Containment of Communism
Case studies, Korean War, Cuban Crisis and Vietnam War
The Korean War (1950-1953)
→ Key Background to Korean War
●​ After WWII, Japanese troops in N. Korea surrendered to China; Japanese troops in S. Korea
surrendered to USA
●​ The temporary dividing line between north and south was known as the 38th Parallel
○​ Line of latitude
○​ Marks the approximate start of the 2 sides in the Korean War
●​ In 1948, separate elections were held
○​ South Korea → Republic of Korea - capitalist (supported by US)
■​ Led by Syngman Rhee
○​ North Korea → Democratic People’s Republic of Korea - communist (supported by
USSR and China)
■​ Led by Kim Il-sung
→ Start of Korean War: 25 June 1950
North Korean soldiers (armed with Soviet weapons) invaded the South by crossing the 38th Parallel
Why did North Korea invade the South?
●​ Kim Il-sung wanted a united Korea under communist rule
●​ Kim thought that he would be successful with the support of Stalin and Mao
○​ USSR gave them weapons; both lent military and financial support
●​ Kim thought that the USA would not intervene
○​ Believed that Korea was far away so not a country of top interest
○​ Statements by American politicians contributed to this belief
→ US takes action
●​ Truman immediately sent advisors, warships and supplies to Korea
○​ Sent the US 7th Fleet to prevent a Chinese attack on Formosa (Taiwan)
○​ Ordered General MacArthur to go to Korea with military supplies
●​ Placed enormous pressure on United Nations Security Council to condemn North Korea’s
actions and ask them to withdraw their troops
Why did the US get involved?
●​ US became increasingly concerned about the spread of communism
○​ Thought invasion was a communist plot and Moscow’s attempt to gain world
domination
○​ N. Korea fell to communism in 1948, China fell in 1949 → did not want communism
to take over Asia and Europe
○​ USA wanted to prevent this growth
●​ USA’s containment policy
○​ Feared that S. Korea falling to communism would cause Japan and Formosa to follow
suit
Compiled by Kai Ryn
○​ If other Asian countries fell to communism, there would be a major shift in world
power balance → capitalism vs. communism
●​ Most effective way to stop the spread of communism was to oppose the N. Korean invasion of
the South
○​ N. Korean troops had occupied much of S. Korea
○​ Independent and democratic state had been invaded and USA was S. Korea’s ally
→ United Nations involvement: June 1950
The United Nations Security Council met on the same day that the North invaded the South. (25 June
1950)
*The UN was heavily backed by the US
●​ A resolution, drafted by the Americans, was passed at the UN, demanding the withdrawal of N.
Korean troops
○​ UN decided that N. Korea had broken world peace
○​ UN called on N. Korean troops to withdraw to the 38th Parallel
Second resolution: 27 June 1950
●​ This second resolution, also put forward by the US, urged UN members to help S. Korea
Third resolution: 7 July 1950
●​ This resolution made clear how military forces would be deployed
○​ Truman appealed to the UN to use military force against N. Korea
○​ UN placed US in charge of the military operations
○​ Troops from 16 countries were deployed to assist S. Korea
○​ US supplied 50% ground forces, 90% air forces and 85% naval forces
○​ Military sanctions used
Why did these 3 resolutions pass?
●​ Absence of Soviet representative at Security Council
○​ USSR was boycotting the UN
○​ If Soviet representative was present, the resolutions would not have passed because he
would have exercised his veto power
●​ USA was the biggest contributor to the UN budget
○​ UN heavily backed by USA
○​ USA was in a powerful position to influence UN decision
→ Course of the Korean War
25 June 1950
-​ North Korean troops cross 38th Parallel into South Korea
September 1950
-​ Only a small corner of South Korea not controlled by communists
-​ UN troops land at Incheon. Together with South Korean troops from Busan they push the North
Koreans beyond the 38th Parallel within weeks
October 1950 and later
-​ MacArthur and Truman decide they want to push them back even further
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Instead of merely pushing the N. Koreans back to the 38th parallel and containing
communism, they want to stamp out communism in Korea entirely
UN approved plan to advance into N. Korea despite warnings from China
UN and US troops invaded and reached the Yalu River by the end of October 1950
This greatly angered Mao Zedong
-​ Sent large Chinese army to attack UN army
-​ Equipped with Soviet-provided modern tanks and planes, the Chinese army pushed UN
forces back into S. Korea
-​ UN troops recovered and launched a counter attack, driving Chinese and N. Korean
troops back to the 38th parallel
Fighting reached a stalemate and settled around the 38th Parallel
→ What happened after?
MacArthur wanted to carry on the war. He was committed to stamping out communism from Korea
entirely. He wanted to invade China and use nuclear weapons, calling for the use of the atomic bomb.
Truman did not agree. He did not want to make the war longer and spend unnecessary amounts of
money and resources on it.
MacArthur was dismissed by Truman in April 1951. Truman thought that saving S. Korea from
communism was good enough, and trying to fight China was incredibly risky.
→ End of Korean War
-​ Peace talks between N. and S. Korea began in June 1951
-​ Fighting ceased in 1952
-​ Truman was replaced by Eisenhower, who wanted to end the war quickly (1953)
-​ Stalin died in 1953, making the Chinese and N. Koreans less confident as they no longer had
the backing of Stalin
-​ Armistice was signed in 1953
Korea Past-Paper questions (ABC)
Part A
What was the attitude of the USA towards the Communist invasion of South Korea?
●​ ‘The USA thought of itself as South Korea’s protector.’
●​ ‘The USA thought the actions of North Korea were part of a Soviet plan to test the US.’
●​ ‘The USA followed a policy of containment.’
●​ ‘The USA was worried about their interests in the Far East.’
●​ ‘Truman appealed to the UN to use military force against North Korea.’
●​ ‘The USA felt it would have to be involved even if the UN had not acted.’
What happened at the United Nations Security Council meetings in June and July 1950?
●​ ‘The Security Council met the day the North Koreans invaded South Korea.’
●​ ‘The Security Council passed a resolution demanding that hostilities cease.’
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‘The resolution demanded that the North Koreans withdraw to the 38th parallel.’
‘The resolution was passed because of the absence of the Soviet representative.’
‘If present, it was thought the Soviet delegate would have used his veto.’
‘When the North Koreans refused to obey the resolution, a second resolution was passed.’
‘It called on members of the UN to provide troops to repel the North Koreans.’
‘A third resolution put the forces under a unified command of the USA.’
‘The UN forces were put under the command of General MacArthur.’
Describe the events which led to the UN involvement in the Korean War.
●​ ‘The UN had been involved in the establishment of the new anti-Communist government of
South Korea.’
●​ ‘Both the Communist North Korea and the anti-Communist South Korea governments claimed to
be the legitimate government of the whole of Korea.’
●​ ‘Kim Il Sung wanted to unite Korea under Communist rule.’
●​ ‘If the UN had failed to oppose the action of North Korea, the Americans would have.’
●​ ‘US President Truman put enormous pressure on the UN Security Council to condemn the North
Korean actions and call for a withdrawal.’
●​ ‘When the resolution was passed, the USSR was not represented at the meeting to use its veto.’
●​ ‘The UN committed itself to using members’ armies.’
What was the 38th Parallel in relation to the Korean War?
●​ ‘It is the line (of latitude) that separates North Korea and South Korea.’
●​ ‘It was the boundary of the Communist North with the capitalist South.’
●​ ‘It was chosen as the frontier between the American and Soviet sectors of Korea in 1945.’
●​ ‘It was intended as a temporary dividing line.’
●​ ‘The 38th Parallel marks the approximate start of the two sides in the Korean War.’
●​ ‘It was the finishing position of the two sides at the end of the Korean War.’
●​ ‘It was the crossing of this boundary which resulted in United Nations action.’
What was the response of the United Nations Organisation to events in Korea in June 1950?
●​ ‘A meeting of the Security Council was organised immediately.’
●​ ‘The UN Security Council decided that the North Koreans had broken world peace.’
●​ ‘They passed a resolution calling on North Korea to withdraw their armed forces.’
●​ ‘The UN called on North Korea to withdraw to the 38th Parallel.’
●​ ‘A second resolution in June asked UN members to help South Korea.’
●​ ‘The US was asked to take command of the UN operation.’
●​ ‘The UN organised troops from the US and 15 other countries.’
●​ ‘The UN sent in troops.’
Part B
Why was the USA concerned about North Korea’s invasion of South Korea?
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‘The US feared that success in South Korea would encourage communist China to attack Formosa. If
South Korea and Formosa fell to the communists, Japan would come under threat. From America’s point
of view, the fall of South Korea, Formosa and Japan to the communists would represent a major shift in
world power balance. The most effective way to prevent this was to oppose the North Korean invasion of
South Korea.’
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‘The USA had been involved in the establishment of the Republic of Korea.’
‘It was an act of aggression by North Korea.’
‘If South Korea fell, Formosa and Japan could be next.’
‘The USA decided a firm response to the first communist threat would be effective.’
‘The US had a policy of containment.’
‘The US did not want to see further expansion of communism.’
‘The actions of North Korea were seen as part of Moscow’s attempt to gain world domination.’
USA was worried about their investments in Asia
The US thought that the actions of North Korea were a part of Moscow’s attempt to gain world
domination. In 1945, the Japanese soldiers surrendered to the Chinese who established a communist
government led by Kim Il-sung, hence a strong relation to the USSR. it was widely believed that the
invasion of South Korea was a plot by Stalin to take over the world and create a communist world.
The US was afraid that if the whole of Korea became communist, other countries would follow suit. With
China becoming a communist country in 1949 and North Korea being led by communist leader Kim
Il-sung the Americans thought that if South Korea also fell to communism, other countries in the region
like Vietnam and Burma would also become communist. The US was also afraid that communist leaders
might nationalise American assets.
The US had been involved in the establishment of the Republic of Korea. In 1945, Japanese troops in the
south of Korea had surrendered to the Americans. American involvement in the south helped to create the
Republic of Korea led by President Syngman Rhee. Since America had been so involved in the
independence of the south, they saw themselves as South Korea’s protector.
Why did the USA oppose the North Korean invasion of South Korea?
‘The US believed that a successful conquest of South Korea would encourage a Chinese attack on
Formosa. If South Korea and Formosa both fell to the Communists then Japan could be threatened. If this
happened, the US believed it would represent a major shift in the power balance between the Communist
and Capitalist world.’
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‘The USA had a policy of containment.’
‘The Communist North Korea had invaded the South.’
‘The US believed it was part of a Soviet plan.’
‘If Formosa fell to the Communists, Japan could be threatened.’
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The US opposed the invasion as the North Korean troops had invaded the south by force. Kim Il-Sung
dispatched thousands of troops on 25 June 1950 that crossed the 38th parallel into South Korea. As
America was heavily involved in the independence of the Republic of Korea it believed it to be its
protector and condemned the use of force, later pressuring the Security Council to take action.
The US also opposed the invasion because it was believed to be a plot by the Soviets to expand their
communist regime. After the Japanese troops surrendered the north of Korea to Chinese troops, a
communist government was established, led by Kim Il-sung with strong ties to Stalin. It was thought that
this invasion was the first step of a Soviet plan to slowly take over countries and expand the Soviet sphere
of influence. America hated communism so they opposed it.
The US also opposed the invasion because it had a strong policy of containment. America’s capitalist
leaders hated communism. With the fall of Russia, China and North Korea to communists, America did
not want more countries to follow suit. Since Kim Il-sung invaded because he wanted to unify Korea and
make it a communist country, the US strongly opposed this.
Why did North Korea invade South Korea in June 1950?
●​ ‘Kim Il-Sung wanted to unite Korea.’
●​ ‘North Korea thought it was the legitimate government of Korea.’
●​ ‘Kim had the support of Communist leaders.’
●​ ‘North Korea’s armed forces were stronger than South Korea’s forces.’
●​ ‘Kim thought the USA would not respond.’
●​ ‘Kim thought that Korea was not a high priority for the USA.’
●​ ‘Kim wanted to spread Communism.’
Kim Il-sung invaded the South because he wanted to unify Korea. He believed that his government was
the legitimate government of the whole of Korea. Thus he sent troops beyond the 38th parallel in a bid to
take over the south and make the entire country communist and expand the North.
Kim invaded the South because he was supported by powerful communist leaders. Since North Korea was
communist he was strongly supported by Stalin and Mao Zedong. Both had provided the north with
money and weapons, allowing its military to grow in size and power. The North’s military soon became
stronger than the south’s so Kim was confident that he could take over the south using force.
Kim also invaded the South as he thought that the US would not intervene. Korea was a very far way
from the US and he believed that it was not a priority for the US. He thought that if he invaded, the US
would merely condemn the action but not impose any military or economic sanctions on North Korea.
Why did the US provide most of the forces that resisted North Korea’s invasion of the South?
●​ ‘The US had been closely involved in the establishment of the Republic of Korea.’
●​ ‘The invasion of South Korea was a challenge to the US’s internationally accepted position as
South Korea’s protector.’
●​ ‘The US thought the actions of North Korea were part of a Soviet plan to test the US.’
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‘The US followed a policy of containment.’
‘The US was worried about their interests in the Far East.’
‘Truman appealed to the UN to use military force against North Korea.’
‘The UN put the US in charge of military operations in Korea.’
The US sent most of the forces because the United Nations put America in charge of military operations
in Korea. The third resolution signed by the UN in 1950 in relation to the North Korean invasion placed
all foreign troops under US command, led by General MacArthur. Since the US was spearheading the war
effort it sent large numbers of troops, weapons and military vehicles.
