CB CHAPTER 5: MOTIVATION AND EMOTIONS
Need vs want
Need: necessary or essential.
Want: desire. Specific way to satisfy a need. It is one manifestations of a need. Depends on:
- individual history
- learning experiences
- cultural environment.
We are born with a need for certain elements necessary to maintain life such as food, water, air,
and shelter. These are biogenic needs. We have many other needs, however, that are not innate.
We acquire psychogenic needs as we become members of a specific culture. These include the
needs for status, power, and affiliation.
Psychogenic needs reflect the priorities of a culture, and their effect on behavior will vary from
environment to environment.
We also can be motivated to satisfy either utilitarian or hedonic needs. When we focus on a
utilitarian need, we emphasize the objective, tangible attributes of products, such as miles per
gallon in a car; the amount of fat, calories, and protein in a cheeseburger; or the durability of a pair
of blue jeans. Hedonic needs are subjective and experiential; here we might look to a product to
meet our needs for excitement, self-confidence, or fantasy perhaps to escape the mundane or
routine aspects of life.
Motivation as a Psychological Force
Motivation is the inner drive that compels an individual to take action to satisfy that need
(element that makes the individual go from the current state, with an unfulfilled need, to the
desired state)
Motivation is produced by a state of tension, by having a need which is unfulfilled. Consumers
want to fulfill these needs and reduce the state of tension. For example, when you are very
hungry, you are extremely motivated to find food. Perhaps when you need a new pair of pants,
you are a bit less motivated to fulfill this need as compared to your need for food. In the case of
needing pants, it is important for marketers to help increase your motivation and/or specify your
need for their products - perhaps Diesel Jeans.
Once a goal is attained, tension is reduced and the motivation recedes.
The bigger the gap → the greater the need → the stronger the motivation
• Motivation is described in terms of strength and direction.
◦ Strength: how strongly an individual is driven to pursue a goal or fulfill a need.
◦ Direction: refers to the specific goals or outcomes that motivation is aimed at.
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Most goals can be reached by a number of routes.
• Firms need to convince customers that their alternative provides the best route to achieve their
goals.
Model of the Motivation Process
This model highlights the motivation process. We can see that the “drive” toward behavior will
often end in the fulfillment of the need. The processes and effects of previous learning tie strongly
into choices made when the behavior is defined.
Motivation refers to the processes that cause people to behave as they do.
Motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy.
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Once a need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to
eliminate or reduce the need.
The Dynamics of Motivation
Motivation is highly dynamic and constantly changes in response to life experiences.
Motivations change as we age, interact with others, change careers, acquire wealth, become ill,
marry or divorce, or pursue education.
Humans constantly have needs. This is due in part to the fact that our needs are never fully
satisfied, or once satisfied, reappear. Hunger is a good example of a need that is often not
satisfied and reappears. As humans, we also develop new needs as we satisfy existing needs.
The hierarchy of effects model shows how we meet our lower-level needs first and then move up
the hierarchy. Finally, our needs are based on the goals that we set for ourselves. If one sets a
goal to enter politics, they may feel they need a law degree. However, if they are unsuccessful in
getting accepted at law school, their needs may change and they may want to pursue a few years
of work experience first and need to find a job.
It is very common that a consumer can not attain a goal. This may be due to a lack of money,
ability, desire, or accessibility.
In this instance, the consumer often substitutes a different goal to reduce the tension created from
the existence of this need. In time, this substitute goal might replace the initial goal. For instance,
if a consumer wanted a certain cable television service, but it was not available in their area, they
might choose a satellite television provider. Over time, they may be very satisfied with this choice
and feel that they actually prefer the satellite service over the cable television service.
• Needs are never fully satisfied
◦ Substitute goals are used when a consumer cannot attain a specific goal.
◦ They will dispel tension
◦ They may actually replace the primary goal over time
• New needs emerge as old needs are satisfied
• People who achieve their goals set new and higher goals for themselves
Valence of goals. Regulatory Focus Theory (Higgins et al.)
• Positively valued goals – consumers are motivated to approach the goal and will seek out
products that will be instrumental in attaining it.
