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Química Orgânica: Notas de Aula

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Organic Chemistry
26 Nov 2023
Old Concept
Till
18thcentury it was believed that
organic compounds
are only synthesized in living organisms as they require some
mysterious unknown x fories vital force for their preparation
That is
why organic compounds can not be synthesized in labs
vital force concept
organic organism living
Modern Concept
a
Wohler's Experiment
1828
Ammonium Cyanite
boil in water
NA
Tiffani
NHz
urea organic
This experiment led to the failureof vital force ioniept
organic compounds are hydrocarbons and their derivatives with the
Cox carbon oxides 1032 carbonates HC03
exception
of
bicarbonates
Naz103
Nak 103
H2 03
102
CO
allinorganicsubstancet
Compounds containing carbon t Hydrogen along with
Érigite
IIR
I
it
Aldehyde
Fe
R OH
alcohol
R X
e
alkyl halide
etc
Naming standards in organic compounds
a Common
naming
marshgas
eg
b
IUPAC
Cha
methane
marshy areas origins
All single covalent bonds
1C
Alkane
eg
fiefcoils
common naming
all
no of carbon atoms
area single covalent bonds
IUPAC
eg CH COOH Ethanoic Acid
Coot
Cit COOH
alkanoic acids
Acetic acid vinegar
common name
IUPAC Rules
Longest continuous carbon chain is identified as the
parent
eg
Citz
chain
cha
CH z
CH
I
H2
ly
butane X
x
pentane parent chain
the parent chain are numbered in such
a way that carbon attached with a substituent branch
gets the lowest possible number
Carbon
atoms in
Hz CH
120
CH z
Hz
CH z
Hz substituent branch F G Alkyl
Hydrocarbons
Alkyl
Alkyl
Alkane H
O CHz
eg
misiane
methyl
C2175
ethyl
2176
ethane
brands connected to 2ndcarbon
methyl
t
pentane
substituent
If two or more identical substituents are attached to
the parent chain then a prefix
di
tri
tetra
2
3
4
added before their names to show the amount of
identical substituents along with the numbers
is
Cit CI
I
CH
CI cat
TH
3
2 3 dimethyl butane
t
3
ft't't
H C
2,3 a
y't lit cha Cit
ditz
City
its
thy
g
c Hz
it
ICH
tri methyl hexane
city
4ethyl 3 methyl heptane
212 dimethylpropane
If two different alkylgroup are attached to parentchain
then the preferred alkyl group is the one which is closer to
the end
eg
Citz Cit citz Citta cha Cha It
I
1
Hz
Hz CH
5 ethyl 2 methyl heptane
citz Cit Citz CI CI Cha CI
I
1
Hz
Hz CH
If two different alkyl groups are attached to the same
carbon from the end preferred alkyl is the smaller
alkyl
methyl ethyl
ethyl
propyl
uts
g't
propyl
butyl
it if
Hz
3 ethyl
2,4 dimethyl pentane
Hz CH
CH
it
it
2 methyl propane
Hz C
city
I
C
H2
litz city
Az
t eh
lit
2,2 5,5 tetramethyl hexane
Alkenes
Hydrocarbons with atleast one double bond
term
alk
no
of carbon atoms
ene shows double covalent bond
Additionally an appropriate number is added to the parent
name to show the location of the double bond
eg
CHz CH
ethene
CH
CH CH
propene
CHCHICI CI's
2 butene ou but2 ene
Practice
O
Hz
CH CH
4 methyl
CHz
II
CH
double bad is
firstpreference
nexene
4 methyl hex 2 ene
CH
EH
CH CH
CH
CH
CH
Its
2,5 dimethyl 3 heptere
0
Hz CHCH Hz
or
CH
2,5 dimethylheat3 ene
C CH
CHEECH
Hz
2,2 5,5 tetra methyl hex 3 ene
CH3CHCHCH
2CH CH
Clt CI CI e
6 methyl
42
hept L ene
1
Multiple double bonds
compounds having more than one doublebond are named
2 double bonds
alkadiene
double bond
alka tiene
3
4 double bonds
as
alka tetra ene
alongside the name a position number is all o
added to show clearly the position of the
double bonds
Practice
CH z
Chs
CH
CH CH CH CH
2,4
hexadiene
It Git 115C
4 methyl
CHz
or
hexa 2,4 diene
CH Its
2,5 heptadiere or 4 methylhepta 2,5 diene
CH CH CH
It 3
CH
Hz ditz
CH
2,415 trimethyl t hexene or 3 4,5 trimethyl hex i ene
y
Alkynes
hydrocarbons with atleast
alk
one
triple bond
of carbon atoms
indicates presence of a triple bond
shows no
g ne
A coefficient number is also added to locate the
CHECH
eg
43 C
2
ethyne
C
CH
butyne
bond
CHz Ce c cha cha city
2 hexyne ou
nex 2 yne
Practice
Citz CIC cha
C't
9
II
8
citz City
Cee
II
5 methyl hex 2 yue
C C CHz Clt
It Ed
Clt
c'it
gy
EH
É
at
a
5,6 dimethylhept 3 y ne
Etz city 3 6,7 trimethylnon a yne
4 ethyl hex 2 y ne
Compounds containing multiple triple bonds
For
two
triple bonds
alkadigne
three triple bond alkatrigene
For four triple bondi alkatekagere
For
Gt3 5 5 44
It
c
G methyl 2,4 heptadigne
G methyl
hepta 2,4 digne
CH CEC
CEC
CE C
C Hz
2,416 octatriyne
Gt3 Cee
II
C
C
CHz Clt
Clt2
4 ethyl 2,5 octadigne
Hydrocarbons containing and bonds
If
or
carbon
bond is located at the same identified
bond is
then
preferred
C'Hz CH
eg
CH C Hz
2 hepten s
y ne
EE EH
or
hept 2 en f y ne
bond is located at different carbon in the
main chain then priority is given to the bond which is
If
or I
closest to the end
eg
Cit
6
Ee ditz EH EH
T
4
3
2
I hexen a y ne
EH EH EH
Cit Ei EH