The US also sent most of the forces because it followed a strong policy of containment. If North Korea
succeeded in uniting Korea and making the whole country communists, other countries could soon follow
suit. America was the most worried about Japan and Formosa becoming communist. Since the US
strongly opposed communism it sent troops and supplies to push the North Koreans out of the south so
that communism could not be spread.
The US also sent most of the forces because it had been closely involved in the independence of the
Republic of Korea. After Japanese forces surrendered to US soldiers in south of Korea in 1945 the US
worked very hard to establish the government led by Syngman Rhee. This made the US the universally
accepted protector of South Korea, hence their large involvement in trying to push back the invaders.
Part C
How successful was the USA’s policy of containment in Korea? Explain your answer.
‘In one sense the Korean War was a success for the USA. It showed that the USA had the will and means
to contain Communism. The USA had contributed half of the ground forces, 90% of the air forces and
85% of the naval forces. This ensured that South Korea remained out of Communist hands.’
OR
e.g. ‘The containment policy had limitations. It highlighted tensions among American leaders. Hardliners
wanted to go beyond containment and push back Communism. They thought Truman had shown
weakness in not going for outright victory, arguing that it was worth the risk.’
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Successful – ‘It showed the US had the will and means to contain Communism.’
‘South Korea remained out of Communist hands.’
‘The US used the UN to reinforce its containment policy over Korea.’
Not successful – ‘A unified, independent Korea was not achieved.’
‘Around four million Koreans lost their lives.’
‘For some US military commanders, containment was not enough.’
‘North Korea remained Communist.’
Containment was successful because South Korea remained out of communist hands. The US troops had
managed to successfully push the North Korean soldiers up to the Yalu River before being pushed back to
the 38th parallel. The US had prevented Kim Il-Sung from taking over the whole of Korea and making it
communist.
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Containment was also successful because other countries did not fall to communism. It was feared that if
Korea was unified and made communist, other countries in the region like Japan and Formosa would be at
risk to communism. Since the south remained out of the north’s communist hands this prevented the
expansion of communism and the soviet sphere of influence.
Containment was successful because the US managed to gain support from the UN and other countries to
contain communism in Korea. The US pressured the UNSC to draft resolutions that allowed countries to
send military personnel to Korea. 15 countries sent troops to Korea, all under the command of General
MacArthur. The fact that the UN allowed military force against North Korea and 15 other countries united
against the North Korean troops shows that the US policy of containment gained a lot of support.
However, containment was not successful because North Korea remained communist. When US soldiers
managed to push the North Korean soldiers all the way up to the Yalu River, many US leaders believed
that communism would be stamped out of Korea entirely, a major achievement for containment.
However, Mao sent 100,000 Chinese troops which drove the US soldiers back to the 38th parallel. The
North remained in the hands of the communists and still does till this day.
Containment was not successful because some US military leaders believed that the containment of
communism in South Korea was not enough. After the US troops had been pushed back from the Yalu
River to the 38th parallel, General MacArthur wanted to continue fighting to push Chinese troops out of
Korea entirely. He also wanted to use atomic bombs on the NK troops. However, Truman thought that
protecting SK was enough and sacked MacArthur. Many thought that this showed weakness of the US as
they lost the opportunity of eradicating communism from Korea.
Overall, containment was more of a success than a failure. Though some leaders believed that
containment of communism in the south was not enough and wanted communism to be driven out of
Korea entirely, the US had still managed to keep South Korea out of communist hands and prevent other
countries from also becoming communist. Moreover, since the UN and other countries lent support in the
fight against communism, the containment policy received a lot of support.
How great a threat was the Korean War to world peace? Explain your answer.
‘In November 1950 some American units reached the Yalu River on the border between Korea and
China. The Chinese launched a large scale counter offensive. If the war did move to mainland China then
the Sino-Soviet Mutual Alliance would mean that the Soviets would enter the war on the side of their ally
China. This would definitely threaten world peace.’
OR
‘The Korean War was not a threat to world peace. The UN stood up to an act of aggression by North
Korea that had been supported by two major powers. The UN moved quickly to respond to the invasion of
Korea and many member nations offered troops and military and medical equipment in assistance.
Ultimately the invasion was unsuccessful.’
●​ The Cold War had now spread to Asia.’
●​ ‘The Chinese became involved.’
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‘The USSR gave arms to North Korea.’
‘General MacArthur thought nuclear weapons should be used.’
‘The Korean War increased mistrust between the USSR and the US.’
‘Truman did not want the war to move to mainland China.’
‘MacArthur was dismissed.’
‘The UN had used military sanctions effectively against an act of aggression.’
‘In 1951 the US, the USSR and China started negotiations to end the war.’
The Korean War was a threat to world peace because the USSR and China provided arms to North Korea.
Mao and Stalin had each contributed large amounts of money and weapons to North Korea that
significantly boosted their military. This proved to be useful against as North Korean troops managed to
advance to Incheon, the southernmost tip of SK. North Korea’s military capacity was huge and they were
very strong against the US soldiers, causing widespread destruction and fatalities.
The Korean war was also a threat because the Chinese became involved. US / UN troops, after landing in
Busan, were able to push N. Korean troops all the way up to the Yalu River. Seeing how weak the N.
Korean troops had become, Mao Zedong sent more than 100,000 Chinese soldiers to Korea that pushed
the US/UN troops all the way back to the 38th parallel. The introduction of Chinese soldiers boosted the
power of North Korea which and were very strong.
The Korean war was a threat because MacArthur wanted to use nuclear weapons. After the US troops had
been pushed back to the 38th parallel by Chinese troops, he wanted to continue fighting to push them out
of Korea entirely and use nuclear weapons to destroy their strongholds. The fact that Macarthur wanted to
use such an aggressive and violent approach could have escalated tension and caused even more
destruction and damage.
However, it was not a threat because MacArthur was sacked. When Macarthur raised the prospect of
using nuclear warfare to destroy North Korean and Chinese strongholds, Truman thought that the
containment of communism in South Korea was enough and more fighting would lead to more US
casualties and damage. As such, Macarthur was sacked and nuclear warfare was never used, preventing
more damage and destruction.
It was also not a threat because peace talks between N and S Korea, US and China started in June 1951,
about a year after the war started on 25 June 1950. Negotiations were held to try to stop the fighting and it
stopped in 1952. The armistice was signed in 1953 with a ceasefire. This proved that the war was not a
threat to world peace because the leaders of the countries involved recognised a need for peaceful
negotiations to put an end to the violence, holding peace talks and armistice shortly after the war began
such that further damage could be prevented.
Overall, the Korean War was a threat to world peace. The North Korean army grew in power and size
significantly with the support of China and the USSR. Truman also wanted to take an extremely
aggressive approach against the north by using nuclear warfare which would have escalated tension
greatly.
Compiled by Kai Ryn
The Cuban Crisis
→ Key background to Cuba and the world leaders involved
Cuba
●​ 90 miles away from US
●​ US had a military base in Guantanamo, Cuba
●​ Rich in resources and raw materials
●​ Lots of agriculture
●​ Many valuable sugar plantations
●​ Businesses operate in Cuba because taxes are lower and rent / maintenance is cheaper
Leaders involved
●​ Batista: previous dictator of Cuba before Castro. Originally supported by USA until his rule
became tyrannical and US cut off arms supplies, supporting the resistance movement led by
Castro
●​ Khrushchev: Soviet leader after death of Stalin in 1953
●​ Castro: overthrew Batista. Leader with very socialist leanings and felt that Cubans had been
giving things to the US for way too long. Did not want Cuba to be too reliant on the US and
wanted the country to be independent from US involvement and interference
●​ Kennedy: President after Eisenhower
Consequently, Cuba cut off all its ties with the US and the relations between both countries turned sour.
Kennedy, Castro and Khrushchev were all new leaders looking for opportunities to prove their
leadership and impress their people. Since Castro was not letting the US be involved in Cuba, the US
wanted to overthrow him and bring back Batista, a strong supporter of the US.
→ Bay of Pigs Invasion (April 17-19 1961)
*note that the Cuban Missile Crisis and the Bay of Pigs invasion ARE NOT THE SAME
●​ Intended to provoke popularity for an uprising against Fidel Castro who had overthrown
Batista
●​ Eisenhower’s administration planned the invasion, which would be handled by the CIA
●​ The plan was for American-backed Cuban exiles to enter Cuba to try to persuade the locals to
join the movement against Castro
●​ On April 12 1961, JFK told a press conference that the US had no intention of intervening in
Cuban affairs, but the invasion took place 5 days later on April 17
●​ American-backed Cuban exiles began to bomb airfields near the Bay of Pigs
●​ To make the attacks appear to have been carried out by defectors, the US aircraft were
disguised to look like Cuban airplanes
●​ An actual defector called Mario Zuniga was presented to the press along with his airplane to
convince people that Cuban exiles were behind the attacks
●​ There were too many loopholes in the evidence and within a few days, the press had uncovered
the truth
●​ Within the first few hours of the operation, it was clear that the invasion was a failure as locals
firmly supported Castro and refused to join the movement to overthrow him
○​ People liked his ideology of ‘stop relying on the US, be independent’
●​ Invaders surrendered on April 19
○​ More than 200 killed
○​ 2000 taken captive
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●​ Castro’s insecurity about the future of his rule over Cuba led to the installation of USSR
nuclear missiles, prior to the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962
→ Cuba and the USSR
Why was the USSR interested in helping Cuba?
●​ Cuba was a new communist state
●​ Cuba provided a launch base for USSR inter-continental missiles
●​ Khrushchev wanted to test the strength of JFK by forcing him into bargaining over US missiles
in Turkey
●​ Cuba was only 90 miles from US - missiles from Cuba could reach the US but long-range
missiles from USSR could not
→ October Crisis (1962)
●​ 14 October 1962 - a US spy plane takes photos of suspected USSR missile sites in Cuba
○​ Sites nearing completion - experts believed it would be ready in a week
○​ US spy planes identified 20 Soviet ships bound for Cuba carrying missiles
●​ 21 October 1962 - JFK decides on a naval blockade of Cuba
●​ 22 October 1962 - JFK makes a television address to Americans, notifying them about his
decision to blockade Cuba
●​ 24 October 1962 - Soviet ships reach the quarantine line, but receive radio orders from
Moscow to hold their positions
●​ 25 October 1962 - US Ambassador Stevenson confronts the Soviet Ambassador at the UN but
they refuse to answer
○​ American military forces are instructed to set DEFCON 2, the highest ever in US
history
●​ 26 October 1962 - US receives a letter from Khrushchev stating that the Soviets would remove
their missiles if JFK publicly guarantees that the US will not invade Cuba
○​ CIA reports that construction of the missile sites is continuing and accelerating
○​ JFK meets with Soviet Ambassador Dobrynin (albeit secretly) and discusses the
possibility of the removal of US missiles from Turkey but does not agree to it
●​ 27 October 1962 - An American spy plane is shot down over Cuba
○​ A second letter from Khrushchev is received, stating that in addition to the public
announcement that the US will not invade Cuba, the US must remove its missiles in
Turkey
○​ US kept the removal of missiles in Turkey secret
●​ 28 October 1962 - the crisis is resolved. Khrushchev announces the dismantling of Soviet
missiles in Cuba
→ Actions available to JFK
After it was revealed that the USSR had a nuclear missile base in Cuba that was fast growing, there was
pressure to do something about it.
●​ Do nothing
○​ Advantages: no provocation, no cost
○​ Disadvantages: USSR could launch an attack at any time since Cuba was in ‘Uncle
Sam’s backyard’, makes US look weak, does not contain communism
●​ Invasion in Cuba
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○​ Advantages: aggressive tactic that will give US the upper hand, shows US power after
Bay of Pigs failure
○​ Disadvantages: could lead to war, would not be the best for US and JFK’s reputation
●​ Diplomatic pressure
○​ Advantages: non-violent attack
○​ Disadvantages: going through the UN would take too long, not very effective
●​ Surgical Air Attack
○​ Advantages: destroy all of Cuba’s bases, sends message to USSR that they will not
accept any permanent storage of nuclear weapons in Cuba
○​ Disadvantages: could lead to war (very risky), would anger USSR
●​ Blockade (prevent ships from reaching Cuba)
○​ Advantages: non-violent, prevent ship carrying nuclear arms from reaching Cuba
○​ Disadvantages: not sustainable, angers USSR, would cause conflict
→ Consequences of the CMC
●​ USSR and Khrushchev
○​ Credited with being diplomatic and reasonable (internationally)
○​ Seen to have backed down completely because the removal of US missiles in Turkey
was kept a secret (domestically)
○​ Blow to his reputation - overthrown in 1964
●​ USA and JFK
○​ Short-term: reputation enhanced by his handling of the crisis
○​ Long-term: creating the crisis by the weakly-handled and executed Bay of Pigs
invasion
●​ European allies of the US
○​ Shocked and disappointed at how little they were confronted
○​ France pulled out of NATO
●​ World peace
○​ ‘Hotline’ was installed between Kremlin and White House to improve communication
○​ Limited Test Ban treaty signed in 1963, restricting nuclear tests to underground
locations
Cuba Past-Paper Questions (ABC)
Part A
What was the ‘quarantine’ of Cuba imposed by the USA in October 1962?
●​ ‘Kennedy decided to impose a blockade of Cuba.’
●​ ‘Kennedy asked Khrushchev to remove the nuclear missiles from Cuba.’
●​ ‘When Soviet ships reached the blockade, they turned back.’
