motivation
-
-
a force that serves three functions: it
energizes, or causes people to act; it
directs
behavior
toward
the
attainment of specific goals; and it
sustains the effort expended in
reaching those goal.
a cognitive process and that workers
rationally weigh the advantages and
disadvantages of expending work
energy
Motivation the force that energizes, directs,
and sustains behavior
Motivation The force that
employee to perform well
drives
an
 arious theories suggest that employees will
V
be highly motivated if: they have a
personality that predisposes them to be
motivated;
● their expectations have been met;
● the job and the organization are
consistent with their values;
● the employees have been given
achievable goals;
● the employees receive feedback on
their goal attainment;
● the organization rewards them for
achieving their goals; the employees
perceive they are being treated fairly;
and
● their coworkers demonstrate a high
level of motivation
Is an Employee Predisposed to Being
Motivated?
● Personality
● Organizational citizenship
behaviors (OCBs)go beyond your
work
○ Behaviors that are not part
●
●
of an employee's job, but
which make the
organization a better place
to work (e.g., helping
others, staying late).
• Self-esteem
○ • The extent to which a
person views him or herself
as a valuable and worthy
individual.
Consistency theory
○ Korman's theory that
employees will be
motivated to perform at
levels consistent with their
levels of self-esteem.
○ Chronic self-esteem
■ The positive or
negative way in
which a person
views himself or
herself as a whole.
■ (kabuuan ng
tingin mo sa sarili
mo)
○ Situational self-esteem
■ The positive or
negative way in
which a person
views him or herself
in a particular
situation.
■ Tingin mo doon sa
category na yun,
same w/ self
efficacy
○ Socially influenced self
esteem
■ The positive or
negative way in
which a person
views him or herself
based on the
expectations of
others.
■ Paano ka tingan ng
ibang tao
Self fulfilling prophecy- successful ako.
states that an individual will perform as well
or as poorly as he expects to perform
Pygmalion- pag naniniwala sila sa ability
mo. Pygmalion effect The idea that if people
believe that something is true, they will act
in a manner consistent with that belief. if an
employee feels that a manager has
confidence in him, his self-esteem will
increase, as will his performance.
Golemnegative.expectations
individual cause a decrease
individual’s performance.
of
in
an
that
Frederick Taylor, workers are motivated by
money and material gains,
Elton Mayo stressed the role that
interpersonal needs play in motivating
workers.
Needs
-
-
Galatea effect When high self-expectations
result in higher levels of performance
involve specific physiological or
psychological deficiencies that the
organism is driven to satisfy.
Need theories of motivation
propose that motivation is the
process of the interaction among
various needs and the drives to
satisfy those needs
MASLOW
- Need
Hierarchy
Theory
a
motivation theory proposed by
Maslow that arranges needs in a
hierarchy from lower, more basic
needs to higher-order needs.
-
suggests that people have different
levels of needs, which they must
fulfill in a specific order. First, there
are basic needs like food, safety,
and belongingness (feeling part of a
group). These are called deficiency
needs because if they're not met, a
person
will
feel
lacking
or
incomplete. Once these basic needs
are fulfilled, individuals can then
focus on higher-order needs such
as feeling respected, recognized,
and achieving personal growth.
These higher needs are called
growth needs because they involve
personal
development
and
fulfillment.
-
For example, imagine a person who
has a stable job and earns enough
money to cover their rent, food, and
other basic expenses. Once these
needs are met, they might start
looking for recognition at work or
seek opportunities to learn new
skills, which satisfy their higher-order
needs for esteem and personal
growth. Even successful executives
who no longer worry about money
may still feel motivated to achieve
more, not for survival but for
personal
satisfaction
and
self-improvement.
This ongoing
pursuit of higher goals explains why
motivation can continue even after
basic needs are secure.
Clayton Alderfer’s (1972) ERG theory
● Alderfer’s motivation model that
categorizes needs into existence,
relatedness, and growth needs
○ Existence Needs: These are
the basic needs for physical
well-being
and
include
essentials such as food,
shelter, and safety. Similar to
Maslow's physiological and
safety
needs,
existence
needs are fundamental for
survival and are the first
priority for individuals.
○
Relatedness Needs: These
needs focus on interpersonal
relationships
and
social
interactions. They involve the
desire to connect with others,
develop
meaningful
relationships, and feel a
sense of belongingness and
acceptance within a group or
community.
Relatedness
needs align closely with
Maslow's social needs.