2
a
2
6
3 hexer t y ne
E
Sunday, December 3, 2023
10:46 PM
5
I
2
3
a
6
dd
5methylnexzene
Y'ts
O
ditz
gg g
a
314145 tetra
ethyl 3 methylheptane
methyldei 3en syne
2,2 9 9 tetra
a ethyl 2,5 octadiane
dodeca tri 2 Gloen4,8digre
2 3 dimethyl butz en e
2 2 3,3 tetramethylbutane
n
2,2 33,4pentamethylpentane
2,5dimethylhex3 ene
2 s oc tadigne
2 3 6 7 tetramethyl 1 2,6
octadien
a yne
New Section 1 Page 1
Organic functional groups
Chemical reactions
Prep
use application
Functional Group
Reactive part of the hydrocarbon chain
Specie atom or a group of atoms that gives unique
properties to the organic compound
É or
eg
ester
fruity smell
OH
alcohol
Alkanes
Hydrocarbons
with all carbon carbonbonds orsingle covalent
bonds Sigma bonds
O
CnHantz
Bondangles 109.50
Shape Tetrahedral
Nature
of hybridisation sp
Preparation of Alkenes
Cracking
Breakdown
eg
of a complex hydrocarbon into smaller hydrocarbons
Cioltzo
alkanet alkene t
Types
Catalytic
thermal
Hatley
steam cracking
A 203
Hydrogenation
Addition
eg
of it to alkenes
Jc ch
alkene
t
ha
Reaction Conditions
s
dd
it it
Ni Pt.PH
CAIEAKo F.B P.B
200 3000C
Ni
3001
SB MDCAT
propene
t
Ha
propane
Sabatier Sander's Reaction
Hydrogenation of alkane
Oil
h
it
Reduction
of Alkane
ghee parafins
alkene
industrial slate
olefins
Ayane
saturated
methane cannot bepreparedusingthismethod
Decarboxylation of Sodium Alkanoate
or
decarboxylation ofsodium acetate
KU
decarboxylation of mono carboxylic acid
delarboxylation of Sodium saltoffattyacid
Two step reaction
step1
E oh
Naoh
carboxylic acid
caustic
R
Galkanoic a lid
soda
H2o
R
É on a
sodium Alkanoate
R É Ona t NaOH
Step 2
Cao
R H
t
Nao
É Ona
alkylth
t
Alkane
Na 203
washingcode
NaOH
causticsoda
City
Clt
Ggg mg
off
t
soda lime
Naoh
É Ona t NaOH Y
Hot
cat
Cha
t
É Ona
sodium ethanoate
Nazca
methane
É ona
Nao
CzHzÉ oh
NaOH
butanoicacid
City citz Clf É Ona
Nacht
H2O t
city cha cha
É ons
sodium b taroate
Gt3 Citz Hz it
propane
Naza
2019Cmdcat
Q Alkanes can beprepared by
a
dehydration of alcohol
W b decarboxylation
of sodium saltoffatty acid
c hydrogenation of alkene
a halogenation of alkenes
From organo metallic compounds
Grignard reagent
R
ng X
alkyl magnesium halide
By Hydrolysis through R ng x
H ont
t
t
R ng X
alkane
allyinghalide
water
X
CL Br
R it
ng't't
basicmg halide
I
Propane
H ont t
water
If
chloride
c Ha ng CI
cats
propylmagnesium
propane
mg
a
basismagnesiumshlon
eg
H ont
t
Hz citz Mg Br EY City
ethyl mg bromide
Hz
ethane
Mg
r
basicmgbromide
Reduction of alkyl halides
R
Antti
citzCL
In
t
Ha
R H
2ns
t
2nd z
City
Chemical Reactivity ofAlkanes
In alkanes all C C bonds are sigma bonds ie electrons
involved in bonding are under the influence of twonuclei So
Chemical reactivity decreases as Bond Breaking requireshigh energy
I Parafine
1
less reactive
Free radicle substitution
whatis a free radicle
specie fanthate with an unpaired electron
El neutral atom
it
neutral molecule
They have highreactivity
x How is a
freeradicleformed
Homolytic fission
Heterolytic fission
same atoms
different atoms
A
U
IB
ITI
Twofreeradicles
A
XB
I A
Bt
anion
catio
Cla of City
Initiation
U
Cla
Iggy
citti
Plank's constant
h
f V
new
G 625
10
3
frequency of the photon
Propagation
radicle
jethy'free
ftp.jj
Fie
attack
CIII
CH
di
at
a
til
HCL ICH2cL
CHICK
CHILI
CHICK t CL
HCL t CH CE
CH Cl
CHEL
z
t
CL z
Haz t CL
C
J see
s
CHL
CL
a
Combustion
Hy t 202
City
Oz
extess
CO2 t 21 20
limit co
H2o
Oxidation
Hy t
I
O
200atm
methane
CHsoit CO
CH3OH
s
methanol
s
H
EH
H2o
methanol
HCHO
CO
HCOOH
O
Oxidation
s Oxidation
which
can
products
I
S
HCOOH
formicacid carboxylicacid
CO2
H2O
fully leads to combustion
of a hydrocarbon producesorganic products
further
be
oxidized to other organic
Nitration
R
H
CHL
t
HONG
IT
Honor
É
R NO
H2O
nitroalkane
H2o
CH
t
No
nitromethane
Sulfonation
R H
on
Hy
t
15 11 400
o it SO it
Hot
R so H
alky sulphonic acid
Hz 503A
H2o
methyl sulphonicalid
Formation
of Benzene Aromatization
Cr O s
3CzH
ethane
IEE
Cla and Bra
Iz is
Colts t GH
Benzene
proceed with free radicle mechanism
a reversible reaction
CHL t I
ICH
I
HI
Fluoro compounds
compounds
are prepared through Cly and Br
CH CL F
CH F t CE
8
KID
of
Alkenes
Olefins
s
oil derivatives
atleast one doublebond
Sp
Angle 1200
Shape Trigonal planar
HW Physicalproperties
uses
from books across all provinces
Reparation of Alkenes
Dehydrohalogenation of allyl halides
d
from halogenoalkane
removing H
and X halide
General equation
I
d
I
t
II
alcoholic
a
thot
ice
City
Hach
t
Kot
ka
thro
t CHz City
ihloroethane
ethene
alkyl halide
halogenoalkane
Elimination reaction
Saytzeff's rule it is removed from carbon adjalent
to halide that has less H attached to it
X
R
kcltHzo
tkat
43 ftp
g
t
at
gicit
sits
Priority
methyl but 2 ene
major product
2 chloro 3 meth butane
Prepare
Cit