●​ ‘Khrushchev admitted to the existence of Soviet missiles on Cuba.’
●​ ‘Khrushchev said that he would remove the missiles if the blockade was lifted.’
●​ ‘Khrushchev also wanted a promise from Kennedy that he would not invade Cuba.’
●​ ‘At the end of October, the missiles in Cuba were removed and the blockade was lifted.’
Describe relations between the USA and Cuba between 1959 and the end of March 1961
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‘The US was unhappy Batista had been overthrown.’
‘Castro promised to reduce American influence in the country.’
‘The US was concerned at its loss of influence over Cuba.’
‘The US was concerned at the possible spread of Communist ideas so close to the USA.’
‘Castro took many American assets by nationalisation.’
‘Much land owned by Americans was redistributed amongst Cubans.’
‘Many Cuban exiles put pressure on the US government to take action against Castro.’
‘Eisenhower introduced economic sanctions.’
‘The US refused to buy Cuban raw materials, tobacco and sugar.’
‘In the summer of 1960, Castro negotiated trade agreements with the USSR to export sugar.’
‘Khrushchev agreed to send Castro military advisers and equipment.’
‘In January 1961, the US broke off diplomatic relations with Cuba.’
‘Eisenhower approved US plans to attempt to remove Castro.’
‘Through Cuban intelligence, Castro was aware of potential threats.’
‘The US media broadcast a relentless stream of criticism of Castro.’
‘There were assassination attempts against Castro.’
Describe the Bay of Pigs Invasion.
●​ ‘Kennedy supplied arms, equipment and transport for anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba.’
●​ ‘The invasion happened on April 15 1961.’
●​ ‘1400 troops landed on the beaches along the Bay of Pigs.’
●​ ‘Castro was prepared for the attack.’
●​ ‘The exiles were met by 20,000 Cuban troops.’
●​ ‘The invasion forces immediately came under heavy fire.’
●​ ‘Some of the invasion forces escaped into the sea.’
●​ ‘Most men in the invasion forces were killed or captured.’
●​ ‘The supporting air strikes missed many of their targets.’
●​ ‘Few, if any, Cubans joined the invaders.’
Describe the US reaction to the Cuban Revolution up to the end of April 1961.
●​ The US was extremely unhappy that pro-communist Castro had taken over Cuba
●​ The US was concerned over its loss of influence in Cuba
●​ The CIA was tasked with investigating ways to overthrow Castro
●​ On 12 April, Kennedy announced during a press conference that the US had no intention of
interfering in Cuban affairs
●​ The USA refused to buy Cuban sugar from July 1960
●​ All trade between the USA and Cuba was halted by October 1960
●​ In January 1961, all diplomatic relations between the USA and Cuba were cut
●​ The Americans had trained 1400 Cuban exiles for the Bay of Pigs Invasion before April 1961
What options were available to Kennedy to force the removal of missile sites on Cuba?
●​ Do nothing
●​ Surgical air attack
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●​ Naval blockade
●​ Diplomatic pressure
●​ Invasion
What actions did the USA take against Cuba before the Bay of Pigs Invasion?
●​ Relations were tense as the USA supported Batista, but he had been overthrown by Castro who it
was feared would be communist. The USA continued to support exiled Cubans
●​ The USA was unwilling to get directly involved even though they were concerned as Castro took
over US owned companies and land
●​ The USA refused to buy Cuban sugar from July 1960 and in October 1960 ended all trade with
Cuba
●​ In Jan 1961, the USA broke off all diplomatic relations as it was unable to tolerate Soviet
influence so close to the USA
●​ Authorised the CIA to investigate ways to overthrow Castro
Describe the USA’s reponse to Castro’s takeover of Cuba.
●​ The USA refused to buy Cuban sugar
●​ In October 1960 they ended all trade with Cuba
●​ In January 1961 all diplomatic relations were halted
●​ The USA was worried that Cuba would become communist under Castro’s rule
●​ The CIA were tasked with finding ways to overthrow Castro
●​ Kennedy supported Cuban exiles who tried to overthrow Castro during the BOP invasion
Part B
Why did Kennedy decide to impose a blockade on Cuba?
●​ Missiles in Cuba would threaten mainland USA
●​ Not taking action would make Kennedy look weak
●​ Prevent Russian ships from delivering missiles
●​ Blockade would force Khrushchev to make the next move
Kennedy decided to impose a blockade as he feared for the safety and security of America. The missiles
in Cuba would threaten mainland USA being only 90 miles away from Florida, and had the power to
annihilate almost the entire country. Kennedy wanted to prevent more Soviet weapons and missiles from
reaching Cuba so he imposed the blockade to avoid the development of the nuclear bases and weaponry.
Kennedy also decided to impose a blockade because not taking any action would make him look weak.
The US spy planes that flew over Cuba had captured multiple photographs that clearly showed the
existence of nuclear weapons in Cuba and these were publicly shared, instilling fear of another war in
ordinary Americans. He needed to ensure the safety and security of his people so he imposed the blockade
to prevent further nuclear development in Cuba.
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He decided to impose a blockade to prevent any more Soviet ships from delivering missiles to Cuba. The
images that the spy planes had captured showed the possession and development of this nuclear warfare
and experts believed that they had incredible destructive power that could destroy almost the entire
country. To prevent any more development of nuclear warfare Kennedy imposed this blockade.
Why did Khrushchev place nuclear missiles in Cuba?
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‘Khrushchev was defending Cuba against US threats.’
‘He was placing missiles in ‘Uncle Sam’s backyard’.’
‘It was a base for communist expansion.’
‘Khrushchev was testing Kennedy.’
‘Placing missiles in Cuba would reduce the USA advantage with its missiles in Turkey.’
‘Missiles close to the USA would give Khrushchev increased bargaining power.’
‘Missiles placed on Cuba could attack most of the USA’s major cities.’
‘Medium-range weapons were cheaper to produce and these could hit the USA from Cuba.’
‘Khrushchev was probably hoping to strengthen his own position in the USSR by getting
Kennedy to make concessions.’
●​ ‘He was protecting Cuba.’
Khrushchev was anxious to defend Cuba as it was the only Communist nation in the Western hemisphere.
Cuba had become communist willingly and not as a result of force by the Red Army. The USSR became
aware that the US was carrying out practice invasions with thousands of US marines so they wanted to
defend Cuba against any possible attacks.
Khrushchev wanted to gain the upper hand in the nuclear arms race. The USA had many nuclear bases
stationed in the West in close proximity to the USSR, especially in Turkey. Stationing nuclear bases and
weapons in Cuba would place missiles in ‘Uncle Sam’s backyard’ and give the USSR an advantage. The
missiles placed in Cuba would only be 90 miles away from Florida and could destroy multiple major US
cities.
Khrushchev wanted to test Kennedy as he was a relatively new leader. He wanted to ‘test the waters’ to
see how he would react should the existence of the missiles come to light. Khrushchev was also hoping to
strengthen his own position and reputation in the USSR by getting Kennedy to make concessions. He
placed missiles in Cuba to ‘test the waters’ to see how Kennedy would react should the existence of the
missiles be discovered.
Why was Kennedy humiliated by the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion of April 1961?
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‘Castro was not removed.’
‘The USA had to admit responsibility for the attacks.’
‘The plan was not kept a secret.’
‘The USA failed to control the air over Cuba during the attack.’
‘The Cuban air force was left intact.’
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●​ ‘The captured troops were paraded by Castro.’
●​ ‘It strengthened Cuba’s relations with the USSR.’
●​ ‘The CIA had a $13 million budget for the plan but it failed.’
The BOP invasion failed to remove Castro from power and made Kennedy look weak, as the incident
strengthened Castro’s position among the Cuban population and improved Cuban-Soviet relations. Instead
of containing the spread of communism in a country nearby, the plan totally backfired.
The USA was humiliated because they had to admit responsibility for the BOP attacks. Initially, the US
wanted everyone to think that they had nothing to do with the attacks so they trained Cuban exiles for
invasion instead of sending American troops, and disguised fighter planes to look like Cuban aircraft.
However, there were multiple inconsistencies in the details of the attack and the press uncovered most of
the truth, leading to the USA having to publicly announce their involvement in the BOP.
Instead of stopping the spread of communism near their borders, the BOP strengthened relations between
Cuba and the USSR. After the BOP incident, Castro feared for the security of Cuba and turned to the
USSR for aid, leading to the installation of Soviet missiles in Cuba before the October Crisis in 1962. The
BOP had led to a new, major threat to the US, the fear of nuclear attacks from a mere 90 miles away.
Why was the Cuban Revolution seen as a threat to the USA?
*Cuban Revolution refers to Castro’s takeover of Cuba from 1953 to 1959
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‘The USA had supported Batista.’
‘American influence in Cuba was reduced.’
‘Castro took over American owned businesses in Cuba.’
‘The USA was concerned about the spread of communist ideas close to its shores.’
‘Land owned by American companies was given to Cubans.’
‘Castro was allied with Khrushchev
The Cuban Revolution was seen as a threat as it undermined US influence in Cuba. Prior to the
revolution, US companies had dominated a large section of the Cuban economy. However, Castro
nationalised many industries and businesses which took power and finance away from American
industries. American companies could no longer make as much money from their businesses in Cuba.
The Cuban Revolution was a threat to the USA as the US had supported Batista. Castro was a
charismatic, clever and cunning leader who won the hearts of Cubans by introducing his communist ideas
and his ideology of independence from the US. This garnered lots of popularity for Castro and feelings
towards Batista soured. US-backed Batista no longer had dominance in Cuba but pro-communist Castro
did instead, which would undermine US influence in Cuba.
The Cuban Revolution was seen as a threat because the US was concerned about the spread of
communism near its borders. Batista’s popularity declined dramatically when Castro began campaigning
for his communist ideals for Cuba. Many Cubans soon became pro-communist, leading to the overthrow
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of Batista in 1959. The US feared that the revolution would spark other communist revolutions in other
Latin American nations.
Why was the USA concerned about Castro declaring Cuba a Communist state in December 1961?
●​ Cuba had willingly become a communist state under Castro’s rule and not by force by the Red
Army. This could spark other communist revolutions in Latin America → could threaten
America’s security
●​ American companies had invested heavily in Cuba, especially in mining and agriculture. Castro
disliked American influence in Cuba and wanted the country to be independent from American
involvement, so the USA feared that he would take over American-owned businesses and land →
sugar, tobacco, general agriculture
●​ Declaring Cuba a communist state could mean that relations between Castro and Batista would
strengthen → could lead to collaboration → serious threat in the Cold War as the United States
had a Soviet ally/satellite state so close to borders
The USA was concerned as Cuba had willingly become a communist state under Castro’s rule, and not by
force by the Red Army. Castro had also gained massive popularity and his people liked his ideals. This
could spark other communist revolutions in Latin America and lead to more countries near the US to
become Soviet satellite states. This would threaten America’s security.
The USA was concerned as prior to Castro’s takeover of Cuba, many American companies had invested
heavily in the country, setting up many businesses and plantations, especially in mining and agriculture.
Castro disliked American influence in Cuba and wanted the country to be independent from American
involvement. As such, the USA feard that Castro would take over American-owned businesses and land
and nationalise them, negatively impacting the US economy and involvement in Cuba.
Declaring Cuba a communist state could mean that relations between Cuba and the USSR could
strengthen. Soviet influence in Cuba would increase due to further collaboration and cooperation between
the two states. This would be a serious threat in the Cold War as the US would have a Soviet ally literally
on their doorstep, threatening America’s security and undermining their policy of containment.
Why was Cuba important to the USA?
●​ The USA had built a huge naval base at Guantanamo
●​ American companies had invested heavily in Cuba, especially in mining and agriculture
●​ Cuba was only 150km away from America’s southern coast → Castro takeover could introduce
communism and threaten America’s security
●​ Sugar trade was vital to American economy
●​ Cheap labour
Why was the Bay of Pigs Invasion a failure?
●​ Kennedy did not organise a direct invasion → supplied arms, equipment and transport for 1400
anti-Castro exiles to invade Cuba and overthrow him
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●​ Kennedy misjudged Castro’s defences and support → met by 20,000 Cuban troops and Cuban
population would not support the exiles
●​ The Cuban exiles that invaded Cuba were not soldiers → had taken advice from the CIA but not
properly trained in combat. For success to be guaranteed, US troops were needed with the help of
aerial assistance
●​ Kennedy inherited the plan to invade (from Eisenhower and the CIA) → Kennedy might not have
scrutinised the plan properly enough
●​ Even though US made it seem like there was no American involvement, there were too many
loopholes and press uncovered truth → forced to admit responsibility
The BOP Invasion was a failure as the Americans were forced to admit their responsibility in the events
that ensued. Initially, the USA wanted it to seem like they had no involvement in the invasion so they
disguised fighter planes to look like Cuban aircraft. Instead of sending American troops, they sent Cuban
exiles to invade instead, one of them appearing on Cuban television to make it seem like there was no US
involvement. However, due to the loopholes and inconsistencies in the evidence, the press uncovered
most of the truth and the US was forced to admit their involvement in the event, undermining their
credibility.
The BOP invasion failed because the USA greatly underestimated Castro’s defences. The US sent 1400
Cuban exiles to invade Cuba, only to be met by 20,000 Cuban troops. The US also strongly relied on the
belief that the regular Cuban population would join the exiles to overthrow Castro, however the Cubans
supported Castro and refused to participate in the movement. As such, the Cuban exiles were heavily
unprepared and greatly outnumbered.
The BOP invasion failed because the Cuban exiles that the US sent to invade Cuba were not soldiers.
