SCEQ; Handelsman et al.,
2005), designed to assess behavioral, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal aspects of college
student engagement in their coursework, was used to assess academic engagement. The SECQ
consists of four factor analytically derived dimensions, nine items for skills engagement (i.e.,
putting forth effort), six items for participation/interaction engagement (i.e., participating
actively in small group discussions), five items for emotional engagement (i.e., applying course
material to my life) and three items for performance engagement (i.e., being
confident that I can learn and do well in class). Convergent and divergent validity was
documented through correlations with self-report measures of engagement, goal preferences,
growth mindset, and course grades. Handelsman et al. (2005) report Cronbach alpha of .82 for
skills engagement, .79 for participation/interaction engagement, .82 for emotional engagement,
and .76 for performance engagement. For the current study, alpha was for .83 for skills
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engagement, .72 participation/interaction engagement, .86 for emotional engagement,.84 for
performance engagement, and .89 for the total score.
Perceived Barriers
The 32-item Perception of Barriers Scale (POB; Luzzo & McWhirter, 2001) evaluates the
perceived likelihood of specific barriers related to gender, race, childcare, and finances
impacting current education and future careers. We assessed perceived social marginalization in
the current study by a composite of the two educational barriers scales, Educational Barriers Due
to Gender Discrimination (i.e., People’s attitudes about my gender are currently a barrier to my
educational aspirations) and Educational Barriers Due to Racial Discrimination (i.e., My ethnic
background is currently a barrier to my educational aspirations). We also used the 3-item
Educational Barriers Due to Financial Concern subscale as an indicator of economic constraints.
Kim and O’Brien (2020) identified the race and gender discrimination subscales and the
financial concerns subscale through factor analysis of the full scale with an ethnically diverse
sample of white, Asian, Black, and Latinx college women. Kim and O’Brien found the factorderived subscales to be reliable and invariant across four racial ethnic groups. For the current
study, the alpha was .83 for the composite of Educational Barriers Due to Racism and Gender
Discrimination and .84 or the Educational Barriers Due to Financial Concern.
Subjective social class
The MacArthur Scale of Subjective Social Status (Adler et al., 2000) was also used as an
indicator of economic constraints. Respondents are presented with a drawing of a 10-rung ladder
and to indicate the rung on the ladder that best represents where they think they stand on the
ladder. The MacArthur Scale has been shown to positively predict numerous indicators of health
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and well-being, even after controlling for objective social status and negative affectivity (Adler et
al., 2000).
Relational Health Community
We used the community scale of the Relational Health Indices (RHI; Liang et al., 2002)
as one index of students’ perceived sense of belongingness in the college community, including
feelings of being valued, needed or important, and fitting in. The RHI is conceptualized based on
relational theory and assesses three dimensions of growth fostering relationships, including
mutual connection/engagement, authenticity, and empowerment/zest. The 14-item RHI
community belonging scale is comprised of five items assessing empowerment/zest (i.e., This
community has shaped my identity in many ways), five assessing mutual engagement (i.e., I feel
understood by members of this community) and four assessing authenticity (i.e., There are parts
of me I feel I must hide from this community-reverse scored). Among college students, the
community scale was positively correlated with self-esteem and negatively correlated with
loneliness, stress, and depression, with an overall Cronbach alpha of .90 (Liang et al., 2002). The
alpha for the current study was .89.
Belonging College
The Belonging College Scale (BCS; Rowan-Kenyon et al., 2020, which was adapted
from the Perceived Cohesion Scale (PCS; Bollen & Hoyle, 1990), was also used as a measure of
student belongingness. The BCS consists of 8 items reflecting two dimensions, belonging group
(i.e., I see myself as part of the campus community) and belonging institution (i.e., There is a
group of people I can depend on/trust at this institution), that were identified through
confirmatory factor analysis. Rowan-Kenyon et al. obtained an alpha of .92 for the total scale
among college students. The total alpha for the current study was .91.
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Data Analysis Plan
Prior to data analysis, the files were examined for missing data. Beyond the small number
of students who logged in but did not start the survey and those who started the survey but
stopped early in the process, missing data was sparse and varied across the measures. To replace
missing values, we followed a case mean substitution procedure. If, for each participant, the
number of missing items on a particular scale was less than 25%, we replaced the missing item
with the individual’s mean on the available scale data. Otherwise, the participant obtained a
missing value for that scale.