2,5 octadienefrom halogenoalkane
It
1h2 Hz CH CH
2,5
chloro octane
d
2K Clt 2720
CH
CH
City CH CH
2KOH
CH TH CH CH
Az
woman
wit
2,5 octadiene
Dehydration of allohols
d d
I I
9
Hz
91203
388
HoH
ethanol
Aha
348L
ice
H2O
Hao
X
Ha Citz
ethene
Ease of dehydration
tertiary
30 alcohols
mosteasily
secondary
primary
10 allohols
20 alcohols
dehydrated
eg
city
fits
c
20
250
oh
2 methyl
2
Hz
OH
GH
Hz
I
850C
It
2
propanol
Is
2 propanol
Hao
Its
methyl I propene
l propene
Holt
ethan l ol
C
cha CH tho
Hz
Hz
Hz
it
140 C
1709
meat only 170 C
H2
Ha t H2o
ethene
Dehalogenation
a
of dihalides
halogen attained on two different carbons
vicinal dihalides
d d
y f
IUPAC
t
1,2
y't s
Jc d
Intz
alkene
Zinc
halide
dihaloalkane
vicinal dihalide
Iz Iz
eg
2h
2n
At
Cha Cha
ethene
2nd
zinc chloride
dichloroethane
vicinal dichloride
2019 AKU
b halogens attached to
geminal halides
same carbons
i
I
d
It
eg
an
a
It
feed
anat
Izz
d Clt
Incest
CH
I l dichloroethane
CH CH CH
but 2 ene
a Prepare 2 hexene through geminal halide
it
d
citz CH
22h t
it
is
Geltz
CH
22m42
É
Hz CH CH CHCH CI
hex 2 ene
27 Delember
Lecture 11
Oxidation
ofalkenes
a Cold dilute Kmnog
b Hot cone Amnon
eg hydroxylation
CH CH
IUPAC
t 103
Mnd
CHz CA
colddilute
bit
bit
y
ethan 1,2diol
ethyleneglycol
d
oncommonname
a
ketone
Jfc
co
no
2 Cat
Hotions
I Clt
propanone
2,3 dimethyl 2 butene
b Carboxylic acid
c
Hf
t
c
CH
cisbut2 ene
o
I
2citz
É OH
ethanoicacid
HIIIII
c
c
CO2 t H2O
Mno
Hz Cha t 4 o
Its
If
af hey
e
CH
hot
gnc
o
202
H2o
413
city
Ifc
city
É opt
ethanoicalid
propanone
o
city
I OH
Coz Hao
ethanoic acid
Oxidationofalkenes with Agro
H2 CHL
A920
300 C
Ha CH
highpressure
o
O
ethyleneepoxide
epoxides are then used to prepare glycols in industries
H2 CH CH
02
A920
H Clt
3000C
highpressure
City t
n
102
propylene epoxide
NCO
t
H2o
5 Combustion
a
ie
b
SC
CI
t
c
6 Ozonolysis
Oz
02
excess
CO2
limited
t
co
H2O
H2o
Reaction with Ozone 03
unstable
d
Hz cha t
Hz Hz
d
O
03
rearmament
o
Structureisnotimportant
CHIOTH
d
d
2n
t
H2O
I
2HCHO
Oy
g
Ozonide
t H2O
methanol
H2O
g
2nd t H2O
Ozonolysis is used to locate the positionof double bonds
7 Addition
D
of hypohalous acid
HOX
X CL Br
disproportionation
Prep
H2O
HCL
Lz
HOLL
I
HO CI t cha cha
hypo chlorous acid
Ha
GH
Gtz
chlorohydrin
2 chloro l ethanol IUPAC
ethylene chlorohydrin F a
H2o 7
Ho Br
HB
Bra
Ha Cha
t
HoBr
Cha Cha
dit br
Bromo hydrin
2 bromo l ethanol IUPAC
ethylene bromohydrin F G
blvd graduatedfrom Yappington University of yappers
true
8 Addition
of Hasou
je c
t
production
of alkyl hydrogensulfate
I
440 5034
so H
alkylhydrogen sulfate
dd
f f so
t
H OH
10
d
IH 617
t
it so
alcohol
eg
Cha cha t
it 0 50317
Hz
CH
6 So H
ethyl hydrogen sulfate
CH
Ha
d 503A
H2o
100
Hz CH
OH
ethanol
t
Hasan
Markovnikov's addition is valid
Iot
xts
is addedto carbon with less H
its
cats
Hoke
I Chace
dits
major product
Lecture 12
9 Polymerization
aku
neitz
it
2,88
m
tracesofOz
t.CH CHA
polyethene
Cont
mdcat
n CH
Clt
200
sooo atm
f CH
CHI
polyethene
Good quality polymers are produced with Alkaits
aluminum
triethyl
and Tilly
TitaniumTrichloride
10 Mustard Gas
2GHz cha
g
52cL
t
H2 CHz Ce
cha cha a
s
mustard Gas
chemicalweapon
12,2 dichloroethy sulfide
Ithysical
uses
properties
across all boards
d Prepare
Propanol from alkene
Hal
gift
I Ifj
440 5034
Azl chicha
t
H oh
1009
gg
alcohol
t
Hason
Bromohydrin from alkene
Ho Br
Ha Cha
ethene
Cha Cha
dit Br
ethylene bonohydrin
2 bromoethan 1 ol
2 bromo 2 methyl
propane
CH3
City
d city
t ABR
HzC
Prepare vicinal dibromide from an
JC CI
t
Bra
Br
4h3
C
CH
b
alkene
e
d d
Br Br
Prepare propylene epoxide
CHz CH CH
02
A920
300C
highprenue
H2 CH CH
o
propylene epoxide
Ozonolysis
of propene
city CH CH
Oz
1 20
Formicacid from alkene
CH
I citz
o
HCHO
methanol
city I
ethanol
methodic acid
HCHO
Ketone from alkene
CHz
Copy previous notes pls
CH
CH
CH
it
Hag
Lecture 14
Alkynes
hydrocarbons with at least one triple bond b w 2 carbon atoms
general representation as
general formula CnHan 2
Hybridization
Shape linear
sp
s
t
as
in
C
C
two p orbitals in carbon are involved
pi bonding
angle 1800
alkenes alkynes alkanes
highly unsaturated
mostreactive
least realtive
General methods of preparation
Denydrohalogenation of alkyl halides
case 1
vicinal dihalide
É
2kg
dihalo alkane
alcohol
ethanol
100 C
AKU J
200 C
Noms IBO c
2K X t 242 Ot
Cee
eg
Hz
EY
CH
2KCC 21120
2K017
CH Ce Ct
but 2 y ne
Hy GHz t
24017
910h
ROH
Kart H2o
Bu Br
GI
Cha
CHECHtKBrth
vinylbromide
112 dibromoethane
vicinal dibromide
Sodium amide
it it
t amanita
gg
II's
c c
t 2 wax
2nits
above reaction is used to form terminal alkynes
l b tyne
43
g
CHz CH
2nanit
CHIH Cha Cha t
2Nacht 2MHz
As colt is a stronger alkali than Nana which moves the
triple bond from terminal carbons to non terminal carbons
Cha CH CH Clt
d
d
I b tyre
acidic
240179
11 CH
If
rearrange
CH
in KOH