These were 1400 exiles who had fled Castro’s rule. Though they had received advice from the CIA, they
were not properly trained in combat and were heavily outnumbered by Castro’s 20,000 troops. To
guarantee success, US soldiers were needed with the help of aerial assistance, however this did not
happen because the US wanted to make it seem like they had no involvement in the incident. Thus, the
Cuban exiles were unprepared when faced by Cuban troops.
Explain what Khrushchev hoped to achieve by placing nuclear missiles in Cuba.
●​ To bargain with the USA for the removal of missiles from Turkey
●​ To gain the upper hand in the arms race
●​ To defend Cuba following BOP incident
●​ To test the will of Kennedy because he was a new President → test the waters and see how he
reacts
Khrushchev wanted to gain the upper hand in the arms race. The USA had many nuclear bases and
weapons stationed in Europe in close proximity to the USSR, however the USSR’s long-range nuclear
missiles could not reach the US. Stationing medium-range nuclear missiles in Cuba would be cheaper and
more effective as Cuba was only 90 miles away from Florida. This would give the USSR and advantage
in the nuclear arms race.
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Khrushchev wanted to defend Cuba following the Bay of Pigs incident. Although the BOP invasion was a
massive failure for the USA, Khrushchev was afraid that a similar incident could occur in the future. He
stationed missiles in Cuba to ensure the country’s security should it be targeted again by the USA.
Khrushchev also wanted to bargain with the USA for the removal of missiles from Turkey. The USA had
nuclear weapons stationed in Turkey which bordered the USSR, threatening the security of the USSR
significantly. If he stationed nuclear missiles in ‘Uncle Sam’s backyard’, this could force Kennedy to back
down and make concessions.
Why did the Cuban Missile Crisis cause so much alarm?
●​ Russian missiles were close and a threat to the US → Khrushchev was gaining the upper hand
being so close and the missile gap was closing, the USSR wanted bargaining power / leverage to
get the USA to remove missiles from Turkey
●​ A nuclear attack could be imminent → if the bases became operational much of the USA would
be susceptible to nuclear attacks
●​ It gave strength to Cuba → it was a threat to US supremacy in the arms race
●​ It was a challenge to Kennedy
●​ It was a threat to world peace → blockade heightened tension
●​ Communism could spread → increased the fear of the spread of communism in the region as
Cuba had already become communist
The Cuban Missile Crisis caused alarm as it gave strength to Cuba and was a threat to US supremacy in
the arms race. Prior to the crisis, the US had the upper hand in the arms race with multiple nuclear bases
stationed in Europe in close proximity to the USSR, whereas the USSR had no missiles within range of
the USA. With Soviet missiles being stationed in Cuba, there were nuclear missiles in ‘Uncle Sam’s
backyard’ powerful enough to annihilate almost all major American cities. This instilled fear in the
Americans as they were afraid that a nuclear war could ensue from Cuba’s possession of nuclear warfare.
The CMC caused alarm because Russian missiles had never been so close to the US. With Cuba’s
possession of Soviet nuclear weaponry, Khrushchev was gaining the upper hand and the missile gap was
closing. Cuba had enough nuclear missiles to wipe out the majority of the USA. The USSR wanted
bargaining power to get the USA to remove their missiles from Turkey, and this heightened tensions
among the countries involved.
The CMC caused alarm because the USA and the USSR came close to war. When news of the missiles in
Cuba reached Kennedy, he announced the naval blockade on 22 October 1962 to prevent Russian ships
from delivering more missiles to Cuba. A day later, Khrushchev sent Kennedy a letter which stated that
his Russian ships would not observe the blockade. This heightened tensions between the two
leaders/countries and there was a fear that war could ensue should more acts of aggression be taken
against each other.
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Why did the BOP Invasion take place in April 1961?
●​ Cuban exiles demanded action
●​ US property was taken over → Castro’s nationalism scheme
●​ Eisenhower and the CIA had planned it prior to JFK becoming President
●​ The USSR and Cuba became allies
→ a large number of Cubans who were Batista supporters fled from Cuba when Castro took over. These
exiles hoped to return to Cuba when Castro was overthrown, and they placed pressure on the US
government to help them
→ Castro took over many US businesses / land and re-distributed them to Cuban peasants even though
the land belonged to US citizens
→ Eisenhower wanted to overthrow Castro due to his communist ideology and authorised the CIA to look
into ways to overthrow him
→ Pressure groups and Cuban exiles found support from the American media who produced a relentless
stream of criticism of Castro and his regime; this influenced the US govt and placed pressure on them
→ in summer 1960 Castro allied himself with the USSR; Khrushchev signed a trade agreement giving
Cuba $100 million in economic aid - annoyed US govt
→ castro started to receive arms from ussr
→ kennedy did not want soviet satellite state in usa’s sphere of influence
The Bay of Pigs invasion occurred because Cuban exiles who had fled Castro’s rule demanded action
taken to overthrow him. These exiles were Batista supporters who hoped to return to Cuba as soon as
Castro was overthrown. They placed pressure on the United States government to help them achieve their
goal by influencing the American media to produce an endless stream of anti-Castro content. Therefore,
the CIA planned the BOP invasion to overthrow Castro with the help of the Cuban exiles.
Another reason why the BOP incident occurred was because Castro had implemented a nationalism
scheme that greatly upset the USA. The scheme involved Castro taking over American businesses and
land, re-distributing them to Cuban peasants even though they belonged to US citizens. This negatively
impacted US business and economy as these US companies no longer had any influence in Cuba. As
such, the American government was angered by Castro’s actions and planned the BOP invasion to
overthrow Castro and bring Batista back to power.
The BOP invasion also happened because Castro had begun to ally himself with Khrushchev. Castro had
announced that Cuba would become communist in 1959 and started collaborating closely with the USSR.
In 1960, Khrushchev signed a trade agreement promising to give $100 million in economic aid to Cuba.
This worried the US because it meant that communism was at their doorstep, and could possibly catalyse
other communist revolutions in South America. Thus, they carried out the BOP invasion to overthrow
Castro to get rid of his communist influence.
Part C
‘Neither side emerged from the Cuban Missile Crisis the winner’. How far do you agree with this
statement?
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‘The USSR maintained considerable influence in Cuba.’
‘Khrushchev had to back down.’
‘Khrushchev had to remove the missiles.’
‘The USA had a communist country within its sphere of influence.’
‘Kennedy had to agree to remove his missiles from Turkey.’
‘Both sides were criticised in the international press.’
‘Khrushchev lost popularity in the USSR and eventually lost power.’
‘Kennedy demonstrated that he would not accept direct military action from the communist
USSR near the USA.’
‘Kennedy had asserted authority in his own government.’
‘War had been avoided.’
‘Both Kennedy and Khrushchev appeared as peacemakers.’
‘Cuba was able to remain an ally of the USSR.
The Cuban Missile Crisis was considered a victory for the USA because the Soviet missiles in Cuba were
removed. During the October Crisis in 1962, Kennedy negotiated for the removal of missiles in Cuba.
This removed the threat of nuclear missiles that could wipe out the majority of US cities in such close
range, and instilled relief in American people who were afraid of a nuclear war. This was a win for the US
because it eliminated the nuclear threat in ‘Uncle Sam’s backyard’.
However, the Cuban Missile crisis was also considered a loss for the USA because he was forced to
remove his missiles from Turkey, albeit secretly. For the Soviet missiles to be removed from Cuba, the
USA had to remove their missiles from Turkey. Kennedy was criticised for giving in to Khrushchev’s
demands so easily, and this eliminated his bargaining power in the nuclear arms race without nuclear
warfare located close to the USSR.
The CMC was considered a loss for Khrushchev because he lost his prestige and reputation from the
incident. Although he was considered by some to be a peacemaker, members of his government criticised
him for giving in to Kennedy’s demands too easily. This affected his popularity and contributed to his
removal from office in 1964.
The CMC was, however, considered a victory for the USSR because there was still significant Soviet
influence in Cuba. The USA’s aims were to eliminate all communist and Soviet influence in Cuba,
however after the CMC Khrushchev and Castro remained close allies. Although the CMC had prevented
more Soviet missiles from reaching Cuba, this did not sour relations and Soviet influence in Cuba was
still prevalent.
Neither side won the CMC because they had both been criticised in the international press. They were
both said to be too lenient with each other, with experts and members of their government stating that
they should have taking a stronger, more aggressive stand with each other. Moreover, both leaders realised
how close they had come to war and did not want such an incident to repeat itself. As such, a ‘hotline’
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was set up to enable direct communication between both leaders. This shows that both leaders were
willing to have peaceful negotiations with each other.
Overall, neither side emerged from the Cuban Missile Crisis the winner, as both sides stood to gain some
and lose some from the incident. Both countries lost missiles and both leaders suffered criticism from
international press.
‘The Cuban Missile Crisis was a success for the USA’s policy of containment.’ How far do you agree with
this statement? Explain your answer.
→ ‘The intention of the policy of containment was to prevent the USSR from expanding its
influence any further. In the Cuban Crisis, the USA managed to persuade the USSR to
remove its nuclear weapons from Cuba. This meant Cuba was no longer a military threat to
the USA and the USSR had failed to permanently site weapons there aimed at the USA.’
OR
e.g. ‘Although the military threat was removed, Cuba was still a communist country with close
links to the USSR through trade, diplomacy and ideology. Cuba, with the support of the
USSR, could still be used to spread communism into Central America and the northern part
of South America.’
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‘Cuba could be a base to spread communism.’
‘Containment stopped the spread of USSR’s influence.’
‘Soviet weapons were removed from Cuba.’
‘Missiles were removed from Turkey.’
‘The USSR was still an ally of Castro.’
‘The Crisis showed the USSR that Kennedy would stand up to Soviet expansion.’
‘The Missile Crisis was a humiliation for the Soviet Union.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer.
❖​ Agree: it humiliated USSR
→ USSR was forced to back down and remove the missiles from Cuba with public knowledge, whereas
the removal of US missiles from Turkey was kept secret. Undermined the strength of the USSR and
showed that they had no bargaining power
→ Khrushchev was criticised by Soviet experts by being too weak and giving in to JFK’s demands too
easily. Prestige and reputation negatively impacted. These same experts contributed to Khrushchev’s
dismissal in 1964
❖​ Disagree: did not humiliate USSR
→ communist and Soviet influence was retained in Cuba. The whole aim of the BOP incident was to
stamp out communism in Cuba but this backfired and there was still a strong communist following;
undermined US strength
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→ bargained successfully for the removal of US missiles in Turkey, albeit secretly. Since Khrushchev was
the first to make an offer, this showed that the US acceded to this request
→ Khrushchev kept Cuba as an ally and kept it safe from US intervention. Robert Kennedy threatened the
Soviet Ambassador with an invasion should the missiles not be removed, and Republican leaders wanted
to conduct a surgical air strike. Despite this, Khrushchev was the first to make a peace offer and prevented
the situation from escalating and avoided American intervention in Cuba
How great a threat was the Cuban Missile Crisis to world peace? Explain your answer.
❖​ Never a threat
→ Khrushchev just wanted to protect Cuba - after the BOP incident he was genuinely concerned for the
security of Cuba so missiles were installed, but he did not intend war since he made the first offer
→ Khrushchev was open to diplomacy - was not impressed by the advice from Castro about getting in the
first strike and instead wrote an urgent letter to JFK
→ Kennedy wanted to avoid war - bought time in delaying his reply to the first letter in the hope that any
war could be avoided and the Russians would back down
→ USA was open to compromise - USA agreed that missiles would be removed from Turkey albeit
secretly, they struck a peaceful agreement with USSR
❖​ Was a threat to world peace
→ Americans felt extremely threatened - wanted missiles and bases to be removed from Cuba with
immediate effect or else they would launch an attack on Cuba. At this stage, there was a real fear of a
nuclear war. Castro suggested in Khrushchev should get in the 1st strike
→ USSR made demands USA felt they couldn’t give in - following the 1st letter from Khrushchev the
Americans did not know what to do. Military leaders recommended a surgical air attack immediately, and
Robert Kennedy gave the Soviet Ambassador an ultimatum that if the missiles were not removed, the
USA would attack Cuba
→ Nuclear war was very apparent - USSR could annihilate almost the entire USA while the USA had
many nuclear bases stationed in Europe in close proximity to the USSR. BOP invasion heightened
tension. Both leaders realised how close they had come to a nuclear war so a ‘hotline’ was installed for
direct communication between Washington and Moscow to prevent any future occurrences
‘The main reason Khrushchev put missiles on Cuba was for defensive purposes’. How far do you agree?
Explain your answer.
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Cuba had been threatened by USA
It was close to USA
It was a base for communist expansion
Khrushchev was testing JFK
Helped USSR’s nuclear missile strategy
→ Khrushchev was anxious to defend Cuba. It was the only communist state in the Western hemisphere
and it had become communist willingly, not as a result of force by the Red Army.
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→ Cuba was in Uncle Sam’s Backyard and the US was so concerned that it carried out a practice invasion
of Cuba involving 40,000 marines. The USSR wanted to defend it against a possible attack.
→ Khrushchev was aware the USA had far more long-range nuclear missiles than the USSR. The USA
had missiles in Turkey. The USSR had more medium-range missiles which could reach most of the USA
from Cuba.
→ Khrushchev probably hoped to strengthen his own position in the USSR by forcing JFK to allow the
missiles or at least get him to give some concessions.
How far could the USSR be blamed for the Cuban Missile Crisis? Explain your answer.