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• Avoiding negative goals – consumers are motivated to avoid a negative outcome structuring
their purchases or consumption activities.
Prevention focus refers to a type of regulatory focus where individuals are driven by the desire to
avoid negative outcomes. It contrasts with promotion focus, which is about pursuing positive
outcomes and aspirations. In a prevention focus, individuals are motivated by:
• Avoiding Losses: The primary concern is to prevent mistakes, risks, or losses. Consumers in
this mindset are cautious and tend to choose options that ensure safety or help them avoid
potential harm.
• Obligations: Individuals feel responsible for fulfilling duties and meeting external expectations.
They are guided by what they "ought" to do, rather than by personal desires or goals.
• Oughts and Needs: The focus is on necessities and responsibilities rather than aspirations.
People feel compelled to meet these obligations to avoid the discomfort or guilt associated with
failure.
• Pragmatic Security: The mindset is practical, focusing on security and stability. Individuals are
likely to choose reliable, proven options to reduce uncertainty or risk.
Promotion focus refers to a regulatory focus in which individuals are driven by the desire to
achieve positive outcomes and aspirations. It contrasts with prevention focus, which is about
avoiding negative outcomes. Key elements of promotion focus include:
• Achieving Benefits: People are motivated by the potential for gains or rewards. They focus on
maximizing positive outcomes and taking steps toward their goals.
• Accomplishments: Individuals are driven by a desire for success and personal advancement.
They seek to reach milestones and enjoy the satisfaction of accomplishment.
• Ideals and Desires: Their actions are guided by personal aspirations and ideals. Rather than
obligations, they pursue what they want to achieve or the person they want to become.
• Luxury Attributes: In consumer behavior, those with a promotion focus are attracted to
products or services that reflect their desires and aspirations, such as luxury brands or features
that symbolize success and status.
McClelland's Human Motivation Theory (Content Theory)
It explains how three key human needs drive behavior, particularly in a work or achievement
context.
1. Achievement:
• Value personal accomplishment
• Place a premium on products that signify success (luxury brands, technology products)
2. Affiliation
• Want to be with other people
• Focus on products that are used in groups (alcoholic beverages, sports bars)
3. Power
• Control one’s environment
• Focus on products that allow them to have mastery over surroundings (muscle cars, loud audiosystems)
Maslow´s hierarchy of needs
As Maslow’s hierarchy of needs demonstrates, the same product can satisfy different needs,
depending on the consumer’s state at the time. In addition to his objective situation (e.g. have
basic physiological needs already been satisfied?), we must also consider the consumer’s degree
of involvement in the product.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs implies that lower order needs must be satisfied before climbing the
needs ladder.
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Marketers’ application of this hierarchy has been somewhat simplistic, especially as the same
product or activity can gratify different needs. For example, one study found that gardening could
satisfy needs at every level of the hierarchy.
Another problem with taking Maslow’s hierarchy too literally is that it is culture-bound; its
assumptions may apply only to Western culture. People in other cultures may question the order
of the levels it specifies.
Theory of Cognitive Dissonance
ognitive dissonance refers to the mental discomfort people experience when they hold two
conflicting beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors. To reduce this discomfort, individuals are motivated to
eliminate the inconsistency. The theory of cognitive dissonance, developed by Leon Festinger
(1957), explains how people might resolve these inconsistencies through various strategies.
Here’s an explanation of each strategy with examples:
1. Change Their Behavior
When people experience dissonance, one of the most direct ways to resolve it is by changing
their behavior to align with their beliefs or attitudes. This approach reduces the inconsistency
between their actions and thoughts.
• Example: A person who values a healthy lifestyle but smokes cigarettes experiences
dissonance because their behavior (smoking) contradicts their belief (the desire to be healthy).
To reduce dissonance, they might decide to quit smoking to align their behavior with their belief
in living healthily.
• Marketing Example: A consumer who has bought fast food regularly but feels guilty about their
health may decide to start purchasing healthier food options or cooking at home. Health
campaigns often encourage this behavior change by highlighting the negative health effects of
fast food.
2. Justify Their Behavior by Changing the Conflicting Cognition
Another strategy is to change the cognition or belief that causes the conflict. Instead of changing
behavior, people may alter their perception of the situation to make their behavior seem more
acceptable.