HC C CHz
Hz CH
2k Cl t 21720
CEC CH
2 butyne
Hz
cased
Geminal halide
ÉE
If y
t
Nan it
lianas
330
2Nax
2Nitz
CEC
alkyne acytelene
City citz call
g
tananitz
2NaCl 2m13
Hz CI CH
I
methyl acetylene
i
propyne
at
citz
I
at
Hz cha C CH
that anno
1002 Look
avant
I
3
cliff
CH CHz CECH
NaCl
2N It
Éogi
Dehalogenation
oftetrahaloalkanes
II
22
s
22ns
LIC
t
x x
alkyne
tetrahalide
i i
HE EH
22nd
Zn
Cee
t
From Potassium and Sodium salt
CHOOK
citron
Choo
EI
11
ego
anion
Potassium fumerate
or
Potassium maleate
t 2kt
anode
CH ooo
11
at
of
CHIH
2102 the
Industrial prep of acetylene Wohlers method
Cao t 3C
Calz
20
Cacz
CO
chm carbide
2420
i
Ca OH
t
H CE CH
acetylene
Byshorter alkynes
HC ICH
anana
9Mt
TEETH
Tstrong
2Mt
Tidicbehavior
Nac
Cwa
ofethyne
disodiumacetylide
bond
NAC E Cna
t 2RX
HC CH t 2Nana
NAC
CNG
2CH C
S 2NaX
t
Nac
IR
CE c R
Cna t 2Mt
CHS LIC CH t 2Nall
2 butyne
Lecture is
Lecture 16
Addition of NH3
78
H NH
Ca Hz
rearrangement
s
methyl nitrite
CN
HC CH
i
I
NHz
ethane nitrile
CHz
Hz
t
Cy
T
CEN
nitrile
Addition of HCN hydrogen cyanide
HC CH
t
HCN
Chasin Nitigs
neat
HC
I
H
CH
I
CN
cyano alkene
cyano ethene
acrylonitrile C N
Oxidation of ethyne
a
with acidified KMn04
CH CH
HOH
formicacid
acetylene
Hoot
methanoicacid
b With alkaline Amnon
H C C
Cit E Cit
aietylene
ethyne
c
y y
H
COOH
COOH
oxalic acid
glyoxal CN
ethandi oic acid
oxaldehyde
with 426207
42504
CH CH
CHICOOH
ethyne
acetic acid vinegar
ethanoic acid
d Ozonolysis mdcat
ICH
03
ozonide
Ho
s
glyoxalt 172024
It 100
Polymerization
CU
24C CH
NHK CHz CH CECH
vinylacetylene
CHz CH CE CH
CHz CH
CECH
t
HC
CH
HCL
conc
s CHz CH CIC
CH CH
diving acetylene
chloropopane
CH CH C CH
L
Chloroprene
neoprene
This is used in industry to formsyntheticrubber
Formation of Benzene
3ACICH
4 451 Colts
I
Acidic behavior ofethyne
DistinguishingTests
reddishbrown
dicopperaretelide
HC CH
t
CuzCuz
Cu CE Ccu
2nAGOH
n
ethyne donates proton
IN HULL
t 2h20
acidic nature
HC CH t 2Agnost 2NHaOH
AgCICAg
d
2N 4 NO t
H2O
disilveracetylide white pt
Combustion
ethyne
02
coz
water
physical properties t uses t C N
Benzene
Belongs to cyclic conjugated planar hydrocarbon family
All hydrocarbons that include benzenering are classified as aromatic
Aromatics
Monocyclic
of one benzenering
consisting
phenol
Polycyclic
ofmultiplebenzenering
composed
biphenyl
qty
Common monocyclic benzenoids
II
If
methylbenzene toluene
halogen
phenol
It Anilineaminobenzene
If benzoic acid
benzaldehyde
O
É
II halobenzene
benzene sulphuric acid
IF
IF
nitrobenzene
trinitrotoluene
219,6 trinitrotoluene TNT
Polycyclic
Fused Benzene
Isolated BenzeneRing
ring
Isolated Benzene Rings
bi phenyl
EY
8
diphenyl methane
j
Mmds bakelite
It
Fuzed Benzene Rings
naphthalene
Naming Benzenoids
It
chlorobenzene
anthracene
phenanthrene
C't
É
bromobenzene
ethylbenzene
Before
After
Fluoro
carboxylic acids
chloro
Benzene
esters carboxylategroups
Bromo
Sulfonic acid
Todo
Aldehyde
methyl only
nitro No
a
Ordeofnaming TopHighpriority
5 OH
soon
2 CN
1
6 Nitz
3 CHO
4 COCH3
I
71 OR
8
R
Cito
2 aminobenzaldehyde
II
3 hydroxybenzoic acid
IHO
II
Etna
3 aminobenzaldehyde
É
4 methylphenol
IIe
on
3 methylbenzoicacid
The
Cito
3 ethylbenzaldehyde
I
B
alphabetically naming all those aromaticswhich are notpresentin
the priority list
3 chloro do benzene
2 Bromonitrobenzene
If
4 Chlorofluorobenzene
Eddo
2 chloronitrobenzene
II
4 chlorobenzene s lfonicacid
I
I
2 iodo toluene
na
iii
3 Sulfonatebenzoic acid
Eden
3 nihocyanobenzene
3 nitrobenzene cyanide
ch
eg
R chlorotovene
O Chlorotolvene
same shit
III
Be
p bromobersoicacid
lectures
I
m
Bff
it
2,6 dibromophenol
methyltoluene
II
1,2 3
m methylphenol
EI
1,2 4,5 tetramethylbenzene
p methyltoluene
at
o methylphenol
Epa
h
orthopara dichloroaniline
No
tribuomobenzene
o
It
IF
I
so
at
NOz
TNT
2,4 6 trinitrotoluene
PH
Eton
III
durene
Resorcinol
Ctyych3
Its
structure
mesitylene
of Benzene
Colts
El
resonance
inspired
EI
hybrid
by
it
Keller
C
Hi
A
of kekules structure
Higgs
H
dream
of 1865
Sigma bonds
pi
each carbon is sp hybridized
nature
sp
1200
angle
bonds
12
317
715 9
g
Shape Trigonal planar
all bond angles
either
c
c
c
or
C
H
C
Kmndc alkaline
are
is
1200 in benzene
NOT decolorized in benzene showing
benzenes unsaturated nature
Similarly benzene show both addition and substitution reaction
Addition Ha 4 t z
s benzene ring is terminated
It2509 HN03
Substitution
Benzenes characteristic chemical reactions are substitution
reactions
and not addition reactions
Preemie
of 3T bonds alternating b w carbon atoms
prevents
H
8
if
IA
benzene
the
A
ring to show addition
H
q
H
8
H
if
f
it
8H
H
Et
IRayanalyeof
c
1.3970A
c
Bee
or
10
m
397
bond length
109A
C H
IA
C
degreeangstrom
C C
1.397 x 10 10m
1210
12
1.627 10 27 Kg
Comparing Benzene with 1,3 5 hexatiene
cyclic
1
3 double bonds
3,5 cyclo hexahiene