❖​ USSR
→ The USSR supplied Cuba with arms
→ Khrushchev decided to place nuclear weapons on Cuba, a mere 150km away from the southern coast
of the USA. They could potentially annihilate almost all of America.
→ Khrushchev was determined to protect Cuba from any possible American attacks
❖​ Other
→ USA organised Bay of Pigs invasion which failed miserably, leading to Castro being unsure about
Cuba’s security and turning to the USSR for help
→ Kennedy announced the Cuban naval blockade which would have prevented weapons from the USSR
from reaching Cuba, heightening tension
Who gained more from the CMC - Kennedy or Khrushchev? Explain your answer.
❖​ Kennedy
→ improved reputation
→ stood up to his Congress as they wanted a surgical air attack instead of a blockade
→ did not disclose removal of missiles from Turkey even though the removal of missiles from Cuba was
public knowledge
❖​ Khrushchev
→ Khrushchev was a peacemaker - willing to make the first move towards compromise
→ Khrushchev kept Cuba as an ally - kept Cuba safe from American intervention
→ Cuba remained under Soviet and communist influence - proved a useful base to support communists in
South America
→ Khrushchev managed to get the missiles in Turkey removed
Which leader, Kennedy or Khrushchev, handled the CMC better? Explain your answer.
❖​ Kennedy
→ took a firm line with the USSR and improved his reputation - popularity boosted in USA and
throughout West
→ got bases and missiles removed from Cuba
→ ignored the opinions of Republican leaders who wanted a more aggressive approach to the situation air strike
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❖​ Khrushchev
→ ensured that communism remained in Cuba and close to the USA
→ became the peacemaker with his offer - missiles removed from Cuba for missiles removed from
Turkey - willing to make the first move for compromise
→ got missiles from Turkey removed
*although Khrushchev was seen as the peacemaker, his reputation and prestige was somewhat ruined
because he was forced to back down
❖​ Both
Both men realised that the CMC raised significant alarm across the globe and were anxious to ensure that
this did not repeat. It was agreed by both sides to set up a ‘hotline’ between Washington and Moscow to
allow direct communication to take place. In 1963 a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty was signed
The Vietnam War (1955 - 1973)
→ Background
●​ Formation of the Vietminh (1941)
○​ Ho Chi Minh (former pastry chef) and Nguyen Vo Giap (history teacher)
○​ Nationalist organisation
○​ Aimed to establish and independent Vietnam, fighting both the Japanese and the
French
●​ Important events after the formation of the Vietminh
○​ Japanese appointed Bao Dai as the leader of Vietnam
○​ Once Japan surrendered in August 1945, Vietminh took control of Hanoi and Saigon
○​ French troops returned by December 1945 to regain power
○​ French launched major attack on Vietminh in November 1946
○​ Truman sent the French supplies worth $15 million in July 1950 (after Korean War
broke out)
○​ Battle of Dien Bien Phu → French surrendered in May 1954
○​ Geneva Peace Accords → signed May 1954
→ Battle of Dien Bien Phu (March - May 1954)
●​ Small village close to Laos border
●​ 60,000 Vietminh vs. 15,000 French troops
●​ 7 May 1954 → French surrendered
→ Geneva Peace Accords (May 1954)
●​ The day after Dien Bien Phu fell
●​ Leaders of Britain, France, China, USSR, US and Vietnam
●​ Agreements were made:
○​ There should be a ceasefire
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There should be an exchange of prisoners
Withdrawal of all foreign forces from Vietnam
Vietnam to gain independence from France
Vietnam divided temporarily into North and South along 17th parallel
Ho Chi Minh’s government in North, Diem’s government in the South
Elections for a united Vietnam to take place July 1956
→ Domino Theory (1954)
★​ When the French left Vietnam in 1955, the US saw Vietnam as a key battleground to prevent
the spread of communism
★​ Eisenhower suggested Domino Theory in 1954
○​ If one country fell to communism, other countries would follow suit, just like
dominoes
○​ China, N. Korea and N. Vietnam already had communist governments
○​ Eisenhower was determined that communism would stop at the 17th parallel
★​ Even though Diem did not agree with the agreements made at Geneva, the US stated that she
would support Diem as he was a strong enemy of communism
→ Diem’s Leadership
●​ Rigged elections in 1955, stating that he had received 605,000 votes while there were only
405,000 registered voters in Saigon
●​ 12,000 people were executed for not sharing the same views as Diem’s government
●​ By July 1956 (date for proposed election), Diem did not hold one, and Eisenhower did not try
to make him have one either
●​ “Diem was a puppet who pulled his own strings...and ours as well”
○​ The US believed that Diem would do what they wanted if they supported him, but he
went against their wishes multiple times
●​ Catholic → favoured Catholics and gave them power positions in government, causing
Buddhists to become angry
○​ Anti-Buddhist policies:
■​ Required government permission to carry out acts of worship (unlike
Catholics)
■​ Police would ignore Catholics if they broke the law but open fire if Buddhists
did the same (Buddha’s birthday, May 1963: see below)
→ Rise of the National Liberation Front (NLF) (December 1960)
●​ Set up by Vietminh, who renamed themselves Vietcong
●​ Appealed to the educated middle-class including teachers, doctors
●​ Main aims:
○​ Overthrow Diem
○​ Get rid of American involvement
○​ Reunite North and South Vietnam
●​ A month after NLF was created, JFK came into power
→ JFK’s stance on Vietnam
●​ Came into power January 1961
●​ Wanted Americans to think he was tough on communism
Compiled by Kai Ryn
○​
○​
○​
○​
○​
Keen to increase US involvement
Refused to send more troops as he did not want to increase tension in Asia
Increased number of military experts training S. Vietnamese army
Spent $270 million in military support for Diem
By 1963, there were 16,000 ‘advisers’
→ Strategic Hamlet Programme (1962)
Diem was afraid of increasing NLF popularity and wanted to ensure that it did not gain even more
traction. As such, he set up the SHP in 1962 to prevent villagers from helping communists in the South
●​ Took peasants away from villages in which NLF presence was strong
●​ Relocated them to new locations, ‘protected’ from the Vietcong by S. Vietnamese troops
●​ By summer 1963 over two-thirds of population had been moved to the aforementioned hamlets
○​ Instead of preventing NLF from gaining more popularity, Diem achieved the opposite.
NLF supporters were not cut off from villagers so they continued to indoctrinate them,
thus exponentially increasing the number of NLF members.
○​ SHP was a terrible failure for Diem and the Americans
→ Opposition to Diem
★​ Death by burning
●​ 11 June 1963 → Buddhist monk sat in the middle of a road
●​ Other Buddhist monks crowded around him, one poured petrol onto his body
●​ Monk calmly lit a match, setting himself alight
●​ Vietnamese Buddhists wanted to make a stand as Diem strongly favoured Catholics, promoting
them to power positions in government
●​ Wanted to take a stand against Diem’s anti-Buddhist policies
★​ Buddha’s birthday celebration
●​ May 1963 → Buddhists flew Buddhist flag
●​ Troops opened fire, killing 9 people, 8 of them children
●​ Two days later (10 May) → 10,000 Buddhists took to the streets in protest
*protests and monk’s suicide garnered a great deal of publicity in the US. For the first time, American
media had coverage of events in Vietnam, especially regarding Diem’s massive unpopularity
→ Diem’s downfall and death (1963)
●​ JFK realised that Diem could no longer be in power, the government giving its approval for a
coup d’etat to overthrow Diem and his brother Nhu
●​ Troops surrounded Diem’s house in Saigon on 1 November 1963
●​ Brothers managed to escape
●​ The next day, they agreed to surrender on the condition that they would be allowed to leave
Vietnam; they surrendered
●​ A few moments after they were arrested the troops changed their minds and both were shot
dead
●​ November 1963 - JFK is assassinated
→ Gulf of Tonkin incident (August 1964)
●​ USS Maddox fired at N. Vietnamese patrol boats in Gulf of Tonkin
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ 2 days later, US claimed that the USS Maddox and USS Joy were under attack by N.
Vietnamese torpedoes
●​ Johnson claimed that this called for strong US military reaction - most of Congress supported
this
●​ US Senate granted Johnson permission to send troops to Vietnam
However…
●​ None of the sailors actually heard communist gunfire
●​ US jet pilots flying over the Gulf of Tonkin said they saw no sign of the enemy
●​ Johnson knew that the 2nd attacks on the Maddox and Joy never happened, but used it as a
chance to increase US involvement in Vietnam
○​ WHY?
○​ Johnson’s Republican opponent had stated that he was too ‘soft’ on communism
○​ Wanted to show Americans that he was strong towards communism
○​ Situation in Vietnam deteriorating rapidly → NLF gaining massive popularity, could
cause domino effect to accelerate
As a result…
●​ US President had unlimited control over decisions regarding Vietnam
●​ Johnson escalated US military force dramatically
●​ 3500 marines sent to Vietnam in March 1965
The Gulf of Tonkin incident never happened, but Johnson claimed it did to have further intervention in
Vietnam. This was the catalyst of American involvement in the Vietnam War.
→ Guerilla Warfare: US and Vietcong tactics
United States
●​ Operation Rolling Thunder (1965 - 1968)
○​ US bombing campaign over N. Vietnam
○​ Supposed to last 2 months; lasted 3 and a half years
○​ US Air Force dropped more bombs on N. Vietnam than all the bombs dropped in
WWII → total 8 million tonnes of bombs
○​ Aim: damage N. Vietnam’s war effort and destroy Vietcong supply routes
○​ Main target was Ho Chi Minh trails
●​ Search and Destroy
○​ Integral aspect of General Westmoreland’s strategy to defeat Vietcong
○​ Troops in hostile territory to search out enemy
○​ Destroying personnel and resources
○​ Low impact on Vietcong → US troops would fall for booby traps; HCM trails hard to
find
○​ Frustrated troops would destroy villages instead → innocent people killed, drove locals
to support Vietcong
●​ Agent Orange
○​ Herbicide and defoliant chemical containing poisonous substances
○​ Defoliate forests to search for Vietcong members
○​ Destroyed crops that might feed Vietcong members
○​ Over 45 million litres of AO was sprayed via planes
○​ Polluted water supply → still causes diseases and deformities today
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ Napalm
○​ Jelly-like substance
○​ Excellent in clearing thick foliage and fighting an unseen enemy
○​ Used despite inhumane effects eg. sticking to human skin and burning its way to the
bone
○​ Very hard to extinguish
○​ Psychological weapon due to the pain and suffering associated with it
●​ Cluster bombs
○​ Gravity bombs dropped from the air that fragment into grenades when they hit the
ground
○​ Destroy large surface areas of land
○​ Constantly used this to bomb HCM trails to destroy food supply
○​ Remains a threat today → large numbers of these bombs remain unexploded; could
still be triggered today
○​ Did not defeat Vietcong, only slowed them down
●​ Mines
○​ Bouncing Betty → bombs with springs that jump up and explode when triggered
○​ Not fatal, but many would die if immediate medical treatment was not provided
○​ Untripped Bouncing Bettys still can be triggered today
Vietcong
●​ Ho Chi Minh trails and tunneling
○​ 15,000km elaborate system of mountain and jungle paths
○​ Used by N. Viet soldiers to send weapons and other supplies into Laos, Cambodia and
S. Viet
○​ Hospitals, kitchens and barracks (underground) for troops
○​ Layered with booby traps in case Americans infiltrated them
○​ As many as ten different routes between 2 points → if 1 was destroyed another could
be used
●​ Booby traps​
○​ Homemade traps that accounted for 11% of American soldier deaths
○​ Not meant to cause death but immense agony and suffering instead
○​ Soldiers would go through immense pain before eventually dying/finally being treated
○​ Could cause infections
○​ Some traps still remain till this day
●​ Mines
○​ Homemade devices
→ Tet Offensive (1968)
31 January 1968 - 70,000 Vietcong launched a massive attack on 100 towns and cities in S. Vietnam
●​ Launched during Vietnamese new year (Tet)
●​ Lasted less than 1 month
●​ Americans and S. Vietnamese were taken by surprise - half of the S. Vietnamese army were on
holiday for Tet
●​ Vietcong struggled - could not used guerilla tactics but had to use face-to-face combat
●​ American embassy was attacked
●​ American TV showed film of attacks to 50 million homes
Compiled by Kai Ryn
AIMS OF THE TET OFFENSIVE
●​ Hoped that local S. Vietnamese would rise up and support Vietcong
●​ Hoped that US would realise that they couldn’t win the war and withdraw their forces
MILITARY CONSEQUENCES
●​ Disaster for Vietcong and NLF
○​ More than 45,000 killed
●​ Americans lost 1500 men
●​ 14,000 civilians killed
CREDIBILITY GAP AFTER TET
●​ US had always claimed that bombs never hit civilians, and there weren’t many of them
○​ Media told public otherwise; turned against the war effort
●​ Convinced the US that they were not winning
○​ Did not think that this war was worth fighting for
→ My Lai Massacre (1968)
On 16 March 1968, an American patrol approached the small village of My Lai. They found no
Vietcong members, and neither were they attacked by any enemy.
●​ Soldiers suffered psychological impacts from the war; disillusioned and mindlessly killed 300
people
●​ Women raped
●​ Babies killed
News of massacre was kept quiet. Officially, it was recorded as a success. According to reports, 90
Vietcong fighters were killed at My Lai.
November 1969 → American press got hold of a story from a soldier that was there
●​ Calley, an officer in charge of one of the platoons, was sentenced to 22 years in jail but only
served 4 before Nixon pardoned him
●​ Americans were used to seeing themselves as heroic, but after photographs of My Lai were
released they believed otherwise
●​ Started to question how serious the war actually was, and how much atrocity was being kept
from them
●​ Questioned integrity and ethics of the war
→ Opposition to the war in USA
Why did people oppose the war?