• Example: A person who smokes but knows it’s unhealthy might reduce dissonance by altering
their belief to think, “The health risks of smoking are exaggerated” or “My grandfather smoked
and lived to be 90, so it’s not that bad for me.”
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• Marketing Example: A consumer who buys expensive luxury products but feels guilty about
overspending might change their belief by thinking, “High-quality products are worth the money
because they last longer” or “I deserve to treat myself.” This justification reduces the tension
between their spending behavior and their belief in being financially responsible.
3. Justify Their Behavior by Adding New Cognitions
Sometimes, people justify their behavior by adding new, supporting cognitions to lessen the
discomfort without changing the original behavior or belief. This involves creating new reasons or
rationalizations that align with their behavior.
• Example: A smoker who feels dissonance might add a new cognition like, “Smoking helps me
reduce stress, and stress is bad for my health too.” By adding this new rationale, they reduce
the dissonance without changing their behavior (smoking) or belief (desire for good health).
• Marketing Example: Someone who purchases a luxury car but feels it’s an unnecessary
expense might add new cognitions such as “This car is safer for my family” or “Driving a luxury
car will help me make a good impression in my business dealings.” These new beliefs help
justify the purchase decision, reducing the dissonance between their action and the original
belief about being frugal.
Motivational conflicts
A goal has valence, which means that it can be positive or negative. Therefore, goals can be
sought or avoided. There are three general types of conflicts:
Approach-approach conflict—a person must choose between two desirable alternatives such
as choosing between two favorite brands of automobiles. Companies often use strategies like
warranties or trial periods to alleviate dissonance in approach-avoidance conflicts. For instance,
offering a 30-day return policy on a high-priced item may help reduce consumers’ fear of
making a bad decision, as it lowers the perceived risk.
Approach-avoidance conflict—many products or services we desire have negative
consequences attached to them. An example is deserts, which may lead to gaining
weight. (Plastic bag with mold example).
Avoidance-avoidance conflict—a choice between two undesirable alternatives such as having
to spend more on an older car or buy a newer more expensive car. Examples: 1
Promote
your product as a reasonable alternative - the lesser of two evils (e.g., easy payment plan), 2. Turn
negative into positive
Motivation as a Psychological Force
At the most basic level, we are driven to heighten positive emotion or mood, and to reduce
negative feelings.
Example:
Scenario: A person, John, wants to get fit and lose weight.
1. Emotions Signal Unmet Needs:
◦ John feels dissatisfied with his appearance when he looks in the mirror. He also
experiences low self-esteem when socializing because he feels self-conscious about his
weight. These negative emotions signal that his need for better physical health and selfconfidence is unmet, prompting him to realize that he should take action.
◦ Example: John's dissatisfaction with how he looks in a swimsuit at a pool party triggers the
motivation to join a gym and start exercising.
1. Emotions Provide the Energy to Act:
◦ Once the need is recognized, John’s emotions provide the energy and urgency to start
acting. He feels a sense of determination and hope as he imagines the benefits of being fit.
The excitement of visualizing himself in better shape drives him to sign up for a gym
membership and start working out.
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Example: John’s excitement about the idea of feeling healthier and more confident gives him
the motivation to wake up early and go to the gym, even when it’s difficult.
1. Emotions Work as Feedback for Progress:
◦ As John progresses with his workout routine, he experiences positive emotions when he
notices small improvements, such as fitting into an old pair of jeans or receiving compliments
from friends. These emotions, like pride and satisfaction, serve as feedback that reinforces
his behavior, motivating him to keep pushing toward his goal. On the flip side, if he misses a
workout or doesn’t see results, he might feel frustration or disappointment, which signals
the need to adjust his approach or try harder.
◦ Example: After a month of regular workouts, John feels proud when he sees progress on the
scale, which reinforces his motivation to stay consistent with his fitness routine. Conversely, if
the scale doesn't budge, the frustration may motivate him to tweak his diet or try a different
workout routine.
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Emotions vs. Moods
Emotion:
• Definition: Emotions are intense, short-lived mental states triggered by specific events or stimuli.
They are different to control.