We employed Structural Equation Models (SEM) to analyze our hypothesized
relationships of economic constraints and marginalization with work volition and academic
engagement and to explore the mediating role of school belonging. For Hypotheses 1-8, we
examined both pre-COVID and post-COVID samples within a unified model. Baseline models
were evaluated first to determine the direct effects of marginalization and economic constraints
on work volition and academic engagement. We then integrated school belongingness into each
of these baseline models to investigate its role as a mediating factor. Subsequently, we employed
the Sobel test to assess the significance of the mediation effects.
For Hypotheses 9-16, we employed a multigroup SEM approach to explore how the
impact of social marginalization and economic constraints on academic engagement and work
volition, as well as the mediation effect of school belongingness, vary based on COVID-19
timing. Each of the structural models (assessed in hypotheses 1 through 8) is compared between
two groups (pre-COVID vs. post-COVID) to assess whether the structural relationships within
the model are consistent or differ between pre- and post-COVID groups. For each structural
model, we first allow model parameters to vary in each group separately and obtain a Chi-square
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
statistic for model fit. Then, we impose constraints to set some of the parameters equal between
the two groups and evaluate whether there is a significant increase in Chi-square. A significant
increase in Chi-Square indicates the impact of social marginalization and economic constraints
on academic engagement and work volition or the mediation effect of school belongingness
based on COVID timing. More detail regarding model specification for both reserch questions
can be found in the supplmental materials.
Results
Prior to testing the study hypotheses, correlations and descriptive statistics, reported in
Table 2, were computed and examined for all measures. For all the SEM analyses, we utilized
the `lavaan` package version 0.6-14 in R 3.4.1. In performing these analyses, we chose the
Maximum Likelihood (ML) method with the `nlminb` optimization function for parameter
estimation. We assessed model fit using the Chi-Square (𝜒 2 ) statistic along with the p-value, the
comparative fit index (CFI), the root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), and the
standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) provided by `lavaan`. Criteria for a good fit
were established as non-significant Chi-Square statistics (p>.05), CFI values above 0.95,
RMSEA less than 0.05, and SRMR less than 0.08.
Results
Findings for Unified Model
Hypotheses 1 and 2 concerning the direct contribution of social marginalization to work
volition and the role of social belongingness as a mediator were assessed first through the
baseline model and then with the addition of the mediator as we specified previously. With
regard to the baseline model for hypothesis 1, social marginalization was a significant predictor
of work volition (𝛽2,1= -.344, p <.001) and school belongingness (𝛽3,1= -.445, p <.001). For
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hypothesis 2, the addition of school belongingness was significant as a partial mediator of work
volition (𝛽2,3= .254, p <.001), with the direct pathway from marginalization to work volition
remaining significant (𝛽2,1= -.231, p <.001). The indirect pathway of social marginalization
through school belonging, as assessed by the Sobel test, is also significant (𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3= -.113, p
<.001). Social marginalization thus demonstrates a negative association with work volition, both
directly and indirectly through school belongingness.
Hypotheses 3 and 4 concerned the direct and mediated contributions of social
marginalization to academic engagement. Analyses reveal that the direct effect of social
marginalization on academic engagement was significant (𝛽2,1= -.476, p=.002). Adding the
mediator to the model reveals a significant contribution of school belongingness to academic
engagement, (𝛽2,3= 1.116, p<.001), but the direct pathway from marginalization to academic
engagement is insignificant (𝛽2,1=.031, p =.821), demonstrating full mediation. The indirect
effect of marginalization through school belongingness was significant (𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = -.507, p
<.001), as assessed by the Sobel test, with marginalization having a negative indirect association
with school engagement through school belongingness.
Analyses assessing hypotheses 5 and 6 revealed economic constraints as a significant
predictor of work volition (𝛽2,1= -.398, p <.001) and of school belongingness (𝛽3,1 =-.675, p
<.001). School belongingness was significant as a partial mediator with a significant effect (𝛽2,3
= .255, p <.001), with the direct effect of economic constraints still significant (𝛽2,1 = -.269, p
=.001). The indirect effect of economic constraints on work volition through school
belongingness was significant (𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = -.172, p <.001), as assessed by the Sobel test.
