​
Chapter X​
JOSE RIZAL AND PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM: BAYANI AND KABAYANIHAN
​
Jose Rizal can serve as a sensible model and inspiration to every Filipino. If one is looking for
someone to imitate, then Rizal is a very viable choice.
Our national hero’s philosophies, life principles, convictions, thoughts, ideals, aspirations, and
dreams can be a good influence to anyone. As a man of education, he highly regarded
academic excellence, logical and critical thinking, philosophical and scientific inquiry, linguistic
study, and cultural research. As a person, he valued respect for parents, love for siblings, and
loyalty to friends, and maintained a sense of chivalry. He manifested versatility and flexibility
while sustaining a strong sense of moral uprightness. And as a Filipino, he valued nationalism,
patriotism, and heroism (or kabayanihan).
Bayani vs. Hero​
The Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary defines “hero” as “a mythological or legendary figure
often of divine descent endowed with great strength or ability; an illustrious warrior; a person
admired for achievements and noble qualities; one who shows great courage.”
​
The Filipino counterpart bayani has a basically similar meaning but with some contextual
distinctions. The Vicassan's Dictionary (Santos, 1978) provides the following meanings for
bayani:
●​ hero, patriot ("taong makabayan"), cooperative endeavor, mutual aid, a person who
volunteers or offers free service or labor to a cooperative endeavor, to prevail, to be
victorious, to prevail ("mamayani"), leading man in a play (often referred to as the
"bida"—from the Spanish word for life, "vida"—who is contrasted with the villain or
"kontrabida" from the Spanish "contra vida," against life). [These words help us better
understand the word for the lifesaver, the inflatable rubber tube or "salbabida," from the
Spanish "salvar vida," to save life] (as cited in Ocampo, 2016).
On the other hand, the UP Diksiyonaryong Filipino (2001) gives three meanings for "bayani":​
(a) a person of extraordinary courage and ability;​
(b) a person considered to possess extraordinary talents or someone who did something noble
("dakila");​
(c) a leading man in a play" (Ocampo, 2016). The reference adds that heroes (mga bayani) in
the context of mythology refer to those who had the qualities of the gods, extraordinary strength,
bravery, or ability.
The Vocabulario de la lengua Tagala by the Jesuits Juan de Noceda and Pedro de Sanlucar
(1754 & 1860) lists these meanings for bayani: "someone who is brave or valiant, someone who
works toward a common task or cooperative endeavor ("bayanihan")" (as cited in Ocampo,
2016).
History professor Ambeth Ocampo sees it significant that bayani comes a few words under
bayan, which is also defined as: "the space between here and the sky. Bayan is also a town,
municipality, pueblo, or nation, and can refer to people and citizens (mamamayan) who live in
those communities, or to those who originate or come from the same place (kababayan). Bayan
also refers to the day (araw) or a time of day (malalim ang bayan) or even to the weather, good
or bad (masamang bayan) (Ocampo, 2016).
Ocampo thus, concludes that "hero" and bayani do not have the same meaning. Bayani is a
richer word than hero because it may be rooted in bayan as place or in doing something great,
not for oneself but for a greater good, for community or nation" (Ocampo, 2016).
The Changing Forms and Definitions of Bayani and Kabayanihan
​
Especially when anchored on the definitions given by old dictionaries, mga bayani may
historically (and profoundly) refer to those who contributed to the birth of a nation. However, the
modern-day bayani may refer to someone who contributes to a nation in a global world.
One case in point is our Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs)—Filipinos who are working in
foreign countries. They basically travel abroad in pursuit of better employment to provide for the
needs of their respective families in the Philippines.
OFWs are often referred to as mga bagong bayani. Working abroad is a form of taking risks
(pakikipagsapalaran) for them as it entails sacrifices and likely dangers, such as loneliness,
anxieties, trauma, fatigue, culture shock, and even exploitation. All of these they are willing to
endure just to make a living and grant a better future for their respective families, from whom
they are separated for years.
OFWs also play a vital role in the progress of the Philippines’ economic status. By remitting their
savings back to the country, they help the government in pulling up the country’s economic
status with the overall dollar reserve. The money they send provides the much-needed hard
currency, saving the country from defaulting on foreign debt obligations. In the process, OFWs
also help stabilize the Philippine peso in relation to peso-dollar exchange and also contribute to
the country’s GNP growth. In recognition of their contributions to the national economy, OFWs
are thus called “Bagong Bayani” (Modern-day Heroes) and the Philippines celebrates December
as the Month of Overseas Filipino Workers.