• Characteristics: They involve physiological responses (e.g., increased heart rate), behavioral
expressions (e.g., facial expressions), and cognitive appraisals (evaluations of a situation).
• Examples: Anger, fear, happiness, surprise.
Feeling:
• Definition: Feelings are the subjective experience of emotions. They are internal and personal
interpretations of emotions.
• Characteristics: Less intense than emotions and more cognitive. While emotions can trigger
automatic responses, feelings represent the personal awareness and interpretation of that
emotion.
• Examples: Feeling frustrated (a reflection of anger), feeling content (a reflection of happiness).
Mood:
• Definition: Moods are more prolonged, generalized emotional states, without a clear starting
point or immediate cause. They are easier to control.
• Characteristics: Moods are typically less intense than emotions but last longer (hours or even
days). They do not necessarily arise from specific events and can influence a person's
emotional response to future events.
• Examples: Being in a good mood, a bad mood, or a neutral mood.
Components of Emotions
The three key components of emotions typically discussed in psychology are:
1. Cognitive Component (Appraisal)
• Description: This involves the mental processes used to interpret and evaluate the significance
of an event. It is how we assess a situation, which influences the type of emotion we
experience.
• Example: Interpreting a situation as threatening leads to fear, while interpreting it as positive
might lead to joy.
• Role: Determines which emotion we feel based on our assessment of the situation.
2. Physiological Component (Bodily Response)
• Description: Emotions trigger physical changes in the body. These are automatic and involve
the autonomic nervous system, including changes like increased heart rate, sweating, and
hormone release.
• Example: Feeling anxious may cause your heart to race and your palms to sweat.
• Role: Prepares the body to respond to the emotion, such as activating the fight-or-flight
response in the case of fear.
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3. Behavioral Component (Expressive Behavior)
• Description: This refers to how we express our emotions through facial expressions, gestures,
posture, and actions. Emotions often lead to observable behaviors that can signal our feelings
to others.
• Example: Smiling when happy or frowning when sad.
Role: Communicates our emotional state to others and often influences how others react to us.
Activation: Body mapping of emotions
Emotions are often felt in the body, and somatosensory feedback has been proposed to trigger
conscious emotional experiences. Here we reveal maps of bodily sensations associated with
different emotions using a unique topographical self-report method. In five experiments,
participants (n = 701) were shown two silhouettes of bodies alongside emotional words, stories,
movies, or facial expressions. They were asked to color the bodily regions whose activity they felt
increasing or decreasing while viewing each stimulus. Different emotions were consistently
associated with statistically separable bodily sensation maps across experiments. These maps
were concordant across West European and East Asian samples. Statistical classifiers
distinguished emotion-specific activation maps accurately, confirming independence of
topographies across emotions. We propose that emotions are represented in the somatosensory
system as culturally universal categorical somatotopic maps. Perception of these emotiontriggered bodily changes may play a key role in generating consciously felt emotions.
What are the basic emotions?
“Basic emotions are hypothesized to be a special class of emotions out of which all other
emotions are compounded.
According to most theorists, they are innate, universal, and distinct affective states which evolved
to serve adaptive functions.”.
Dimensional Model of Emotions (Russell’s Circumflex model)
Dimensional Models (Valence and Arousal)
In dimensional models, emotions are mapped along two key dimensions:
• Valence: Whether the emotion is positive (e.g., joy) or negative (e.g., sadness).
• Arousal: Whether the emotion is high energy (e.g., anger) or low energy (e.g., contentment).
Although not focused on specific emotion categories, this model is widely used in understanding
emotional states based on their intensity and pleasantness.
Emotional Influences
In decision-making research, emotions play a crucial role and can be categorized into different
types based on their relationship with the decision-making process.
Emotions influence how we make decisions, but the way they influence depends on where the
emotion originates. This categorization helps explain why emotions affect judgments differently.
• Source of emotion matters
◦ integral emotions: Integral emotions are directly related to the object of the decision, such as a
product, service, or event. These emotions arise from past experiences or associations with
the item being evaluated. Integral emotions influence how we evaluate and choose between
options by using the "How-do-I-feel-about-it?" heuristic. People rely on their emotional
responses to guide their choices. Example: “I have to choose a restaurant for dinner. Thinking
about one particular restaurant makes me joyful because I had a great experience there
before.” The emotion of joy is tied to the restaurant itself and informs the decision.