●​ Unnecessary money and resources channelled
●​ Kids being conscripted and killed
○​ Rich whites would send their kids overseas, so many Black boys would have no choice
but to go to war
●​ Questioned morals and ethics behind the war after My Lai (1968)
●​ Long way away; does not seem to affect US
●​ Media war - saw grotesque footage of Vietnamese suffering from bombs, Agent Orange etc.
●​ Sympathised with struggle of Vietnamese to create an independent and unified country
Compiled by Kai Ryn
Who opposed the war?
●​ Veterans and returning soldiers - understood the brutality and suffering
●​ Student and young people
○​ Civil Rights Movement and Peace Movements (make love, not war)
●​ Parents of soldiers
●​ Democrats → did not believe in violence
How did people protest and show their disdain?
●​ Organised marches
●​ Banners / slogans / pins or badges
●​ Strikes / University ‘sit-in’s → Kent State University Shooting, May 1970 (see below)
●​ Burn draft cards (what you got in the post when you were conscripted)
○​ Only wealthy could burn draft cards
●​ Write songs
KENT STATE UNIVERSITY SHOOTING, MAY 1970
●​ Group of students peacefully protested at their university
○​ Protesting Nixon’s Cambodian bombing campaign
●​ National Guardsmen intervened
●​ Killed 4 students and wounded 9
●​ National response - hundreds of colleges and schools closed throughout US due to a student
strike of 4 million students
●​ Further impacted public opinion of war - worsened
What does this show about government action against protestors?
●​ Desperation, panicked response
●​ Crush any potential opponents
●​ Very conscious about public’s perspective towards war
Why did the shooting cause outrage?
●​ Innocent students were killed even though they protested peacefully
●​ Unnecessary for National Guard to intervene in something as minor as a student protest
●​ Lose faith in the country’s important organisations (National Guard)
→ The end of the Vietnam War
●​ After the Tet Offensive (1968), Johnson concluded that the Vietnam War could not be won
militarily
○​ Reduced Operation Rolling Thunder (later increased bombing in Cambodia to destroy
Vietcong strongholds)
○​ Began negotiations with communists in the North
○​ March 1973: Paris Peace Accords
●​ Nixon elected in November 1968
○​ Johnson admitted that the US had failed to win the war, did not run again for President
○​ Nixon and Henry Kissinger worked to end US involvement from 1969 - 1973
Compiled by Kai Ryn
○​ HOW?​
→ 1969 - Kissinger had regular meetings with Le Duc Tho, chief peace negotiator of
N. Vietnam
→ 1970 - Nixon asked Moscow to encourage N. Vietnam to end war
→ 1972 - Nixon asked China to encourage N. Vietnam to end war
→ Vietnamisation
●​ Paris Peace Accords (1973)
○​ January 1973
○​ Official end of the Vietnam war (peace treaty signed)
→ Vietnamisation
AIM → gradually bring US troops out of Vietnam and leave S. Vietnam army to fight, supported by
US equipment and military advisors
●​ US increased bombing of HCM trails to try to destroy as much of the Vietcong strongholds as
they could
●​ Show that US was strong, did not want to give impression that US was simply leaving defeated
●​ Nixon tried to end the war by bombing HCM trails in Cambodia → secret raids failed
○​ US troops then sent in to destroy Vietcong strongholds in Cambodia
○​ Badly received by Americans, leading to sit-in at Kent State University (1970)
○​ 4 students killed by National Guardsmen → anti-war sentiment exacerbated
EFFECTS OF VIETNAMISATION
●​ Spread conflict into Laos and Cambodia
●​ Encouraged local communists → bombing did not destroy VC, just slowed them down
●​ Contributed to support for Khmer Rouge (Cambodian communists) and Pathet Lao (Laos
communists) that defeated the purpose of containment
PROBLEMS FOR NIXON
●​ Vietnamisation backfired → led to a change in government policy, US could not do anything
about Laos and Cambodia falling to communism
○​ In 1965 US had stated it was a just and vital war
●​ Caused great public outcry at home over unnecessary bombings and extension of battleground
into Cambodia
○​ Many protests occurred
○​ 1970 Kent State University Shootings - peaceful protest by students disrupted by
National Guard opening fire - led to even more outrage
●​ Nixon could not lose face and admit defeat
○​ Couldn’t be seen simply giving in to anti-war protests
Vietnam Past-paper Questions (ABC)
Part A
→ What was Eisenhower’s policy towards Vietnam?
●​ Key battleground in the fight against communism
●​ Crucial part of his domino theory
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ If Vietnam became communist, other states in the region like Burma and Thailand could also
follow suit
●​ Backed anti-communist government in South Vietnam led by Ngo Dinh Diem
●​ Sent American air force pilots to support French military presence
●​ Offered military and economic aid to S. Vietnam after French left
●​ Increased the number of military advisors to 900
●​ Maintained a naval presence in the region
→ What was the domino effect in relation to Vietnam?
●​ Eisenhower thought that if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in the region would also
fall
●​ With the fall of China and North Korea to communism already, Eisenhower thought that Vietnam
would be next
●​ It was important that the US supported S. Vietnam to prevent communism from taking over
●​ If Vietnam fell to communism Laos and Cambodia would be next
●​ Thailand, Indonesia and Burma could fall to communism after Laos and Cambodia
→ What did the Geneva Agreements of 1954 propose for Vietnam?
●​ There should be a ceasefire
●​ There should be an exchange of prisoners
●​ Withdrawal of all foreign forces
●​ Vietnam to gain independence from France
●​ Vietnam temporarily divided into North and South
●​ Along 17th parallel
●​ Ho Chi Minh’s govt in North
●​ Diem’s in South
●​ Elections to take place 1956 July
→ What was the Tet Offensive?
●​ Communist troops attacked major S. Vietnamese towns
●​ It took place in 1968
●​ Vietcong commando unit tried to take over the US embassy in Saigon
●​ Large number of US forces tied town trying to protect the embassy for 2 days
●​ Disaster for the Vietcong; lost more than 10,000 men
●​ Turning point in the war; Americans at home wondered whether America was really winning the
war
●​ Start of negotiations for peace with the communists
→ What part did the Ho Chi Minh trail play in the Vietnam war?
●​ N. Vietnamese used trails to supply Vietcong in S. Vietnam
●​ Sent equipment, food and weapons to Vietcong
●​ Trails were vital to the Vietcong
●​ Dummy paths and depots to confuse American troops
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ Had booby traps in case Americans infiltrated them
●​ Ensured Vietcong had replacements quickly when equipment was destroyed
→ Describe the tactics used by the USA in Vietnam
●​ Operation Rolling Thunder → bombing campaign that lasted 3 years
●​ Chemical weapons eg. Napalm, Agent Orange
●​ Search and destroy tactic → if any sign of Vietcong presence was detected in villages the entire
village would be destroyed
●​ Agent Orange used to destroy jungles where Vietcong members hid
●​ Napalm destroyed jungle where guerillas could hide; would burn skin till the bone
→ Describe the involvement of the US in Vietnam before Johnson became president in 1963.
●​ USA helped prevent free elections from taking place in 1954 as it feared the communists would
win
●​ In 1955, the US helped Ngo Dinh Diem to set up the South Vietnamese government
●​ Gave $1.6 billion to Diem’s government
●​ By 1962, Kennedy was sending military advisors to train the S. Vietnamese army
●​ Kennedy supported the Strategic Hamlet Programme
●​ There were 12,000 US troops by 1962
→ What was the Gulf of Tonkin incident?
●​ In August 1964, N. Vietnamese patrol boats opened fire on USS Maddox and USS Joy in the Gulf
of Tonkin
●​ US Congress passed Tonkin Gulf Resolution, allowing Johnson the necessary power to prevent
further aggression
●​ Full-scale war; US marines (advisors) sent into Vietnam to train S. Vietnamese army
●​ None of the US sailors involved actually heard gunfire, nor did pilots see any sign of the enemy
●​ Johnson used it as an excuse to increase American involvement in Vietnam as he wanted to
prevent the NLF from gaining even more popularity
→ Describe American involvement in South Vietnam from 1954 to 1963.
●​ Sent equipment, weaponry and ‘military advisors’
●​ Prevented 1954 elections from taking place as they feared communists would win
●​ In 1955 - helped Diem to set up Republic of South Vietnam
●​ 1961 - increased number of military advisors to 11,000
●​ 1963 - Americans decided that Diem was too corrupt to support and deposed him, replaced by
anti-communist army generals
→ What happened to Vietnam immediately following the Geneva Peace Accords of 1954?
●​ ‘Vietnam was temporarily partitioned into two parts, the north and the south.’
●​ ‘Internationally supervised free elections were to be held in 1956.’
●​ ‘The proposed elections never took place.’
●​ ‘The Vietminh became the government of North Vietnam.’
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ ‘The anti-communist Vietnamese ‘regrouped’ in the south.’
●​ ‘The south was under the leadership of Bao Dai, a former emperor of Vietnam.’
●​ ‘Eisenhower suggested the Domino Theory in 1954 and was concerned that the whole of Vietnam
would become
●​ communist.’
●​ ‘When France left Vietnam in 1955, the USA saw Vietnam as a key battleground in the fight
against communism.’
●​ ‘In 1955 Ngo Dinh Diem toppled Bao Dai.’
●​ ‘Diem set up the Republic of South Vietnam.’
●​ ‘Soon after the peace conference, the Vietcong started fighting the South’s forces.’
●​ ‘The Vietcong were communist guerrillas based in South Vietnam and supported by the
communists in the north.
Part B
→ Why was America’s policy of containment a failure in Vietnam?
●​ The whole of Vietnam became communist
●​ Laos and Cambodia became communist
●​ Vietcong used guerilla tactics
●​ Vietcong had a system of underground tunnels and passages (Ho Chi Minh trail)
●​ Support was lost at home because of shocking media coverage
●​ Brutal massacre at My Lai turned public opinion
America’s policy of containment failed because not only did the whole of Vietnam become communist,
but Cambodia and Laos also turned to communism. Eisenhower was afraid of the ‘domino effect’ which
would lead other countries in the region to also become communist, thus the increased military
intervention in Vietnam. However, US troops failed to infiltrate the Ho Chi Minh trails, underground
passageways running throughout Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos, therefore all these countries became
communist.
America’s policy of containment also failed because of the lack of US public support for the war effort.
Since this war was the first to be broadcast on television, it garnered a lot of attention. There was outrage
from young people, parents of soldiers and veterans who protested by marching, strikes and even writing
songs. This immense lack of public opinion forced the US government to de-escalate American
involvement in Vietnam.
Another reason for the failure of containment was the brutal massacre at My Lai in 1968. US soldiers
believed that My Lai was a Vietcong stronghold. Even though no Vietcong members were found in My
Lai, over 300 women and children were mindlessly killed by US forces. When news of this broke out
over a year later, Americans were horrified that US soldiers were killing innocent women and children.
Seeing the psychological toll that the war had on soldiers that led them to mindlessly killing people,
American citizens strongly protested the war, pressuring the government to reduce intervention in
Vietnam.
Compiled by Kai Ryn
→ Why did Nixon find it difficult to withdraw from Vietnam?
●​ Vietnamisation did not work
●​ Nixon had to extend the combat area into Cambodia
●​ Nixon couldn’t lose face and admit defeat
●​ He couldn’t be seen giving in to anti-war protests
●​ In 1965 the US government stated that it was a just and vital war
Nixon tried to force the end of the war by bombing Vietnam troop bases in Cambodia.
These raids were carried out in secret but the bombing failed. In April 1970, Nixon sent in US
troops to complete the mission. This was badly received at home and led to demonstrations,
such as the one at Kent State University where four students were killed by National
Guardsmen.
Nixon would lose face and have to admit defeat
-​ US spent billions of dollars on war effort in Vietnam
-​ Defeating Vietcong was hard because of guerilla tactics
-​ Admitting defeat to Vietcong which used guerilla tactics would make him look weak
-​ Blow to reputation of Nixon and America
In 1965, US government stated that the Vietnam War was just and vital
-​ Continuously justified their actions to persuade Americans that the effort and money put into the
war was worth it
-​ Withdrawing from Vietnam without even winning the war would make Americans think that they
lost their family members for nothing; America invested all this money and resources for nothing
Nixon could not be seen giving in to anti-war protests
-​ Anti-war movement became strong, campaigning for the end of the war for several years
-​ Famous celebrities including Muhammed Ali spoke out on the issue
-​ Finally acceding to the public’s demands would make Nixon look weak to his fellow government
leaders
-​ His administration would lose faith in him, a great blow to his pride
Nixon tried to force the end of the war by bombing Vietnam troop bases in Cambodia
-​ Bombing failed and in April 1970 Nixon sent in US troops to complete the mission
-​ Led to demonstrations at home, one of which was the Kent State Shooting (4 killed by National
Guardsmen)
→ Why did the USA become involved in the conflict of Vietnam?
●​ ‘The USA saw Vietnam as a key battleground in the fight against communism.’
●​ ‘The French had given up and pulled out of Vietnam.’
●​ ‘The USA did not want the elections to go ahead to unite Vietnam because it thought the
communists would win.’
●​ ‘It was part of the Domino Theory.’
●​ ‘With the fall of China and Korea to communism, the USA thought Vietnam was next.’