○
Growth
Needs:
This
category
encompasses
higher-level needs related to
personal
development,
achievement,
and
self-improvement. It includes
the desire for personal
growth, learning, creativity,
and the pursuit of challenging
goals. Growth needs are akin
to Maslow's esteem and
self-actualization
needs,
reflecting aspirations beyond
basic survival and social
belonging.
Achievement
motivation
theory
McClelland’s
● model of motivation that emphasizes
the
importance
of
three
needs—achievement, power, and
affiliation—in determining worker
motivation.
●
that the needs for power and
affiliation also play in worker
motivation.
● Need for Achievement: This is the
strong desire to succeed and
accomplish goals
○ Example:
Jane
is
a
marketing manager who
loves setting ambitious sales
●
targets and working hard to
achieve them. She enjoys
taking
on
challenging
projects and feels satisfied
when she meets or exceeds
her goals. Jane often seeks
feedback from her boss to
ensure she is on the right
track and looks for ways to
improve her performance.
Need for Power: This need revolves
around the desire to influence and
control others. People with a high
need for power are motivated by
status, authority, and the ability to
make an impact
○
●
Example: John is a team
leader who enjoys having
authority over his team. He is
motivated by the ability to
make decisions and direct
the team's efforts. John aims
for a higher position within
the company where he can
have more influence over the
organization's direction.
Need for Affiliation: This need is
about the desire for friendly and
close interpersonal relationships.
People with a high need for affiliation
seek approval and support from
others and are motivated by a sense
of
belonging.
They
prefer
cooperative work environments and
enjoy being part of a team.
○ Example: Sarah works in
human resources and values
the relationships she builds
with her colleagues. She is
motivated by creating a
positive work environment
and ensuring everyone feels
included.
—Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
Overview: The Thematic Apperception Test
(TAT) is a projective psychological test used
to assess an individual's motivational needs.
Developed by David McClelland, it involves
showing respondents ambiguous pictures
and asking them to write stories about what
they see. These stories are then analyzed
to create a motivational profile for each
person, focusing on their needs for
achievement, power, and affiliation.
Purpose: The TAT aims to uncover a
person's underlying motivational needs by
having them project their thoughts and
feelings into the stories they create. This
method can reveal motivations that the
individual might not be consciously aware
of.
Procedure:
1. Presentation
of
Pictures:
Respondents are shown a series of
ambiguous pictures.
2. Story Writing: They are asked to
write a story about each picture,
describing what is happening, what
led up to the event, what the
characters are thinking and feeling,
and how the story ends.
3. Scoring: The stories are scored
using a standardized procedure to
measure the presence of the three
basic needs: achievement, power,
and affiliation.
Key Needs Assessed:
1. Need for Achievement: This is the
drive to succeed and excel in tasks.
Individuals with a high need for
achievement
prefer
challenging
tasks, seek feedback, and are
motivated by personal success.
○ Example: A scientist working
tirelessly to solve a complex
problem to gain recognition
in their field.
2. Need for Power: This is the desire
to influence and control others.
People with a high need for power
are motivated by positions of
authority and prestige.
○ Example: A manager who
thrives on leading a team
and
making
strategic
decisions for the company.
3. Need for Affiliation: This is the
desire for friendly and close
interpersonal relationships. Those
with a high need for affiliation seek
approval and prefer collaborative
work environments.
○ Example:
An
HR
professional
who enjoys
fostering a positive work
culture
and
organizing
team-building activities.
Applications and Limitations:
●
●
●
The TAT has been used to place
individuals in jobs that match their
motivational profiles, improving job
satisfaction and performance.
Achievement training programs have
been
developed
to
enhance
individuals'
achievement-oriented
behaviors.
However, scoring can be subjective,
as different scorers might interpret
the stories differently. Additionally,
longer stories can sometimes
receive
higher
scores
for
achievement motivation, which can
skew results.
Example Application in Work Settings:
●
●
●
A salesperson with a high need for
achievement
might
be
highly
successful in a commission-based
job where personal effort directly
impacts earnings.
A team leader with a high need for
power might excel in a role that
involves significant decision-making
and leadership responsibilities.
An employee with a high need for
affiliation
might
thrive
in
a
collaborative
team
environment
where they can build strong
interpersonal relationships.
Conclusion: Despite some criticisms, the
TAT remains a valuable tool for assessing
motivational needs and has practical
applications in career placement and
personal development programs. It helps to
align individuals' intrinsic motivations with
their job roles, leading to greater job
satisfaction and productivity.