3 double bonds
Cyclic
bond enthalpies for reduction
t
II
H2
I
119.5KMmol
2172
I
2375kt mo
I
FI
t 342
II
3172
Eye
less
y
I
358.5452mA
208kt mol
1135,5ft
I I Bok J not
Benzene is
more
stable saturated than 1,3 s cyclonexatrien
hypothetical
Lecture
19
Benzene does not show oxidation reactions with Kmnoz and Racroz
ie
it doesn't decolorize themas for alkenes and alkynes
This shows that benzene is not as unsaturated as otherhydrocarbon
with double or triple bonds
Benzene shows addition reactions to hydrogen and halogens But it shows
substitution reactions with Hzson and H NO
This concludes that benzene is not as saturated as alkane
altane
amine alkyne
benzene
lesscaturated
more saturated
Benzene was first isolated
by Faraday
in 1825
through distillation
in 1845
isolated by Hoffman through coal tar
Bituminous
coal
1000kg
of vegetable oil
coal tar hat Benzene 1kg
wog
Structure of benzene
Ey
It
deleted structure
1865
E
inspired by dream
Other structures
EI Claus's structure
ED
Dewar structure
ET
I
FI
Baeyer's and Armstrong structure
In
Aromaticity Test
Huckel Rule
All aromatic compounds should have
Lint 2 IT
To f
no
of
electrons
electrons in benzene
IT bonds in benzene
Lintz
I
if n is
a
Lint 2
Lin a
it
6
3
electron
whole number
aromatic compound
6
aromatic compound
Cyclohexane
telethon
2
IT bond
2
ant 2 2
4n 0
Questions
Lintz
a
n
Yz
X
Lin
n
2
312
8
X
I 5
Comparison
of C C bond
Alkanet 15h A
Alkenes
1.34 A
Alkyney
1.20
Eiti
1 397 A
of Benzene
Preparation
Dehydration of cyclohexane
I
Ed t 3172
Éagm
From Acetylene
3 HE CH
organo
Ni catalyst at 70
From alkanes
9
b
Hexane
8203 41203 5p
4h
5009
442
I
Heptane
Toluene
Laboratory preparation
from
sodium salt
na
t
KI
sodium benzoate
of benzoic acid and soda line
NaFEII
narco
By distillation of phenol
É
2n
t
Zno t
It
By hydrolysis of Benzene sulfonic acid
fig
H at
steam
Has04
Wurtz Fittig Reaction
Ei Ey
r x
t.IE
alkyl
eg
1
2ha
tana
t Clt
bromobenzene
Brt 2N a
ether
Bethany
methyl benzene
Through polymerisation
3ethyne
Cu tube
500 C
red hot
2nabr
s
benzene
Benzene is
BP
a colorless liquid
80.12
insoluble in
Physical properties
water
H 4 Ca 44 CaAz
Lecture
20_
Chemical reactions of benzene
Benzene performs electrophilic substitution reaction
to
IT
to
temp 255
EEF
pop
conc acids
M dat
it no
50 C
c
EI
at
anMÉÉtshould be less than 55
Aku Num Fedten
Jotos
H
No
It
so It
nitric
sulfuricacid
lewis acid
lewis bale
bronstead lowrybase brownitedlong acid
H2o
Noatt Hson
EoY
at
Electrophile
N 02
nitronium ion nitryl cation
nilroniumionlnitryicati ppn.IE
Arenium ion
O
NE
e
ont
o
t o
election
withdrawing
eletchon
withdrawing
Step 2
two
Hson
Ew
t
Hasan
Ey
EF
EFE
repulsion is causeddue to
eaten at
If temp exceeds 55
then furthersubstitution take
place
t
oh
24h03
I
708
no
t
2h20
1,3 dinitrobenzene
s
I
raw chemical forparacetamol
I
H
Other substituents
TNT
NY
na
TNB
Nos
no
N
Picric a lid
No
Nor
Noz
2
Sulfonation
Etat
Hag
Q temp
acid
H2o
Benzene sulfonic acid
809
Federal Punjab Allo
El
3H
I
HII
t
4420
forsulfonation in the presence of oleum fuming s ifuric
17250h
503
425207
gyro s lforic oleum
temp 259
Electrophile for sulfonation is 503
g
SO
H O
s
at
JI
ÉÉt
HEE
FT't
I
É
o
H505
It
so
t
k so
Ht
o
03h
Hzsont
benzene
sulfonicacid
Halogenation
Al Xz
catalyst
F
or
Fetz
reaction too
Vigorous
Is reversible poor yield
It
Xt
electrophile
4T
Halogeniunion
formation of electrophile electrodeficient
Step 1
X2
XX
n
N
Fetz
4
Xt
ou
feta
tetra halo ferrate ion
1
1 4
I fexj
3
Creek
Ferroustate
Attackof Xt
EFI
Txt
carbocation intermediate
areniumrion
FEI
IEEE
EEE
lil
I Resonancestructureit
Recovery of catalyst
IF
Feta
HX
fex
t
t
II
ILxjhaiobe.se
Br
Es
X2
room try
Al Bri
EFI
EEE
ETB
Allu Num
II r
259
I preevre
Alkylation and Acylation
1871
Charles
FriedalfidIMetts
Reagent
R
Catalyst
Alt
Electrophile
Rt
AIX
X
J
RTX
alkyllation
ET't Rt
Acyl cation
Eat
Arenium
ion
Cracestuche
ETI
Rec
IFI
name
rt
Aix
Ek
Itr
of catalyst
t
Alxi
Htt
Alxst
ETR
alkyl benzene
Lecture
26
States of matter
5 8
Mcd's
Gases
Kinetic molecular theory
Basic assumptions
Gases consist
of either molecules or atoms dependingupon
the nature of the gas
Henegar
omitted
Individual molecular volume of gas molecules is considerednegligible
Gas molecules perform translator motionwith no loss in energy
Gas molecules only exert pressure when they collide with the walls
of the container
RE
of gas molecules is mainly associated withthe translator motion
Distante travelled
a
by ga moleales before collision is freepath
gas present in
as compared to a
a
large container will have greaterfreepath
a small container
gas in
O
O freepath
to hision free
There are no intermolecular forcesofattraction or repulsion b w
gas molecules
Gas molecules can be considered an elasticrigid spheres
ideal gas
imaginary gas
obeys