Compiled by Kai Ryn
●​ ‘It was part of the policy of Containment, which meant stopping the advance of communism.’
●​ ‘Presidential candidates always talked tough about stopping the spread of communism.’
●​ ‘There are some who thought the military and big business wanted a war’
The US got involved in Vietnam due to Eisenhower’s Domino Theory. Since North Korea and China had
already become communist, Americans were afraid that if Vietnam fell to communism, other countries in
the region like Burma and Thailand would follow suit. The Americans intervened to ensure that
communism would not go beyond the 17th parallel.
The US got involved in Vietnam because the French had pulled out. When it was agreed on at the Geneva
Accords that Vietnam would gain full independence from France, the Americans wanted to ensure that
North Vietnam would not fall to communism. Thus, they sent military advisors to train the North
Vietnamese army and supported Diem’s government by giving it more than $270 million.
The US became involved in Vietnam because it did not want the 1956 elections to go ahead. It was agreed
at Geneva that there would be elections in July 1956 to decide whether Vietnam would still be divided at
the 17th parallel. The Americans were sure that the communists would win since Diem was hugely
unpopular with the majority of the people. They intervened to make sure that the elections would not take
place as it would defeat the purpose of containment.
→ Why were the methods used by Americans to try and defeat the Vietcong unsuccessful?
●​ Bombing did not destroy Vietcong supply lines (HCM trail)
●​ Search and destroy tactics often based on inaccurate information
●​ Search and destroy made US troops unpopular with the peasants (Napalm and Agent Orange)
●​ US troops did not know who were members of the Vietcong
●​ Inexperience of troops → walk into booby traps; unfamiliar with terrain
US methods to defeat the Vietcong were unsuccessful since US troops did not know who were members
of the Vietcong. Innocent villagers would be mistaken for Vietcong members and killed even though they
had no affiliation the Vietcong. This made US troops extremely unpopular amongst the local Vietnamese
population, prompting them to support the Vietcong, increasing their numbers dramatically.
Although Operation Rolling Thunder did extensive damage to large areas of North Vietnam, they could
not destroy the Ho Chi Minh trails, a huge network of subterranean tunnels and hideouts. Vietcong
members could therefore continue to meet up and transport supplies using these tunnels, which even
extended to Laos and Cambodia. In this way, US troops were unable to destroy Vietcong strongholds.
Methods used by the US troops were also unsuccessful due to the inexperience of their troops. Troops
would be rotated every two years and these soldiers were usually very young with little to no combat
experience. Unfamiliar with Vietnamese climate and terrain, they would very often accidentally walk into
booby traps, leading to their slow and painful deaths. Hence, the morale of the soldiers decreased and the
effort to destroy Vietcong strongholds was inefficient and mostly unsuccessful.
Compiled by Kai Ryn
→ Why was the Tet Offensive important?
●​ Communist troops attacked major South Vietnamese towns and American bases
●​ Attack on an American embassy in Saigon
●​ Changed public opinion about the war → Americans at home started to question whether they
were actually winning the war
●​ Raised questions about the amount of money being spent on Vietnam
●​ Showed that the Vietcong were strong
●​ Led to people questioning morals and ethics of the war
The Tet Offensive was important as it showed the Americans the power and strength of the Vietcong. The
Vietcong were calculative and decided to stage the attacks on Tet, the day which Americans thought that
the Vietcong would not be fighting. There were 45,000 Vietcong members involved in Tet, showing the
Americans their strength in numbers and taking them by surprise. This showed the Americans how
unprepared they were to deal with a strong Vietcong.
The Tet Offensive also changed public opinion about the war. As this was a media war, photographs and
footage was broadcast to more than 50 million homes. As Americans at home saw how Americans were
being ambushed by Vietcong and how the US embassy was captured, they started to question whether
America was really winning the war, and whether it was worth fighting.
The Tet Offensive led to American people questioning the morals and ethics of the war. War generals had
previously announced that their bombs did not affect Vietnamese civilians, and even so, the number of
bombs that they had was very small. However, footage from the Tet Offensive revealed that 14,000
civilians had been killed by US troops using bombs. This led to Americans feeling shocked at the number
of civilian casualties, and wondering whether the war was ethical.
→ Why did the USA find it impossible to defeat the Vietcong?
●​ The Vietcong bases were well hidden (subterranean)
●​ HCM trails were complex - any 2 points had up to 10 routes linking them, lined with booby traps,
detours to confuse American troops
●​ Booby traps could have been planted at any location so the troops were in constant fear of
stepping on and triggering a trap
●​ Vietcong had won the support of the local people - My Lai exacerbated this, as well as search and
destroy of villages with no affiliation to the Vietcong
●​ Vietcong and support from China and USSR - equipment, weaponry and supplies - steady stream
The Vietcong avoided direct face-to-face combat with US troops, instead using guerilla warfare. They
ambushed American patrols, setting up booby traps and bombs on known routes of these patrols. These
guerilla tactics made it difficult for the Americans to even see their enemy, let alone defeat them. This
greatly impacted the morale of American soldiers.
The US could not destroy Vietcong bases because of the complexity of the Ho Chi Minh trails. The trails
were designed to confuse US troops should they be infiltrated, thus any 2 points would have as many as
Compiled by Kai Ryn
10 points linking them. The trails would also be lined with booby traps. Due to the complexity of the
trails, the US troops found it difficult to find Vietcong bases and destroy them.
The Vietcong had won the support of the local Vietnamese population, hence increasing their membership
dramatically. The US search and destroy tactic angered the people as they would completely destroy
villages that had no affiliation with the Vietcong, claiming the lives of thousands of innocent people. This
caused the US troops to lose popularity with the local population, and this anti-US sentiment was
exacerbated by the My Lai massacre in 1968.
The Vietcong had support from their communist neighbours, China and the USSR. Throughout the
Vietnam war, China and the USSR supported the communists’ war effort by supplying a steady stream of
equipment, food, weaponry and other resources. Even though American troops constantly tried to destroy
Vietcong bases, the Vietcong could quickly replace the resources they had lost since they had so much of
it being transported from China and the USSR.
→ Why were the tactics used by the Vietcong effective?
●​ HCM trails were complex and designed to confuse US soldiers
●​ Lined with booby traps
●​ Guerilla warfare - hidden enemy
●​ Booby traps caused soldiers to feel constant fear not knowing when they could trigger a trap
●​ Supported by China and the USSR
●​ Produced low morale amongst Americans
The Vietcong used the Ho Chi Minh trails, a network of 10,000km of hidden trails across Vietnam and
into Cambodia and Laos. These trails could transport food, equipment, weapons and other supplies
efficiently. Any 2 points would have at least 10 different routes linking them, and the trails would be lined
with booby traps. This would confuse and prevent the Americans from infiltrating Vietcong strongholds.
The Vietcong used guerilla warfare tactics, including booby traps and mines. These traps would be hidden
in terrain unfamiliar to US soldiers and could be triggered at any time. US soldiers travelled in constant
fear of triggering a trap. Moreover, these traps were made to cause immense pain and suffering, which
could also lead to infections. This greatly impacted the morale of the US soldiers.
The Vietcong were also a hidden enemy to the Americans. Since they used guerilla tactics and travelled or
hid in the Ho Chi Minh trails and underground bunkers, they were hardly spotted by US troops. This
made it very difficult for US soldiers to find Vietcong members and destroy their strongholds, thus their
war effort was extremely ineffectual. US soldiers would sometimes travel for days without any sight of
Vietcong.
→ Explain the methods used by Nixon in Vietnam in order to achieve ‘peace with honour’.
●​ Introduced Vietnamisation
●​ Built up S. Vietnamese army with training and equipment
●​ Held peace talks with N. Vietnam
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●​ Gradual withdrawal of troops
●​ Bombed HCM trails and Cambodia
●​ Urged USSR and China to encourage Vietcong to end war
When Nixon was elected in 1968, he introduced the scheme of Vietnamisation. This involved gradually
removing US troops from Vietnam, leaving the South Vietnamese army to fight the Vietcong. He
continued to support the South Vietnamese army by providing it with weaponry and sending military
advisors to train their troops.
Nixon held peace talks with the leaders of North Vietnam to facilitate discussions for peace. He and
Henry Kissinger met up with Le Duc Thu, the chief peace negotiator for North Vietnam on multiple
occasions. In 1973, the Paris Peace Accords took place, where the peace treaty officially ending the
Vietnam war was signed.
Nixon also bombed the Ho Chi Minh trails to try to destroy as many Vietcong strongholds as possible.
Nixon could not have removed his troops without looking like America was completely defeated as this
would make him look weak. He bombed the Ho Chi Minh trails and parts of Cambodia extensively in an
attempt to show that America had made significant progress in defeating the Vietcong.
Part C
→ In Vietnam, Kennedy was more successful than Johnson. How far do you agree with this
statement?
●​ Kennedy sent thousands of advisors to train the S. Vietnamese army
●​ Kennedy spent $270 million on military support for Diem and sent helicopters + other resources
●​ Johnson started bombing N. Vietnam (Operation Rolling Thunder)
●​ Johnson sent in American troops after Gulf of Tonkin incident
●​ Tet Offensive major blow for Johnson
●​ My Lai major blow for Johnson
‘Kennedy attempted to stem Vietcong attacks by supporting the South Vietnamese army with equipment,
such as helicopters, and military advisers. By 1963 there were 16 000 US military advisers in Vietnam.
Kennedy did not commit US troops despite Vietcong successes.’
OR
e.g. ‘Johnson committed combat troops in 1965 and Operation Rolling Thunder to bomb North Vietnam
and the Ho Chi Minh Trail. The use of Agent Orange and napalm showed that the US was struggling to
gain any control. The Tet Offensive showed that the communists could still attack Southern cities
including Saigon and even the American Embassy. The US was losing the war and Johnson did not seek a
second term as president.’
→ American public opinion was more important than Vietcong guerilla tactics in bringing about
the US withdrawal from the Vietnam War. How far do you agree?
●​ Public was concerned about the huge number of casualties
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●​ Public thought too much money was being wasted on a war that wasn’t even close to home
●​ Public upset about US atrocities towards Vietnamese people → picture of kids naked running
away from a bombing
●​ Tet Offensive turned public opinion
●​ The media played a part in influencing public opinion
●​ US troops unfamiliar with guerilla tactics used by Vietcong
●​ US had no effective weapon against guerilla warfare
US could not destroy HCM trails
AMERICAN PUBLIC OPINION
Concerned about the ethics of war
-​ Living room war - heavily televised and reported on
-​ American public exposed to horrific footage of innocent Vietnamese being killed by Agent
Orange and Napalm
-​ Thought that it was unjust for US troops to be killing millions of innocent people
-​ Started anti-war movement that lasted for many years, pressuring US government to end the war
Tet Offensive made Americans question whether US was really winning
-​ Vietcong were calculative - staged attack on the day US military leaders were sure Vietcong
would not fight
-​ Surprise ambush - more than 45,000 Vietcong attacked 100 major cities; occupied US embassy in
Saigon
-​ US soldiers were unprepared and overwhelmed by sheer number of Vietcong
-​ Heavily reported on - weakness of US troops was seen
-​ Exacerbated anti-war movement
Concerned that huge sums of money were being wasted on a war so far away
-​ More than $150 billion spent on the war effort
-​ Vietnam was so far away and the war was taking a long time
-​ Little money spent on social reform and infrastructure
VIETCONG GUERILLA TACTICS
US unable to destroy HCM trails
-​ Complex 15,000km network of subterranean trails that Vietcong used for transport / as hideouts
-​ Any 2 points could have as many as 10 paths linking them
-​ Operation Rolling Thunder did not destroy trails, only slowed Vietcong down
-​ Did not defeat Vietcong, making it harder for US troops to fight them
Booby traps
-​ Though made with materials like wood, they were designed to be very painful
-​ Could be hidden anywhere for unsuspecting soldiers to step on them
-​ Accounted for 11% of soldier deaths
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-​
Lowered morale and injured / killed so many soldiers that Americans found it hard to continue
fighting Vietcong
→ The US withdrew from Vietnam because of public opinion in America. How far do you agree
with this statement?
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Public concerned about high number of casualties
Public thought too much money was being spent
Public upset about US atrocities against Vietnamese people
Tet Offensive and My Lai Massacre
Media war
Ineffective response to Vietcong’s guerilla tactics - booby traps, unfamiliar with hostile terrain
Could not destroy HCM trails
The public was concerned about the amount of money that was being channelled to the Vietnam war. By
1968, the US had spent more than $30 billion annually on the Vietnam war. In addition, $2 billion had
been spent to support Diem’s government before his death. Americans were concerned that too much
money was being spent on a war with little correlation to America and was far away, and that little money
was being spent on social reform. This triggered public outrage, pressuring the government to withdraw.
The public was also angry at the atrocities that Vietnamese people faced at the hands of US soldiers.
When the news of the events of the My Lai massacre came to light, Americans at home were shocked at
how US soldiers mindlessly killed more than 300 innocent people. Moreover, since the Vietnam war was
a media war, Americans had access to footage and photographs of the extensive bombing and Agent
Orange. Americans were angry at US soldiers for subjecting innocent Vietnamese to such suffering,
pressuring America to withdraw.
The public was also questioning the war effort and whether America was really winning the war after the
Tet Offensive. The Vietcong were calculative and staged an attack on the very day American military
leaders thought that the Vietcong would not fight. Tet was the most important event in the Vietnamese
calendar but Vietcong had celebrated it early. More than 45,000 Vietcong ambushed 100 major cities and
even captured the US embassy in Saigon. Since this was televised, Americans saw how strong the
Vietcong were compared to their own troops.