Economic constraints demonstrate a negative association with school engagement, both directly
and indirectly through school belongingness.
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Hypotheses 7 and 8 focused on the direct and indirect contributions of economic
constraints to academic engagement. The direct effect of economic constraints on academic
engagement was significant (𝛽2,1= -1.534, p <.001). The addition of the mediator revealed a
significant path from school belongingness to academic engagement (𝛽2,3 = 1.008, p <.001). The
direct path from economic constraints remained significant (𝛽2,1 = -.708, p =.004), indicating a
partial mediation effect. The indirect effect of marginalization on work volition through the
mediator school belongingness is significant (𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = -.756, p <.001), as shown by the Sobel
test. Economic constraints thus show a negative association with school engagement, both
directly and indirectly through school belongingness.
Figures illustrating the final baseline and mediating models considering school
belongingness as a mediator between social marginalization and economic constraints and work
volition and academic engagement are available in the supplemental materials. Table 3 provides
the data for the overall model fit for the four separate structural models assessing mediation in
hypotheses 1 through 8.
To provide a deeper and more accurate understanding of the complex relationships within
the variables, we also built a comprehensive SEM model combining all variables and
relationships. Figure 1 presents the tests of main and mediated effects for the prediction of work
volition and academic engagement when all variables are considered in one model. For the
combined model, the direct effects of marginalization on work volition and economic constraints
on academic engagement are both significant at the .05 level. The direct effect of economic
constraints on work volition and marginalization on academic engagement are not significant.
Table 4 presents the coefficients for the pathways illustrated in Figure 1.
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COVID-19 Timing
The multi-group SEM analysis was conducted on two distinct groups: Group 1 (preCOVID, N=476) and Group 2 (post-COVID, N=272). For Hypothesis 9, we compared the less
restricted model (where the parameter for the direct effect of social marginalization on work
volition is allowed to vary between groups) with a more restricted model (where the parameter
for the direct effect of social marginalization on work volition are constrained to be equal across
groups). Results presented in Table 5 indicate that the direct effect of social marginalization on
work volition varies based on the COVID timing (Δχ2 = 9.56, df=1, p=.002). Since the direct
pathway from marginalization to work volition was 𝛽2,1 = -.125 (p =.031) pre-COVID and 𝛽̃2,1= .409 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that COVID exacerbated the direct negative effects of
social marginalization on work volition.
Similar analyses were carried out for the direct effect of social marginalization on
academic engagement, the direct effect of economic constraints on work volition, and the direct
effect of economic constraints on academic engagement. Results for all these analyses are
available in Tables 7-9 in the supplemental materials. For Hypothesis 10, the direct effect of
social marginalization on academic engagement does not vary based on the COVID timing
(Δχ2 = 3.44, df=1, p=.06). For Hypothesis 11, the direct effect of economic constraints on work
volition varies based on the COVID timing (Δχ2 = 6.70, df=1, p=.01). Since the direct pathway
from economic constraints to work volition was 𝛽2,1= -.066 (p =.540) pre-COVID and 𝛽̃2,1= .481 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that COVID exacerbated the direct negative effects of
economic constraints on work volition. For Hypothesis 12, the direct effect of economic
constraints on academic engagement varies based on the COVID timing (Δχ2 = 3.95, df=1,
p=.0469). Since the direct pathway from economic constraints to academic engagement was
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𝛽2,1= -.350 (p =.284) pre-COVID and 𝛽̃2,1 = -1.388 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that
COVID exacerbated the direct negative effects of economic constraints on academic
engagement.
For Hypothesis 13, we compared the less restricted model (where the parameters
(𝛽2,3 , 𝛽3,1 ) and (𝛽̃2,3 , 𝛽̃3,1 ) are allowed to vary between groups) with a more restricted model
(where the parameters (𝛽2,3 , 𝛽3,1 ) and (𝛽̃2,3 , 𝛽̃3,1 ) are constrained to be equal across groups).