Integral Emotions in Marketing
Integral emotions are those directly related to the product or decision at hand. They arise from
the evaluation of the product or service, and they significantly impact consumers' judgments and
choices.
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1. Creating Positive Integral Emotions
• Brand Associations: Marketers strive to create positive integral emotions (like joy or trust)
associated with their brands. This can be achieved through:
◦ Quality Messaging: Communicating the benefits and unique features of a product can
generate positive feelings.
◦ Positive Experiences: Providing excellent customer service and high-quality products leads
to satisfaction, trust, and loyalty.
• Example: A skincare brand that emphasizes the effectiveness and quality of its products can
create integral emotions like trust and satisfaction in consumers, influencing their decision to
purchase.
2. Leveraging Integral Emotions in Advertising
• Emotional Appeals: Ads can evoke integral emotions by showcasing how a product can
positively impact consumers’ lives, helping them relate emotionally to the brand.
• Storytelling: Effective storytelling in marketing that highlights the emotional benefits of using a
product (e.g., happiness from using a certain coffee brand) can strengthen integral emotions.
• Example: A car commercial that portrays family bonding and adventure can evoke feelings of
happiness and safety, directly linking the emotional experience to the brand and its products.
3. Enhancing Purchase Intent
• Integral emotions directly affect how consumers evaluate options. Positive emotions
related to a product can lead to higher purchase intentions. Marketers can emphasize positive
attributes and benefits to enhance emotional connections.
• Example: A marketing campaign promoting a vacation package may highlight relaxation and joy
associated with travel, encouraging consumers to book their trips.
incidental emotions: Incidental emotions are emotions that are present at the time of decisionmaking but are not related to the decision itself. These emotions may arise from unrelated
events or situations.Even though incidental emotions are normatively irrelevant to the
decision, they can still influence judgments and choices. For example, if you're feeling joyful
for unrelated reasons, this emotion can spill over into your decision-making process and affect
your preferences. •
Example: “I’m very joyful right now, and I have to choose a
restaurant for dinner.” Although the joy is unrelated to the restaurants, it might lead you to
choose a more festive or exciting dining option.
Incidental Emotions in Marketing
Incidental emotions, on the other hand, are unrelated to the specific decision but can still
influence judgment and choice. These emotions can be transient feelings that consumers
experience while making a decision.
1. Influencing Decisions through Incidental Emotions
• Emotional States: Consumers’ current emotional states (e.g., happiness, sadness, anger) can
impact their decisions, even if these emotions are not related to the purchase. Marketers can
leverage this by:
◦ Creating a Positive Atmosphere: Ensuring that marketing communications occur in contexts
where consumers are likely to be in a positive emotional state can help improve receptiveness
to messages.
◦ Timing Campaigns: Timing marketing efforts during times of heightened positive emotions
(e.g., holidays, celebrations) can enhance effectiveness.
• Example: A clothing brand running a promotion during a festive season, when people are
generally happier, can leverage incidental happiness to boost sales.
2. Improve Context for Incidental Emotions
• Environment and Framing: The environment in which consumers encounter marketing
messages can induce incidental emotions. Marketers can improve contextual elements (e.g.,
visuals, music) to evoke specific emotions.
• Product Placement: Associating products with positive emotional experiences in advertising
can trigger incidental emotions that influence purchasing decisions.
• Example: A chocolate ad that features people celebrating and enjoying happy moments can
induce incidental joy, making consumers more likely to purchase the product, even if they
weren't initially thinking about buying chocolate.
3. Addressing Negative Incidental Emotions
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• Mitigating Negative States: If consumers are experiencing negative emotions, marketing
strategies can focus on providing solutions or comfort. Brands can position themselves as
solutions to alleviate negative feelings.