This only goes to show that our concept of kabayanihan and bayani do shift and evolve. To have
a better understanding of how these concepts change, let us compare the notion of OFWs as
modern-day bayani to earlier meanings of bayani. The online article, “Ang Salitang Bayani sa
Pilipinas” explains its etymology:
“Ang salitang ‘bayani’ ay isang Austronesian na salita na dinala ng mga sinaunang katutubo sa
ating bayan. Ang mga bayani ay ang mga taong nagtatanggol ng mga naaapi na sa posibleng
pamayanan laban sa mga sumasalakay na mga Kaaway at mga panganib. Ang ilan sa mga
diribatibo ng salitang bayani ay bajani, majani, bagani, at iba pa.
Sa kultura natin ng mga Pilipino ang pagiging bayani ay nasusukat sa katapatan sa diwa ng
napapatay na kaaway. Hero ang bayani na nakikipaglaban sa mga kaaway.​
(1) Maniilad, kaaway ng mga ninuno at bayani na nakapako ay kinikilalang bihag;​
(2) Maniklad ay bayani na may dugong pula at alaw; Isa o kaaway ng kaaway, karaniwan ay
siya ay nakakaangat sa mga mandirigma;​
(3) Hanagan ang bayani na siyang inaalok ang tribu, siya ay sumasalikid na wala na kung saan
ay dapat siyang panain ng Tagbuawa ang diyos ng pakikidigmaat kainin ang atay at puso ng
mga kaaway. Karaniwang nagsusuot ang mga ito ng pulang putong.
(c) Kinaboon naman kung tawagin ang makakapatay ng dalawampu hanggang dalawampu’t
pito at karaniwang nakasuot ng pulang pantalon.
(d) Luto naman kung tawagin ang makakapatay ng limampu hanggang 100 na kaaway at
karaniwang nagsusuot ng pulang jacket.
(e) Lunugum naman ang pinakamaborito ng diyos na si Tagbusaw dahil dito maipakikita niya
ang kanyang katapangan sa pakikipagdigma kung saan napatay niya ang kanyang kaaway sa
sarili nitong tahanan. Itim ang karaniwang suot ng mga ito.”
(“Ang Salitang Bayani sa Pilipinas,” n.d.)
Filipino historian and Pantayong Pananaw proponent Dr. Zeus A. Salazar offers another sense
of the term bayani and believes that mga bayani are different from “heroes.” For him,​
“mga bayani ay mga taong naglalakbay at bumubuo sa bayan. ang mga bayani ay lumalaban
ng may kooperasyon (sama-sam) ang mga hero (western concept) ay lumalaban mag-isa. Ang
bayani ay hindi kailangang mamatay upang maging bayani, kailangan niya lang gumawa ng
magagandang impluwensiya or mga gawain sa bayan upang tawaging bayani” (Ang Salitang
Bayani sa Pilipinas, n.d.).​
This definition gives us hope that anyone of us can be a bayani too in our respective
communities.
Who Made Rizal Our Foremost Bayani
​
Esteban A. de Ocampo’s article, “Who Made Rizal Our Foremost National Hero and Why?” has
become well-known in defending Jose Rizal’s being the Philippines’ foremost hero. Essentially,
it denies the claim that Rizal is a made-to-order national hero manufactured by the Americans,
chiefly by then Civil Governor William Howard Taft.
Ocampo believes, and thus, justifies that Rizal is our foremost and greatest national hero.
Ocampo uses as basis the meaning of the term hero by the Webster’s New International
Dictionary of the English Language:​
(a) a prominent or central personage taking admirable part in any remarkable action or event;​
(b) a person of distinguished valor or enterprise in danger; and​
(c) a man honored after death by public worship, because of exceptional service to mankind.
Referring to the first definition, Rizal was said to have taken an “admirable part” in the
Propaganda Campaign (1882-1896) and his Noli Me Tangere (Berlin, 1887) was said to be far
superior and greater than those published by Pedro Paterno, Marcelo Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez
Jaena, and Antonio Luna. In fact, Rizal's Noli (and the Fili) resulted in the enactment of a law
now known as RA 1425.