Results presented in Table 6 indicate that the mediation effect of school belongingness in the
relationships of social marginalization and work volition varies based on the COVID timing
(Δχ2 = 8.43, df=2, p=.01). Since the indirect effect of marginalization through school
belongingness was 𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = .291*(-.545) = -.159 (p <.001) pre-COVID and 𝛽̃3,1 ∗ 𝛽̃2,3=
.183*(-.247) = -.045 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that COVID-19 mitigated the
mediation effects of school belongingness in the relationships of social marginalization with
work volition.
Similar analyses were carried out for the mediation effects of school belongingness in the
relationship between social marginalization and academic engagement, the relationship between
economic constraints and work volition, and the relationship between economic constraints and
academic engagement. Results for all these analyses were available in Tables 10-12 in the
supplemental materials. For Hypothesis 14, the mediation effect of school belongingness in the
relationship between social marginalization and academic engagement does not vary based on
the COVID timing (Δχ2 = 4.54, df=2, p=.10). For Hypothesis 15, the mediation effect of school
belonging in the relationships of economic constraints and work volition varies based on the
COVID timing (Δχ2 = 16.28, df=2, p<.001). Since the indirect effect of economic constraints
through school belongingness was 𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = .320*(-.919) = -.294 (p <.001) pre-COVID and
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𝛽̃3,1 ∗ 𝛽̃2,3 = .192*(-.222) = -.043 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that COVID-19 mitigated
the mediation effects of school belongingness in the relationship between economic constraints
and work volition. For Hypothesis 16, the mediation effect of school belongingness in the
relationships of economic constraints and academic engagement varies based on the COVID
timing (Δχ2 = 7.24, df=2, p=.027). Since the indirect effect of economic constraints through
school belongingness was 𝛽3,1 ∗ 𝛽2,3 = 1.082*(-.940) = -1.02 (p <.001) pre-COVID and 𝛽̃3,1 ∗
𝛽̃2,3= .983*(-.348) = -.342 (p <.001) post-COVID, we conclude that COVID-19 mitigated the
mediation effects of school belongingness in the relationship between economic constraints and
work volition.
Discussion
The current study draws from PWT (Duffy et al., 2016) and decent education (Duffy et
al., 2022) to assess the role of school belongingness as a mechanism that contributes to students’
perceptions of their engagement in school and their perceptions of their work futures. We
gathered data from students enrolled in a private university in the northeastern US both before
and during the time of COVID closure and reopening. This study builds on existing research
documenting the barriers experienced by students of color and those from families and
communities with fewer economic resources in navigating the college environment, especially in
contexts where students are affluent and from dominant ethnic and racial groups (Gin et al.,
2017; Harper, 2013; Jack, 2019). By adopting the lens of PWT (Duffy et al., 2016), we extend
prior research by observing how perceived economic and social barriers might influence
students’ sense of volition about their work futures. Consistent with prior research (Duffy et al.,
2022), our findings affirm the importance of school belongingness as a component of decent
20
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
education that can, at least in part, sustain engagment and a sense of agency in pursuit of future
goals despite experiences of social and economic marginalization.
More specifically and as aligned with PWT (Duffy et al., 2016) and decent education
(Duffy et al., 2022), our findings related to the first research question document the contributions
of social and economic marginalization in undermining academic engagement and work volition.
Additionally, the full model that combines all study variables, suggests that economic
marginalization may not explain work volition when all other pathways between economic
constraints, social marginalization, school belongingness and academic engagement are
considered at the same time. Although the explanation for this is not evident, our findings do
affirm the complex interrelationship among dimensions of social and economic marginalization
and school and work outcomes.
With regard to the role of school belongingness, the pathways between school
belongingness and school engagement and work volition are among the most robust across all
analyses. While the significance of school belonging as partial mediator indicates that other
factors also explain the relationship between barriers and academic engagement and work
volition, school belongingness represents a potentially malleable factor that can be attended to at
an organizational level with potentially positive effects on engagement and work volition.
Beloningness fully mediated the relationship between marginalization and work volition,
suggesting that a sense of belongingness at college can be particularly powerful in overcoming
experiences of marginalization and shaping positive expectations for realizing one’s work goals.