• Example: A wellness brand might emphasize self-care products during stressful times (e.g.,
exam periods, holidays) to provide comfort and support, influencing consumers positively
despite their incidental negative emotions.
task-related emotions: Task-related emotions refer to the emotions experienced during the
process of making a decision, performing a task, or engaging in a particular activity. Unlike
integral emotions (which are linked to the object of the decision) and incidental emotions
(which are unrelated emotions that happen to be present), task-related emotions emerge from
the decision-making process itself. They reflect how people feel about engaging with a
task, and these emotions can influence both the decision-making process and its outcomes.
By understanding and leveraging task-related emotions, marketers can create more effective
strategies that resonate with consumers on an emotional level.
Using Task-Related Emotions in Marketing Examples
1. Easing Frustration and Anxiety
• Simplified Processes: Brands focus on simplifying complex tasks to alleviate feelings of
frustration and anxiety. For example, platforms like Canva and Mint offer user-friendly interfaces
that make design and budgeting easy, reducing stress for users who might otherwise feel
overwhelmed.
• Clear Instructions: Providing clear, step-by-step instructions can help users feel more
competent and in control. This can enhance their emotional experience and encourage them to
engage more with the product.
2. Enhancing User Experience
• Personalization: Tailoring user experiences based on individual preferences can enhance taskrelated emotions. Spotify uses personalized playlists to create feelings of connection and joy,
making users more likely to engage with the platform.
• Visual Appeal: Marketing materials that are visually appealing can evoke positive emotions
associated with tasks. Brands like Etsy leverage beautiful product photography to enhance the
shopping experience, making it feel more enjoyable and rewarding.
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Type of mood: anxious or sad. Raghunathan & Pham (1999)
• Anxiety makes people go for certainty (preference for lower payoffs with higher probability)
• Sadness makes people go for rewards (preference for higher payoffs with lower probability)
Cognitive Systems. Kahneman (2003)
System 1: "Implicit" Thinking
• Perception & Intuition: System 1 relies heavily on perception and intuition. It’s a way of
processing information quickly, without deliberate thought. This system is instinctive, using
immediate judgments based on what we see and feel at the moment. In marketing, this system
is often engaged when consumers make quick purchasing decisions based on packaging or
brand recognition.
• Automatic: It operates unconsciously and automatically. We don’t need to think through every
step or decision; System 1 handles the process effortlessly. For example, picking a familiar
product on a store shelf without much thought.
• Associative: System 1 connects related ideas and experiences. If someone associates a brand
with positive memories or emotions, their brain quickly links those experiences together, making
them favor that brand without analyzing every detail.
• Fast: This is the system’s defining feature—it works quickly. It’s especially useful when we need
to make split-second decisions or act based on our emotions or intuition. Consumers using
System 1 make decisions based on emotional impulses or surface-level perceptions, like the
attractiveness of packaging.
Discrete Emotions and System 1
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• Anger: When a consumer feels anger, they are likely to respond quickly and aggressively. In
marketing, anger can result in strong negative reactions, such as boycotting a product or
leaving a bad review.
• Fear: Fear causes people to avoid risks and seek protection. In advertising, fear appeals (e.g.,
safety or health risks) can trigger quick reactions, motivating consumers to avoid certain
behaviors or purchase protective products.
• Joy: Positive emotions like joy encourage immediate positive decisions, such as purchasing a
product that makes the consumer feel happy or rewarded. Ads that evoke happiness can lead
to faster, more favorable evaluations.
• Other Emotions: Emotions like sadness, surprise, and disgust also impact fast decisionmaking. For example, disgust may quickly deter consumers from buying a product, while
surprise can grab attention and make an ad memorable.
System 2 and Anticipated Emotions
1. System 2: "Explicit" Thinking
◦ Reasoning: System 2 is the mode of thinking that involves conscious reasoning and logic.
Unlike System 1, which relies on intuition, System 2 carefully evaluates information before
making a decision. In marketing, this system engages when consumers read product reviews,
compare prices, or analyze product features before making a purchase.
◦ Controlled & Effortful: System 2 thinking is slower and requires effort. It involves deeper
thinking, where people deliberate and weigh the pros and cons before reaching a conclusion.
This type of thinking is often activated in high-stakes or important decisions, such as
purchasing a car or investing in a house.
◦ Rule-Governed: This system follows logical rules and principles. For example, consumers
might use specific criteria like price, quality, and functionality to compare products. They apply
these rules to systematically evaluate their options.