On the other hand, another reason for the US withdrawal was that the Vietcong used the Ho Chi Minh
trails to get around and transport food, weapons, equipment and other supplies. This 10,000km network of
passageways was extremely complex, as any two points could have as many as 10 routes linking them.
The trails were also lined with booby traps in case American soldiers infiltrated them. As such, the US
found it very difficult to find their enemy and destroy their strongholds, lessening morale of soldiers.
The ineffective American response to Vietcong guerilla tactics was another reason. The Vietcong used
booby traps and mines that were hidden in terrain unfamiliar to the US soldiers. These traps were not
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meant to kill, but instead cause immense agony and suffering. US soldiers were thus in constant fear of
triggering a trap, causing morale to decrease among troops and making the number of casualties very
high.
Overall, even though Vietcong military tactics contributed to the US’ withdrawal, the most important
reason was US public opinion. Americans at home were concerned at the huge amount of money being
channelled to a war far away that the US was not winning, and did not want to continue supporting the
atrocities that innocent Vietnamese people faced at the hands of the US soldiers.
→ The My Lai massacre was the main reason for the US’ withdrawal from Vietnam. How far do
you agree?
●​ 300 people massacred
●​ American people at home shocked that their troops had blatantly killed innocent women and
children
●​ Media coverage turned the American public against the war
●​ They withdrew because the economic cost of the war was too high
●​ They withdrew due to huge numbers of US casualties
●​ Anti-war demonstrations ensued in numerous US cities, including Kent State University
The My Lai massacre led to Americans questioning whether the war was moral and ethical. When news
of the massacre came to light in 1979, Americans were shocked to see their soldiers disillusioned and
mindlessly killing ordinary citizens even though they knew that no Vietcong members were in the village.
Seeing the psychological toll the war had on the soldiers and regular civilians, Americans started to
wonder whether this war was worth the number of civilian and US casualties, pressuring the US
government to withdraw.
The My Lai massacre also made Americans wonder about the credibility of the information that they
knew about the war. The My Lai massacre was officially recorded as a success with 90 Vietcong members
killed. However, when the truth came to light, Americans began to question the sincerity and integrity of
US soldiers who were providing information about the war, and whether there was any more information
that was being kept secret from them. This led to a series of demonstrations that pressured the government
to withdraw from Vietnam.
However, other reasons contributed to America’s withdrawal. The economic cost of the war had become
too high over the years. By 1968, it was costing $30 million annually which meant that the government
had to cut down on social reform, infrastructure development and other integral aspects of society.
Americans were angry that so much money was being channeled to a war that the US was obviously not
winning and where Vietnamese were treated inhumanely. Hence, they thought the war was not worth it,
and wanted the immediate withdrawal of troops.
Another reason for the withdrawal of US troops was superior Vietcong military tactics. The Vietcong used
guerilla warfare, making them hard to spot. The booby traps and mines that they set could have been
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planted anywhere, causing US soldiers to be in constant fear of triggering an explosion and possibly
leading to serious injury or death. This made US soldiers fear for their lives, negatively affecting morale.
The Vietcong used an extensive Network of Ho Chi Minh trails to get around, and transport food,
equipment, weaponry and other important resources. These trails were extremely difficult to spot since
some of them were underground, while others were covered in thick foliage. American search and destroy
tactics failed to locate most of the Vietcong strongholds, causing them to become increasingly frustrated
as they could not even see their enemy. This also negatively impacted morale.
Although the My Lai massacre contributed to public outcry, placing pressure on the US government to
withdraw their troops, the superior Vietcong military tactics were the most significant factor. The
Vietcong constantly stayed well hidden, their military bases extremely difficult to find. This seriously
impacted the US troops’ war effort and decreased morale, showing that they were losing the war and
continuing to fight would be pointless.
→ The Tet Offensive was the main reason for America’s withdrawal from Vietnam. How far do you
agree?
●​ Showed that America was not winning
●​ Showed strength of the Vietcong and the huge number of members they had
●​ Showed that Vietcong was calculative in planning the attacks on Tet
●​ Led to change of government policy and Vietnamisation
The Tet Offensive proved to be a turning point. It highlighted the cost of the war socially and
economically. There were 500,000 troops in Vietnam each year and America was spending $30 billion
each year, yet little progress was made and the Vietcong were able to make significant advancements in
the Tet Offensive. Huge cutbacks on spending for social reform.
YES
Showed weakness of US in the war
-​ 45,000 Vietcong ambushed 100 cities and even captured US embassy in Saigon
-​ Televised and heavily reported on → is America really winning this war?
Made Johnson change America’s government policy on Vietnam
-​ Realised how strong the Vietcong were and knew that US could not win
-​ Began peace talks with N. Vietnamese chief peace negotiator Le Duc Thu
-​ Led to Vietnamisation
NO
Vietcong guerilla tactics
-​ Booby traps and mines were well disguised
-​ Unsuspecting soldiers would step on them and get injured / killed
-​ Accounted for 11% of soldier deaths
-​ Lowered morale and made it harder to defeat Vietcong
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HCM trails couldn’t be destroyed
-​ Extensive 15,000 km network
-​ Bombing didn’t destroy Vietcong strongholds, merely slowed them down
Americans concerned about high cost
-​ Billions of dollars channeled to the war lasting decades
-​ Little money reserved for social reform
-​ Was the war worth it? Led to anti-war movement that lasted many years and pressured US
government to withdraw from Vietnam
Containment - ABC Comparison Questions (Part C)
*These questions ask you to compare the success or failure of containment as a whole, so you are
expected to reference all 3 conflicts (Korea, Cuba, Vietnam) in your answer.
→ How effectively did the American policy of containment limit the spread of Communism
between 1950 and 1973? Explain your answer.
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‘The USA stopped the spread of communism into South Korea.’
‘Saving South Korea meant Formosa and Japan did not fall to communism.’
‘As a result of the Cuban crisis, Cuba remained a communist state.’
‘The US limited the influence of communism in the Caribbean.’
‘The US failed in stopping communist influence in South Vietnam.’
‘The ‘winning of hearts and minds’ failed in South Vietnam.’
‘The US failed in stopping communism spreading to Cambodia and Laos.’
The USA prevented South Korea from falling into communist hands. When North Korean troops, aided
by China and the USSR, invaded the South, US and UN soldiers managed to push them back beyond the
38th parallel. Peace negotiations began in 1952 and an armistice was signed in 1953. US and UN troops
had prevented Kim Il-Sung from taking over the south and uniting Korea to become one big communist
country.
Saving South Korea from falling to communists meant that Formosa and Japan did not fall. It was feared
that if the whole of Korea became unified and communist, the communist ideology would spread to other
countries in the region. Formosa and Japan were especially vulnerable given its proximity to USSR and
China. The fact that S. Korea did not fall into communist hands and Japan and Formosa were less at risk
of becoming communist was a win for the US as other countries did not become communist.
Cuba remained a communist state after the Cuban Missile Crisis. Kennedy did not want to escalate
tension with the USSR and begin a war, thus he held peaceful negotiations with Khrushchev. They
reached an agreement - the US would remove missiles in Turkey while the USSR would remove missiles
in Cuba. Though Kennedy had found a peaceful solution that ended the crisis within weeks, Cuba was
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still a communist country with strong links to the USSR that could possibly spread its communist
ideologies around the region.
The US failed in stopping communist influence in South Vietnam. After the Gulf of Tonkin incident, US
troops arrived in Vietnam to defeat the Vietcong and prevent the communist leaders from taking over the
whole of Vietnam. Due to superior Vietcong guerilla tactics, Vietcong hideouts and supplies were very
difficult to find which made the efforts of the US soldiers mostly futile. In 1968 after the Tet Offensive,
President Johnson recognised that they were failing the Vietnam war, hence began the process of
Vietnamisation and withdrawing their troops.
The US did not manage to stop communism from spreading to Laos and Cambodia. Vietcong presence in
the north spread to Laos and Cambodia through the Ho Chi Minh trails, a complex network of
underground passageways. These trails enabled members of the Vietcong to travel to Laos and Cambodia
to spread their communist views. This led to the rise of communist leaders in Laos and Cambodia, most
notably the Cambodian Khmer Rouge. The US policy of containment failed because instead of restricting
communism, more countries became communist.
→ How far was the US policy of containment between 1950 and 1975 a failure? Explain your
answer.
‘It appears that the USA used the UN to reinforce its foreign policy over the Korean issue and containing
communism. The USA was determined to end the aggression of North Korea in 1950. Although it did not
unite Korea under Syngman Rhee, it pushed back the communists to the 38th Parallel.’
OR
e.g. ‘The war in Vietnam was a disaster for US foreign policy. The US wanted to stop the domino effect
whereby if one country fell to communism then the surrounding ones would follow. The USA failed to
defeat the Vietcong in South Vietnam and, after the evacuation of US troops, the South was overrun. As a
result of Vietnam becoming communist, so did Laos and Cambodia become communist.’
Korea – ‘The USA persuaded the UN to support their actions.’
‘Containment was successful.’
‘US forces, under the UN, pushed the North back to its border.’
Cuba – ‘Cuba remained communist after the Cuban missile crisis.’
‘Castro remained in power and was allied with the USSR.’
‘Some of Kennedy’s critics did not want to see communism on the US’ doorstep.’
‘Kennedy was happy to isolate Cuba with no trade and no diplomatic contact.’
‘The US managed to contain communism in Cuba for the immediate future.’
Vietnam – ‘The US failed to stop the spread of communism from the north.’
‘The USA failed because the whole of Vietnam became communist.’
‘As a result, neighbouring Laos and Cambodia became communist.’
‘President Nixon ended the containment policy.’
FAILURE
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Cuba remained a communist country
-​ Americans wanted to remove Castro from power and stamp out communism in Cuba
-​ BOP and CMC failed to remove Castro
The whole of Vietnam fell to communism
-​ Americans wanted to eradicate communism from Vietnam, unite the country and make it
capitalist
-​ Vietcong too strong for Americans and Americans started to lose
-​ Vietnamisation began and the whole of Vietnam under Vietcong rule
Since Vietnam fell to communism, so did Laos and Cambodia
-​ Americans failed to destroy HCM trails that ran into Laos and Cambodia
-​ Vietcong communicated with people in Laos and Cambodia, spreading communist ideology
-​ Pathet Lao and Khmer Rouge came to power
SUCCESS
South Korea remained out of communist hands
-​ UN and US troops pushed back N. Korean and Chinese troops to the north of 38th Parallel
-​ Stalemate - peace negotiations began and fighting ceased
-​ Communism contained in North Korea and South Korea remained capitalist
Saving S. Korea from falling to communism meant that neighbouring countries did not fall to
communism as well
-​ Fear that Formosa and Japan would become communist
-​ S. Korea remaining capitalist prevented this from happening
OVERALL
More of a failure - though S. Korea was saved from falling to communism many argue that America
failed in stamping out communism from Korea entirely
→ ‘America failed to contain Communism.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain
your answer
‘The action of the USA, through the UN, successfully stopped the spread of communism into South
Korea by resisting the attempts of North Korea to occupy the whole country. This saved Formosa and
Japan from the communist threat.’
OR
e.g. ‘Eisenhower believed that if South Vietnam became communist then Laos, Cambodia, Burma, India,
Thailand and Pakistan would quickly follow. The US actions failed to contain communism in North
Vietnam as, within two years of leaving the war, South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia became
communist.’
●​ ‘South Korea was saved from the spread of communism.’
●​ ‘In Cuba, communism was contained within the island for many years.’
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●​ ‘South Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia fell to communism.’
●​ ‘Greece was saved from falling to communism.’
YES - AMERICA FAILED
Whole Vietnam became communist
Cuba was still communist and allied with USSR after CMC
Laos and Cambodia fell to communism
NO - AMERICA SUCCEEDED
South Korea saved from becoming communist
Formosa and Japan did not follow suit
→ ‘America was more successful in Korea than it was in Vietnam.’ How far do you agree with this
statement? Explain your answer.
‘It appears that the USA used the UN to reinforce its foreign policy over the Korean issue and containing
communism. The USA was determined to end the aggression of North Korea in 1950. Although it did not
unite Korea under Syngman Rhee, it pushed back the communists to the 38th Parallel.’
OR
‘The war in Vietnam was a disaster for US foreign policy. The US wanted to stop the domino effect
whereby if one country fell to communism then the surrounding ones would follow. As a result of
Vietnam becoming Communist, so did Laos and Cambodia.’
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Korea – ‘The USA persuaded the UN to support their actions.’
‘Containment was successful.’ (The spread of Communism was halted)
‘US forces, under the UN, pushed the North back to its border.’
‘America was accused of being expansionist.’ (Going into N Korea)
‘UN/American forces were pushed back to the 38th Parallel.’
‘US accused of missing opportunity to destroy Communism in China.’
‘Relations with China and USSR strained further.’ (Cold War)
Vietnam – ‘The US failed to stop the spread of communism from the north.’
‘The USA failed because the whole of Vietnam became communist.’
‘As a result, neighbouring Laos and Cambodia became communist.’
‘Military personnel suffered psychological effects.’
‘Land was left damaged by chemicals.’
‘Resulted in Nixon ending containment policy.’
KOREA WAS A SUCCESS
S Korea remained out of communist hands
S Korea not falling to communism meant that Formosa and Japan would not fall
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VIETNAM WAS A FAILURE
Whole of Vietnam turned communist
Laos and Cambodia fell to communism
Nixon ended containment policy and started Vietnamisation
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