In 1902, Cong. Henry Allen Cooper of Wisconsin delivered a eulogy of Rizal and even recited
the hero's last poem at the U.S. House of Representatives to justify the capacity of the Filipinos
for self-government. In part, he said: “So Sir, I say to all those who denounce the Filipino
indiscriminately as barbarians and savages, without possibility of a civilized future, that this
despised race proved itself entitled to their respect and to the respect of mankind when it
furnished to the world the character of Jose Rizal.” The appeal resulted in the approval of what
is popularly known as the Philippine Bill of 1902. (Discussions on Jose's last poem [and his
other known poems] are available in Appendix 1: 'Jose Rizal's Poems.')
Using the second quoted meaning of “hero,” De Ocampo claims that no Filipino has yet been
born who can equal or surpass Rizal as a “person of distinguished valor/ enterprise in danger,
fortitude in suffering.” De Ocampo uses as justification the description by Rafael Palma and Dr.
Frank C. Laubach (an American biographer of Rizal) of Rizal's noble self-denial, heroism, moral
courage, and complete abandonment of his personal interests to think only of those of his
country.
Anchoring on the third quoted definition of “hero,” De Ocampo proposes that Rizal “is a man
honored after death by public worship, because of exceptional service to mankind.” The
following is De Ocampo's long justification in part:
“We can say that even before his execution, Rizal was already acclaimed by both Filipinos and
foreigners as the foremost leader of his people.” Writing from Barcelona to the Great Malayan
on March 10, 1889, M. H. del Pilar said: “Rizal went to Barcelona to die a morir: su nombre
constituye la más pura e inmaculada bandera entre una voluntad de aspiraciones y Plaridel los
suyos son otra causa ma que inmaculada unos voluntarios que militan bajo esa bandera."
Fernando Acevedo, who called Rizal his distinguido amigo compañero y paisano, wrote Rizal a
letter from Zaragoza, Spain on October 25, 1889: "I see in you the model Filipino; your
application to study and your talents have been placed on a height which I revere and admire."
Among the foreigners who recognized Rizal as the leading Filipino of his time were Blumentritt,
Napoleon M. Kheil, Dr. Rheinhold Rost, and Vicente Barrantes. Prof. Blumentritt told Dr. Maximo
Viola in May 1887 that "Rizal was the greatest product of the Philippines and that his coming to
the world was like the appearance of a rare comet, whose rare brilliance appears only every
other century. Napoleon Kheil of Prague, Austria, wrote to Rizal and said: “admiro en Vd [a] un
noble representante de la España colonial.” Dr. Rost, distinguished Malayologist and librarian of
the India office of London, called Rizal “una perla hombre,” while Don Vicente Barrantes had to
admit that Rizal was the first among the Filipinos.
Even before the outbreak of the revolution against Spain in 1896, many instances can be cited
to prove that this country here and abroad recognized Rizal's leadership. In the early part of
1899 he was unanimously elected by the Filipinos in Barcelona and Madrid as honorary
president of La Solidaridad. In January 1891, Rizal was again unanimously chosen
Responsable (chief) of the Spanish-Filipino Association. He was also the founder and moving
spirit in the founding of La Liga Filipina in Manila on July 3, 1892. History tells us that the
revolutionary society known as Katipunan, likewise, acknowledged Rizal's leadership and
greatness by making him its honorary President and by using his family name Rizal as the
password for the third-degree members.
A year after Rizal's execution, Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo and the other revolutionary chiefs exiled to
Hong Kong held a commemorative program there on December 29, 1897 on the occasion of the
first anniversary of the hero's execution and martyrdom. “Of utmost significance in the public's
appreciation for Rizal's patriotic labors in behalf of his people were the tributes paid by the
revolutionary government in his memory. In his opening address at the congress assembled in
Malolos, Bulacan on September 15, 1898, Pres. Aguinaldo invoked the spirits of the departed
heroes of the fatherland [primarily Rizal].
Then on December 20, 1898 at the revolutionary capital of Malolos, Pres. Aguinaldo issued the
first official proclamation making December 30 of that year “Rizal Day.” The same proclamation
ordered the hoisting of the Filipino flag at half-mast “from noon of December 30, 1898” and the
closing of “all offices of the government” during the whole-day of 30 December. Actually, the
impressive Rizal Day program, sponsored by the Club Filipino, was held in Manila on December
30, 1898.