◦ Slow: System 2 takes time to process. It’s not quick or impulsive like System 1, and this
deliberate thinking often results in more rational, well-thought-out decisions. Consumers take
time to carefully evaluate long-term investments or complex purchases.
1. Anticipated Emotions and System 2
◦ Regret: One of the key anticipated emotions in System 2 thinking is the fear of regret.
Consumers may avoid certain choices if they think they will regret the decision later. For
example, a customer might take extra time comparing smartphones to avoid regretting a poor
purchase.
Disappointment: Disappointment occurs when expectations aren’t met. Consumers engaging
System 2 will carefully consider their options to avoid future disappointment, such as buying a
product that doesn’t perform as expected. This leads to careful evaluation to minimize the chance
of feeling let down after the purchase.
Note:
• Some decisions are “intuitive” & increased cognitive effort from System 2 may hurt:
◦ Increased thinking results in
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Decreased satisfaction with choices
✧
focusing too much on small details or comparing too many factors can lead to decision
fatigue or doubt about whether they made the right choice.
◆
Decreased correspondence with expert raters
✧
in-depth thinking can lead to focusing on irrelevant details, while experts might rely on
intuition or deeper knowledge to focus on key factors.
◆
Focus on analyzing reasons for decisions
✧
getting caught up in overly logical or irrelevant factors
◆
Focus on “backward” learning
✧
Increased thinking causes people to focus on explaining or justifying their decision based
on past reasoning rather than using their current feelings or experiences to guide them
forward.
• We rely on feelings when…
◦ Simplification of judgment is needed (heuristic)
◦ Speed is required (time pressure)
◦ Feelings are diagnostic to the decision
◆
Relevant for decision goals / objects (e.g. movie for fun vs. class project)
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◆
Can be relied upon / trusted (e.g. decision for yourself vs. others)
Fear appeals
• Fear Appeals:
◦ Emphasize the negative consequences that can occur unless the consumer changes a
behavior or an attitude
◦ Used mostly in social marketing contexts
◦ Effective only when the threat is moderate and a solution is presented
◆
avoid fear appeals when fear is low or high
◦ Examples
◆
Fear of Loss - encompasses other fears, such as loss of life, youth, health, love, social
standing, approval, and so forth.
◆
Fear of Failure - closely related to fear of criticism and fear of rejection and embarrassment
Humorous Appeals
• Positive effects
◦ attracts attention
◦ puts people in a good mood
◆
inhibits the consumer from counter-arguing (thinking of reasons not to agree with the
message)
◦ enhanced attitude towards the ad
◦ increased likelihood of message acceptance
Mood and information
Positive mood
• Protect current mood (Hirt & McCrea, 2000)
• Be compliant (less reactance) (Forgas, 1998)
No cognitive deliberation (Isen et al. 1985; Wegener et al. 1995)
Negative mood
• Repair mood
• Less compliant (more reactance)
• Cognitive deliberation (Clore & Schwarz, 1994)
Arousal of Motives
• Physiological arousal
e.g., state of hunger
• Emotional arousal
e.g., frustration
• Cognitive arousal
e.g., reading info in a new ad
• Environmental arousal
e.g., change of weather
A consumer has a variety of needs but only some of them are aroused at any given time and given
top-of-mind priority.
Motives become aroused by the consumer’s psychological condition (they get hungry), their
emotional state (frustrated), cognitive processes (they read an ad that made them think about
their needs), or by events occurring in their general surroundings (the weather becomes cold).
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Biological vs Learned needs
• Biological
◦ Drive theory (push) focuses on biological needs that produce unpleasant states of arousal,
e.g. stomach rumbling when you are hungry. We are motivated to reduce the tension caused
by such arousal.
• Learned
◦ Expectancy theory
(pull) suggests that behaviour is largely governed by expectations of
achieving desirable outcomes – positive incentives rather than pushed from within.
Motivation and emotion
• Motivation is largely driven by raw emotions (affect).
• At the most basic level, we are driven to heighten positive emotion or mood, and to reduce
negative feelings.