Our findings for the second research question related to COVID timing are aligned with
previous research (Lai et al., 2021) documenting the increased vulnerability of college students
experiencing higher levels of economic and social marginalization during the COVID pandemic.
21
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
More specifically, our results reveal that students experiencing social marginalization and
economic constraints experienced diminished confidence in realizing their work futures during
COVID-19, with those experiencing economic constraints also reporting less engagement in
academic study. Furthermore, COVID-19 mitigated the mediating role of school belongingness
in the relationships between social marginalization and work volition, economic constraints and
work volition, and economic constraints and academic engagement. This outcome underscores
the significance of school belongingnesss as a mediator, highlighting its more pronounced
protective potential prior to the COVID-19 pandemic when students spent more time on the
college campus.
Implications for Theory and Practice
Our findings highlight the applicability of PWT and decent education in understanding
the contributions of students’ perceptions of perceived economic and social barriers and their
experience at college and their views of the future. Moreover, both in terms of theory and
practice, the findings affirm the importance of school belongingness as a component of decent
education (Duffy et al., 2022) and add to existing theory and research documenting the critical
importance of relational supports and sense of belonging for human well-being across multiple
life contexts (Duffy et al., 2016). These findings add to research and theory on PWT and the
psychology of sustainability and sustainable development (Di Fabio, 2017) by highlighting the
importance of relational belonging as a potentially renewable resource to support well-being.
Just as work organizations and communities need to attend to promoting support and belonging
for all segments of the community in order to foster well-being and productivity, universities
need to make their settings welcoming for all students and offer resources and otherwise attend
to the needs of students who are experiencing social and economic marginalization and barriers
22
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
to their school and career attainment. During times of disruption when students are away from
campus, colleges need to consider ways to foster a sense of belonging that may better sustain
student engagement and hopes for future work in the midst of adversity.
Limitations and Future Directions
Limitations of the study need to be taken into account in interpreting the results. All study
measures are self-reported and reflect students’ perceptions, which are limited by their level of
self-awareness and honesty. The findings are also cross-sectional and correlational, such that
causality cannot be inferred. Longitudinal research that includes objective measures of student
academic progress and relationships is needed to better understand links between these
constructs over time. Future research that includes objective measures of the college climate and
student success among diverse economic and social groups would be helpful in identifying the
specific college-level factors that contribute to student engagement, feelings of belongingness
and academic progress. Long-term longitudinal research is also needed to see how and whether
any of these factors and students’ sense of work volition in the college years ultimately relate to
their access to decent work and a meaningful life over time. This study is also limited by the
nature of the sample, which is drawn from one private and academically competitive university
in the northeastern US. Students who have gained entry and enrolled in a university of this type
may perceive fewer barriers and have a more positive sense of work volition than students in less
competitive universities. The findings thus cannot be generalized to other settings, such that
future research would benefit from efforts to assess the components of decent education and their
outcomes in varied higher education settings, especially those with more students from
backgrounds with lower economic resources and racial and ethnic diversity. For this university in
particular, participants were drawn from courses in one school that enroll high percentages of
23
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
woman students in their first and second years of college, such that findings may differ for
students in the later years of college and for samples with more men. Despite the study
limitations, the findings extend PWT and decent education to the college setting and add to other
research affirming the importance of school belongingness and relational support as a
psychological resource that sustains and promotes human resilience, engagement, and a sense of
volition for one’s work future.
24
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
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Table 1. Demographic Characteristics of Participants.
Characteristic
N
Race/ethnicity
Asian/Asian American
150
Hispanic/Latinx
90
White/not Hispanic
440
Black/not Hispanic
48
Other
20
Gender Identification
Female
596
Male
148
Transgender
1
Non-binary
3
Age
18
281
19
266
20
113
21
70
22 or older
18
Highest level of education for primary caretaker
Less than high school grad 23
High school diploma/GED 68
Some college
65
Bachelor’s degree
245
Master’s degree
231
PhD/ professional degree
116
Self-reported social class
Lower class
40
Working class
83
Middle class
211
Upper middle class
337
Upper class
77
%
20
12
59
6
3
79.7
19.8
.1
.4
37.6
35.6
15.1
9.4
2.4
3.1
9.1
8.7
32.8
30.9
15.5
5.3
11.1
28.2
45.1
10.3
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Table 2. Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Predictor and Outcome Variables.