all postulates ofR m t at all conditions of temp andpressure
Any gas behaves ideally at high tempand low pressure
Rudolf Clausius
1817
All gases that exist are real gases andthey do not obey K M T
KE n T
t
absolute temp
Kelvinscale
KE
or
translatory
Int
Ime
I average velocity
A Ideal gas will behave
H T and L P
b L T and H P
a
Lecture
KE
K
K
KE
D
c
non ideally at
at all temp andpressure
d none of the above
27
3 KT
Boltzmann's constant
By
1.38 10 23 Jmol K
f gas pressure
average translational K E
tmnt
or
Im NI
Y
C
Vrms
N numberofmolecules
ang square velocity
É
IMY 3ft
My
3kt
x
3ft
in
Ft 31mF
F
35nF
K
Fa
k small
ems
Yams
P
PI
p density
Boltzmann'sconstant
Ey
Ft
Gas Laws
Defined on the basis of state variables
State variables
Parameters through which a state of a
explained completely
P
s
Y
Pascals
I atm
t
n
Nmt
atm
non SI
gas can be
torr
bar mm of Hg
101325 Pascals
lat m
1 01
latm
1
101325 Pascals
I torr
105 Pascal
105 Pascals
760 torr
133.33 Pascals
760mm
of Hg
Volume
m3
SI unit
Cms
SI units
non
dm
ml
L
Im
10dm
Im
100cm
Im
103dm
Im
106am
Im
103 L
Im
106mL
IL
1000mL
Temperature
SI
K
C
non SI
TK
TF
T C
g
Toc
of
273
32
Tc
tr
32
Kelvin Absolute Scale
III
I
Farenheit
s
32 F
212 F
I'epoint
Stearpont
Fdi
100 dirt
Ok 2 100div
1009
Absolute scale
The smallest value in Kelvin Seale is
10C
1.8 F
oc
of
99
12,2oz
409
400 F
TOF
TOC
E
32
O
In
a
closed system
no
change in
mall
system
Anything consideration
open
closed
mass energy
energy
isolated
no energyandmass
Boyles Law
Pat
Isothermal Process
P
is constant
K
PY K
Pill
i temp
Paltz
for different states
Pan
hyperbolic i rate
isotherm
P P2P Ph
BoylesLaw
4,1124344
p
Y at
a
Kelvin
constant
Yy
at constant pressure Isobaric Process
n
a
T
K
Isochoric Process
Volume is constant
P RST
4
4
pi
273.162
TC
d The ratio b w V and T at constant pressureis
always a constant represents which of these laws
a Boyle's
b Charles
c
pressure law
d none of these
Avogadros Law
Van
at constant temp and pressure
K
y
a
n
combining
Boyles
Charles
P
LII
P const
Ty
R 8.313
Jmot K
Re 0.0821 atm dm not K l
Ptatm
d what will be the volume of
a
height
the
where
its
original value
prawn
at
Pay
3 time
if it risen to
3rd of
a balloon
becomes
torstar temp
Lecture
29
Compressibility factor
TimidEamat
conditi n
z
any
Pile n RT
R
z
g
PI
R
2,42173K
s idealgag
p
If
diatomic gases at low pressure behaves ideally
and high temp
Two faulty assumption of K MT
Individual
correction
molecular volume is negligible
it is not negligible
No attractive repulsiveforces b w gasmolecules
correction
gas molecules have weak attractive repulsiveforces
Pkn RT invalid
Vanderwall's correction of generalgas equation
a
P
P
tan
pressure correction
factor
b
K
W
tan
ang
a
a
nb
x nb
for pressure
for volume
volume correction
factor
n
RT
atm
atm
a
Nff
atmm.fm
a
wrists
ann.mg
a
Nm
G
mo
2
V
b
nb
dm
b
b
dm
did
be my
b
Ly
b
n'n
Diffusion
movement flow of molecules from higherconc to tow cons
Rate of diffusion
rg
re
rs
unit
J I Ed y
Effusion
movement flow of molecules from higherconc to low cons
that is comparable to the size
through an opening hole
of the molecules
Graham's Law
r
tf
of Diffusion
or
r a
fa
12
NI
TH z
VN 2
Mr 2
ME 28
rate of diffusion
of a gas is
inversely proportional
to the sq root of
its molar mass or
density
Em
eg
E
EEE
Dalton's
Law
Pressure
Partial
of
Partial pressure
Ypresian of life
widgeon
2atmtactm
i
d
Any
1
Planet
Ii
1 105
1.5
14
7
RT
8.31
iii d
in
b
Db
Vi
10
NXT
xiii
ft
b
ik
R
O 082m01
K
atmdm
Chemical Bonding
Aku weigtage
2 3
mdcat
q's
5 7g's
Chemical bond
Force
of
attraction btw 2 atoms holding them
together in
a
molecule
formed due to
exceeding
interatomic attraction
into election repulsion
T
no
attractive
repulsive forces
nuclear attraction on e
attractive forces
repulsive forces
stronger
weaker
7hpm
bond length
75 4pm
H
H
17219
DH
Higt Hg
436kt mol
Hz molecule is formed
Atomic Radius
The distance b w centre of nucleus to valence
shell
A IA
unit
Group
10
m
Down the
new
group a r increases
shells added
y
Period
s
Across period a r decreases
nuclear charge hold on valerie e decreases
Radius
Ionic
Cationic
Smaller
than
cationic
Anionic
larger than a r
a r
atomic radius
radius
t
electrons
less
nuclear attraction on
electrons
nuclear attraction on
more
Valerie elections stronger
valence electrons weaker
divalent cation trivalent cation
monovalent cation
largest i r
monovalent anion
smallest i r
anionic radius
s smallest i r
c
divalent anion
trivalent anion
s
largest i r
Inter ionic
distance
anionic
rt
R
radius
r
cationicradius
eg
KC
rt
Kt
F
Ch
R 144pm do not learn
covalent Radi
half of distance b w 2 identical covalently
bonded nuclei or half the bond length
K
H
X
H
Hz molecule
7421 pm
37.25
pm
Ionization Energy
ell Joules
minimum amount
energy required to remove
of
1 mole of e from gaseous atoms in the ground