• Our emotional reactions in turn influence the likelihood that we will engage in an activity next
time – they positively or negatively reinforce us.
Social media platforms also strongly relate to our moods.
It’s common for people to express their moods and also their emotional reactions to products and
these posts can be a treasure trove for marketers who want to learn more about how their
offerings make people feel.
A technique called sentiment analysis refers to a process that scours the social media universe to
collect and analyse the words people use when they describe a specific product or company
Involvement
perceived relevance of an object based on one’s needs, values and interests
OBJECTIVE: It is important to understand why the way we evaluate and choose a product
depends upon our degree of involvement with the product, the marketing message, and/or the
purchase situation
We use the word object in the generic sense to refer to a product (or a brand), an advertisement,
or a purchase situation. Consumers can find involvement in all these objects.
Types of consumer involvement
• Cognitive involvement – where a person is motivated to learn all she/he can about the product.
• Product involvement – the consumer’s level of interest in making a particular purchase, which
can range from inertia to very high involvement.
• Message-response involvement (advertising involvement) – the consumer’s interest in
processing marketing communications (e.g., advertisement)
Ego involvement (enduring involvement) – the importance of a product to a consumer’s selfconcept.
Components of involvement
Different factors may create involvement. These factors can be something about the person,
object, situation.
Involvement reflects our level of motivation to process information. To the degree that you feel
knowing more about a product will help you to achieve some goal, you’ll be motivated to pay
attention to information about it. As involvement with a product increases, we devote more
attention to ads related to the product, we exert more cognitive effort to understand these ads,
and we focus more attention on the product-related information in the ads.
Strategies to increase involvement
• Appeal to the consumer’s hedonic needs.
• Use novel stimuli.
• Use prominent stimuli.
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• Include celebrity endorsers.
• Build a bond with consumers by maintaining an ongoing relationship with them.
• The internet has provided companies with new opportunities for creating loyal bonds with
customers and the possibility to personalize products and services.
Involvement Continuum
Because a person’s degree of involvement can be conceived as a continuum, consumption at the
low end of involvement is characterized by inertia. In this state, decisions are made out of habit
because the consumer lacks the information to consider alternatives. To the contrary, decisions
can be very passionate and carry great meaning for a person. In consumer situations of high
involvement, the consumer enters a flow state, where the consumer is in an elated state of focus
and concentration and loses track of time.
Level of Involvement
High Involvement
“Think before you act” left brain
Low Involvement
“Act before you think” right brain
Emotions vs. Moods
Emotions:
• Immediate responses
• Specific
• Develop fast and automatically
• Short lasting
• Impossible to control
Moods:
• Are NOT immediate
• Abstract
• Develop more gradually
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• Longer lasting
• Possible to control
Charles Darwin. The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals (1872)
powerlessness
surprise
sadness
contempt
How are feelings incorporated in evaluations?
• Mere association: affect transfer
• Indirectly by changing perceptions or beliefs
• As a source of information
A good mood
• Can improve performance on creative task
• For example (Isen et al. 1987): the candle task
• Box of tacks, candle, book of maches
• Attach the candle to the wall (corkboard) in such a way that it will burn without dripping wax on
the table or the floor
Specific Categories of Emotions
• Counterfactual Emotions:
◦ “I could have”
◦ Decision Making emotions
◆
Regret
✧
Switch
◆
Disappointment
✧
Complain
• Self-conscious Emotions
◦ “I should have”
◆
Guilt
✧
Correct, Compensate
◆
Shame
✧
Withdraw
◦ “S/he (not) should have”
◆
Anger
✧
Retaliate (revenge)
Passyn, Luce, Kahn (2005)
• Health Promotion Goal: Condom usage among college students
• 3 campaigns pretested:
◦
Fact: describes risks of Chlamydia
◦ Fear: risks cast in terms of uncertainty
◦ Regret: risks cast in terms of responsibility
• Which one works best? (Condom experiment) Regret appeal heightens sense of personal
responsibility for preventive action and unthreatening, which allows to process the message.
Humorous Appeals
• Marketing implications
◦ Humorous appeals are effective when involvement is low, for existing products, when the
humorous material is appropriate to the product's image and when the humorous material
does not overwhelm the message.
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