Measure
1. Work Volition
2. Academic Engagement
3. Gen/Race Barriers Educ
4. Financial Barriers Education
5. Social Status
6. School Belonging
7. Relational Health: College
M
SD
alpha
** p < .05
** p < .001
1
1.00
.33**
-.27**
-.21**
.17 **
.28**
.32**
23.53
3.98
.76
2
3
4
5
6
7
1.00
-.12*
-.16**
.22**
.35**
.39**
84.28
12.26
.89
1.00
.48**
-.35**
-.25**
-.26**
8.00
3.16
.83
1.00
-.54**
-.18**
-.23**
7.26
3.24
.84
1.00
.21**
.25**
6.87
1.74
N/A
1.00
.72**
31.09
5.93
.91
1.00
46.40
8.71
.89
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Table 3. Overall model fit for the four mediating models.
(a) Marginalization and work volition
(b) Marginalization and academic engagement
(c) Economic constraints and work volition
(d) Economic constraints and academic engagement
𝜒 2 (df), p-value
𝜒 = 1.069 (𝑑𝑓 = 1), 𝑝 = .301
𝜒 2 = .342 (𝑑𝑓 = 1), 𝑝 = .559
𝜒 2 = 2.432 (𝑑𝑓 = 3), 𝑝 = .488
𝜒 2 = 1.967 (𝑑𝑓 = 3), 𝑝 = .579
2
CFI
1
1
1
1
RMSEA
.01
0
0
0
SRMR
.006
.003
.009
.008
Note: The chi-square statistic tests how well the observed data fit the model. A significant chi-square indicates a poor fit.
CFI values range from 0 to 1, with higher values indicating a better fit. A CFI above 0.95 can be considered indicative of a good fit.
RMSEA measures the discrepancy between the hypothesized model and the population covariance matrix per degree of freedom. Values below
0.08 are considered acceptable and values below 0.05 indicate good fit.
SRMR assesses the average standardized discrepancy between the observed and predicted covariances. Values below 0.08 are considered
acceptable.
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Figure 1. Structural Equation models consider school belonging as a mediator for the prediction of work volition and academic engagement when
all variables and pathways are considered in one model.
33
BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Table 4. Results for coefficients 𝛽3,1 , 𝛽3,2 , 𝛽4,1 , 𝛽4,2 , 𝛽3,5 , 𝛽4,5 , 𝛽5,1 , and 𝛽5,2 of the model shown in Figure 1.
𝛽3,1 (TotWoVol ~ economic constraints)
𝛽3,2 (TotWoVol ~ TotEBarRacGen)
𝛽4,1 (TotEngage ~ economic constraints)
𝛽4,2 (TotEngage ~ TotEBarRacGen)
𝛽3,5 (TotWoVol ~ school belonging)
𝛽4,5 (TotEngage ~ school belonging)
𝛽5,1 (school belonging ~ economic constraints)
𝛽5,2 (school belonging ~ TotEBarRacGen)
Estimate
-.106
-.211
-.871
.193
.243
1.042
-.541
-.315
Std.Err
.079
.044
.244
.133
.035
.108
.108
.058
z-value
-1.341
-4.806
-3.574
1.448
7.054
9.657
-5.031
-5.441
P(>|z|)
.180
<.001
<.001
.148
<.001
<.001
<.001
<.001
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Table 5. Model fit comparison for the direct effect of social marginalization on work volition before and after COVID.
Model 0
Model 1
AIC
13628
13635
BIC
13729
13732
𝜒2
0.9665
10.5223
𝜒 2 diff
Df diff
p
9.5558
1
0.002 **
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
Table 6. Model fit comparison for the mediation effects of school belonging in the relationship between social marginalization and
work volition before and after COVID.
Model 0
Model 1
AIC
13628
13632
BIC
13729
13725
𝜒2
0.9665
9.3929
𝜒 2 diff
Df diff
p
8.4264
2
0.0148 **
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION
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BELONGINGNESS AND HIGHER EDCUATION