state
Mg
no
s
Mgt
t
e
Ist I E
state symbols
Group Trend
GT
the group I E decreases as atomic size
increases and nuclear pull on valence e decreases
Down
Period Trend
PT
Across period I E increases as atomic size decreases
and nuclear pull becomes stronger
Factors
Atomic size
Nuclear pull
Shieldingeffect
Type of orbital
Electronegativity
Relative tendency of an atom to attract a shared
pair of electrons towards itself in a molecule
F
4.0
e n
Pauling's scale for e n
has no unit
F
O s N
CL
N of H hydrogenbonding
legit
me
Group Trend
Down
Br
GT
the group
increases
en decreases as atomic
and nuclear pull on valence e
Period Trend
size
decreases
PT
Across period e n increases as atomic size decrease
and nuclear pull becomes stronger
Nature of bonding can be predicted based on
the different e in en
DE N
Type of Bond
On 0.4
R
alert
non
pop
Impure covalent polar
0.4 n 1.7
17
Ionic
d
id
Electron Affinity
is added to
2 mole of gaseous atoms in their valene shell
Energy change when I mole of e
E N
E A
GT
Decreases
For
For
same trends
PT
metals
metals
the
non
Increases
ve
factors
Theories of bonding
Lewis concept of a chemical bond
chemical bond is formed due to transfer sharing of e
without any reference to
atomic orbitals
geometry of molecule
interactions
energy
Ionic Bond
electrovalent bond or non directional bond
electrostatic attractions between cations and anion
Not
Na
NaCl
compound is 1007 ionic in nature
Nacl 72
ionic in nature
CSF
is 921 ionic in nature
no
Covalent bond
Bond that
is formed due
sharing of electrons
to mutual equal
Types
Based on
e n
differences
Polar covalent
Impure covalent
HCl NH3 HF H2O
Non
polar covalent
pure covalents
CO2
Based
CH 4
on
CCL4
number
of election pairs
pair of elections single covalent bond
a
I
b
2 pairs
of electrons
double covalent bond
Dative Bond
covalent bond that is formed due to one sided
sharing of electrons
H
I E
N
H
H
According to lewis concept covalent bonds are
treated equivalent to dative bonds
Eg
H3 0
H
o
H
Hydronium ion
ftp.t
Ht
s
ft ft
or
yet ft
us
bond in 7130 is
treated as 33.331 dative
each
and 66.661
covalent
NHation
each
R
dative and 757 covalent
Ion
OH
and
OHtit
oxonium
R
É H
I
bond in NHat is 251
Oxonium
R
H
Ht
Hsn
Etat
RER
É H
r
ion
with Ht
33.337 dative 66.661 covalent
r
E r
Electron
AffinityException
Cla has higher electron affinity than Fz
Smaller size
of
fluorine
Incoming e repelled to greater extent
Energy released in fluorine atom after gaining
election slightly less than in chlorine
First electron affinity is not always negative
For metals first E A is positive as we need to
supply energy to add an electron to metals
Metals
Non
s
metals
Limitations to
I
the
me
I
II
V 117 1111
Lewis concept
Only explains bond formation on basis of
sharing transfer of electrons without explanation
of atomic orbitals shape of molecule after
bonding and energy interactions
USE PR
Shell
Valence
Electron
Pair Repulsion Theory
Nyholm and Gillespie
bond pair
Sedgewick and Powell 1940
lone pair
Learn Shapesandbondangles
Basic assumptions of USPER
molecule is explained on the basis
number of bond pairs and lone pairs a
Shape of
of
a
central atom
has
Election pairs in the central atom adjust in
repulsion order
minimum
repulsion is between two lone pairs
minimum repulsion is between two bond pains
Maximum
and
one pair
lone pair
lone pair
bondpair
bond pair
bondpair
USPER Theory all bond pairs whether
from single bonds or double bonds or triplebonds
counts 1
According to
Limitations
of US PER
overall geometry of molecule based on
of e pairs in central atom
Explains
no
orbitals involved in
bonding and type of overlapping btw them
Does not
explain atomic
Valence Bond Theory
Heitter and London
Main postulates
is
Is
My
H
H
H
Is E Is
0
s
Hz molecule
orbital
overlapped orbitals
2
S
Sigma bond
Atomic orbitals involved in bonding must have
electrons in the opposite spin
Number of bonds that are formed in a molecule
equals the number of unpaired electrons in any one
of the atomic orbitals
p
p
Pl
The atomic orbitals that overlap first forms a Sigma
bond and orbitals overlapping after the formation
of sigma bond always overlap sideways forming a
IT bond
Only those orbitals overlap which share the same
symmetry along the bonding axis
Energy is released when two atomic orbitals overlap
the strength of the overlap determine the amount
of energy released
stronger overlap higher energy
Op P highestenergy
sign
II
lowest energy
S
S
S S
o
bond
S p bond
Is
s
annan
Pu
Erin
at
Pn
a
Pn
a
Pn sigma
overlap
strongestsigma
84
I
I
188
1
1
jpg
808
y
y
IT electrons
o electrons
it electrons
Limitations of NBT
atomic orbitals maintain their atomic identity
even after forming a bond or
they overlap
No reference to atomic orbitals ofmolecule
VBT is rejected