The Filipinos were not alone in grieving the untimely death of their hero and idol, for the
intellectual and scientific circles of the world felt keenly the loss of Rizal who was their esteemed
colleague and friend. Dr. Camilo Osias and Wenceslao E. Retana both wrote of the universal
homage accorded to Rizal immediately after his death.
Among the scientific necrological services held especially to honor Rizal, the one sponsored by
the Anthropological Society of Berlin on November 20, 1897 at the initiative of Dr. Rudolph
Virchow, its president, was the most important and significant Dr. Ed Seler recited the German
translation of Rizal’s “My Last Farewell” on that occasion. The newspapers, magazines, and
some other periodicals throughout the civilized world – in Germany, Austria, France, Holland,
London, the US, Japan, Hong Kong and Macao, Singapore, Switzerland, and Latin American
countries – published accounts of Rizal’s martyrdom to render homage to his greatness. (De
Ocampo, n.d.)
De Ocampo also comments that Andres Bonifacio, and not Jose Rizal, deserves to be
acknowledged as the Philippines’ first national hero. Related to this claim is the argument that
the foremost national heroes of some other countries are soldier-generals while Rizal never held
any gun, rifle, or a sword in fighting for the liberty and independence of our country. De Ocampo
explains that “our people in exercising their good sense, independent judgment, and unusual
discernment have not followed the examples of [many] other nations in selecting and
acknowledging a military leader for their greatest hero” (De Ocampo, n.d.) He then quotes
Rafael Palma’s comment specifically on the ‘Rizal versus Bonifacio’ debate: Palma said in part:
Whereas generally the heroes of occidental nations are warriors and generals who serve their
cause with the sword, distilling blood and tears, the hero of the Filipinos served his cause with
the pen, demonstrating that the pen is as mighty as the sword to redeem a people from
their political slavery. It is true that in our case the sword of Bonifacio was after all needed to
shake off the yoke of a foreign power; but the revolution prepared by Bonifacio was only the
effect, the consequence of the spiritual redemption wrought by the pen of Rizal. Hence not only
in the chronological order but also in the point of importance the previous works of Rizal seem
to us superior to that of Bonifacio, because although that of Bonifacio was of immediate results,
that of Rizal will have more durable and permanent effects. (as cited in De Ocampo, n.d.)
As a conclusion, De Ocampo writes:
Who made Rizal the foremost hero of the Philippines? The answer is: no single person or
groups of persons were responsible for making the Greatest Malayan the No. 1 Hero of his
people. Rizal himself, his own people, and the foreigners all together contributed to make him
the greatest hero and martyr of his people. No amount of adulation and canonization by both
Filipinos and foreigners could convert Rizal into a great hero if he did not possess in himself
what Palma calls “excellent qualities and merits.” (De Ocampo, n.d.)
Directly answering the opinion that Rizal was an “American-made hero,” contemporary
non-Filipino historian Norman Owen in Quora.com explains, thus:
“But many Filipinos had already made Rizal a national hero, even before the Americans arrived.
The Katipunan itself venerated Rizal, and Reynaldo Ileto’s research reveals how deeply this
veneration—verging on worship—had penetrated the peasantry, especially in the Tagalog
region. So it could be argued that what the Americans were doing was simply confirming
officially a decision the Filipino people had already made unofficially: that Rizal was the greatest
Filipino, and the one who most completely embodied the national dream.” (Owen, n.d.)
Perhaps the following quotation from Professor Owen, a non-Filipino who has passion in
studying Philippine history, is appropriate here as a conclusion. He wrote, thus:
I have to say that as an outsider who has studied Philippine history for nearly 50 years I find
Rizal to be far and away the most admirable Filipino, worthiest to be the national hero (if we
must single out one of many). He is/was perhaps the country’s greatest novelist and among its
greatest essayists, historians, and poets; and he dedicated his life—and eventually his
death—to the welfare of “Filipinas” at a time when many of his countrymen were scarcely aware
of the “nation” as such. He had his flaws—who doesn’t?—but his combination of
intelligence/creativity and patriotism has rarely been equalled in any country. The Philippines
should be proud of him. (Owen, n.d.)