Hybridization
Mixing of orbitals ofdifferentshapes and energies
to form orbitals of equal number and equalenergy
C
Is
2s
Z
D
n p
low
energy
J
p
p
highenergy
Spt
Tetrahedral
D
eg city
H
g
it
109.5
Sigma
Dd
bonds
Conditions for not taking part in hybridization
Empty atomic orbital
Empty orbital involved in pi bonding
H2O
0
8
152252274
Iif
E
H
O
B
Dmr
o
H
o
BFz
B
152
2s
292
D
d dot tempty
CO2
152
2s
O
2,2
CEO
DIII
unhybridized orbitals
Beclz
Be 4
152s 2p
IDB
Molecular Orbital Theory
Formation of molecular orbitals
Two atomic orbitals can combine to form two
molecular orbitals always
Antibonding molecular orbital
QQ
high energy
2 atomic orbitals
energy
at
low energy molecule orbital
t
Bonding molecule orbital
Hz molecule
I
H
Ish
energy
electrons
y
enter low
energy
orbitals
D
D
is
b
Des
k
is
two atomic
1st mo
01s
s
s
ze
se
electronic config
g
Aufbau principle
electrons occupy lowenergyorbitals
first
Bond order
number
of electrons in b m o numberofelectrons in a b m o
2
for Hz
22
0
1
for Hea
He 2
152
1
11
n
energy
É
01s
A
single covalent bond
Hz is possible
31
E
o
Hes not possible
For Li
3
Li
Is
valence orbital
2s
D
a
inside
0 25
251
251
a
0252
Bond order
2
1
21
Liz possible
015220 1522 02s
B 5
1522522g
n
tu
0 252
pl
252
252
p
0252
gu
0 192
energy
pl
152
pl
I
I
0152
I
Pl
152
015220 1520252025
a
2p
IÉzpn
PHI
energy
I Een
D
T2py 2pm
Bond Order
2
21
1
Bz is possible
Paramagnetic due to unpaired e
0752
0
1520252
0 252
IZ PI Tay n
C
Cz hypothetical
15425 same ar B
1525292
Eal
c
e
IT Zpy IT Pn
Pn Py
p p
Pa
Pa
p
Pg
p
Pz
And
Pr Pl
ITZpy
1242
B O
4
21
double covalent bond
2
not paramagnetic as
no
unpaired é
N
Nz
s
15225293
A
N
Fan
IIpy
energy
2
ee
21
2pm 227222
22 222
I
T2py
6
7292
e
e
set
B 0
N
Ika
de
I
4272
3
Nz is a triple bond
Na is possible
Not
paramagnetic no unpaired elections
0152C 0 1522025220 252 L IT2pf 2pm's 0292
Paramagnetic substances
substances that are non ferrous and still attracted
to external magnetic field
neither attracted nor repelled
Diamagnetic
Oz is
exception
an
O
152252274
Epn
a
I 2py
unpaired e inmolewio
72,2
orbital
fy y
energy
2pm 22g 222
Get
01820 152
Bo
p
0
63
exception due to high
It
yelectron pairrepulsion
28 OPALA2Py2
42
2
IT
pact 2ply H 2pm
double bond
Fz molecule
1522522ps
F
En
T
energy
I
I
y
É2
N
I
Pl P
In Ey Iz
2pm 22g 222
Y
In
B O
6
1
0152
0
15 Co 28
21
single covalent bond
0
282 02pm ITZpy IT 2Pa L
IT 2pyZ IT 2pn2
non paramagnetic no unpaired e
in molester orbital
Bond Enthalpy Bond Energy
Energy required to break single covalent bond
Energy released
when single covalent bond is formed
Factors
Bond order
B
Or
B E
AE Na B E
Electronegativity
eg
Hah
Help
BL d
Bond length
Size of atoms
EE
A's
at
Dipole moment
2
money
dipole
charge on molecule
qf
distance b w charged molecules bondlength
q
le
1.6 10 19C
Debye
3.3 10
I Debye
1
3 3 10
30
30
Coulomb meter
m
net dipoles
O
0
Mnet
O
is
met to
p
Wnet
Bt
f
List of common values of dipole moment
0
Boh're
atomic
model
1911
Electrons revolve around nucleus in fixed energy
shells levels orbits
stays constant as long as it is in any
fixed energy state orbit energy level
Energy
e
Electrons absorb energy only to transition to high
energy state excitation
Electrons release energy when they transition to low
de excitation
energy ground state
Absorption of Energy
F ex
E
high
t
excitationenergy
Ez
E
not
bindingenergyfrom lower state
Isbinding energy foot higher state
E
S E z
Ez SEG
E
z
Derivation
only learn concept values formulas
Radius of nth shell orbit of H atom
Eres
pgle
Fes
Electrostatic
Centripetal
Fc
permitivity
At ground equilibrium state
of
Fc
FES
MI
ate
free spare
9
atomic no
MI
Effort
my
Iffy
only those orbitals are possible where angular
momentum
mxvxr
n
If
th
mur
n no
nd
h
of orbits3
6 625 10
T.se
ZIT
Sfm
EE
mffm
MEE Ifor
II
Last
Enter
time
im writing
25d ays
r
r
e
n't
n'x
on
this
ipad for
4k22
3
5 Sec x 8 825 10 12 c Nm
625 10
3 74 x 9.1 10 21 kg x I
I 6 10 19C
10 10m
n 2x 0.529
r
no 529 A
radius
ra
Energy of an e
T E
o
or
rs
c ra ra cra
r
increases
in
nth orbit of H atom
E
K E
P E
Ifor xy
Im
at
ME ate 3 x2
motion
Emi EI
PE
I
IN
work done
work
F S
jet
r
If
x2
E
PE
K E
EE
CEE
21
En
SEE
r
e
En
n
II
E_
EYE
FELIN
En
atom
Bohr's radius
I f
En
constant
2.1681 10
J atom
mole
En
131,3
35
KT Mol
J for H atom
F ex
Eh
exi
hf
Ez
ht
2
ht
E
E
1,68
2
70
410
18
18
2.168 10
I
Rh
fix
2.144
18
18
Fa Ie
tint
s
Rh Rydberg's
constant
1 09 107
E
13,31
Ez
1321
E3
13321
13.6 ex
3 4
ex
1 51
ex
Atomic spectrum
d
group
of wavelengths
absorption
emission
excitation spectrum
de excitation spectrum
d
s
E
neat
neon
7
v
light
sourie
go
F
I
E
f
R
ve
Hz
emission spectrum
7
6
5
4
I
3
2
E E E
I
E
Ve Ve
1
Groundstat
Lyman series
1
min
may
1 09
107
1 I
ultraviolet region
09 1
2
A may
Eemin
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