Behavior-Based Theories of
Motivation
The next two motivation theories have been
categorized as “behavior-based theories”
because each theory focuses on behavioral
outcomes as critical to affecting work
motivation. These two theories are
reinforcement theory and goal-setting theory
Reinforcement Theory the theory that
behavior is motivated by its consequences
Positive Reinforcers desirable events that
strengthen the tendency to respond
Reinforcement theory is based on the
principles of operant conditioning and posits
that behavior is motivated by its
consequences. According to this theory,
behavior is reinforced and thus likely to be
repeated when followed by a consequence
that the individual finds desirable.
●
Types of Reinforcers:
1. Positive Reinforcers:
○ These are desirable events
or rewards that follow a
behavior and increase the
likelihood of that behavior
being repeated.
○ Examples: Receiving praise,
getting a bonus, or being
complimented.
2. Negative Reinforcers:
○ These involve the removal of
an
unpleasant
condition
following a behavior, which
increases the likelihood of
that behavior being repeated
to avoid the unpleasant
condition.
○ Examples: Taking a break
from a noisy environment to
relax in a quiet lounge, or
working
hard to avoid
criticism from a supervisor.
Punishment:
●
●
Definition: Punishment involves
applying
an
unpleasant
consequence immediately following
an undesired behavior to reduce the
likelihood of that behavior occurring
again.
Examples: Receiving a reprimand
for excessive socializing at work or
being
demoted
for
poor
performance.
Reinforcement vs. Punishment:
●
Reinforcement
is
generally
considered more effective than
punishment for motivating desired
behaviors.
While
reinforcement
strengthens the motivation to
perform a particular behavior,
punishment aims to stop unwanted
behaviors.
Problems with Punishment:
1. Can create feelings of
hostility and reduce morale
and job satisfaction.
2. May lead to retaliation
against the supervisor.
3. Tends to suppress behavior
temporarily,
rather
than
eliminating it.
4. Makes supervisors inefficient
as they spend excessive time
monitoring and punishing
undesirable behaviors.
5. Female supervisors who use
punishment
are
often
evaluated more harshly than
male counterparts, which can
affect perceptions of their
effectiveness.
Examples in the Workplace:
●
●
●
Positive
Reinforcement:
An
employee who consistently meets
deadlines is given a bonus,
encouraging them to continue
performing well.
Negative Reinforcement: A worker
who dislikes the chaos of a busy
office works efficiently to earn more
frequent breaks in a quiet area.
Punishment: An employee who
repeatedly
arrives
late
is
reprimanded by their supervisor,
aiming to reduce tardiness.
Understanding Workaholism: A Review
David McClelland's theory emphasizes
the need for achievement, which spans a
spectrum from low to high levels. While
high achievement is generally seen as
positive, it's possible to have too much of
it. This extreme can manifest as
workaholism, where individuals prioritize
work over all other aspects of life, such as
family, health, and leisure (Andreassen,
2013; Burke, 2006; Porter, 2001).
Workaholics, as noted by Spence and
Robbins (1992), often experience stress
and may suffer from related psychological
and physical health issues (Azia,
Wuensch, & Duffrin, 2015; Burke, 2000a).
This behavior parallels the Type A
personality associated with high stress
levels and health risks, explored further in
Chapter 10 on worker stress.
Machlowitz (1976) identified common
traits
among
workaholics
through
interviews:
1. Persistent work habits
2. Comprehensive understanding of
job requirements
3. Awareness of time constraints
4. Use of productivity tools
5. Long work hours
6. Limited sleep and quick meals
7. Focus on work accomplishments
8. Discomfort with idleness
9. Initiative and desire for excellence
10. Blurring of work and leisure
boundaries
11. Fear of retirement
12. High energy levels
13. Constant engagement with work
14. Intense drive for success
15. Ability to work anywhere, even
unconventional
places
like
bathrooms.
Interestingly, many organizations value
workaholics, often portraying them as role
models and rewarding their behavior. In
leaner corporate environments, where
fewer employees handle increased
workloads, workaholism can become
prevalent. Research suggests that
workaholism does not inevitably lead to
stress if the individual finds satisfaction
and engagement in their work (van Beek,
Taris, & Schaufeli, 2011). Thus, while
excessive work drive can be detrimental,
its impact varies depending on personal
fulfillment and organizational culture.
Reinforcement
Motivation
Schedules
in
Work
Reinforcement theory, rooted in principles of
operant
conditioning,
explains
that
behaviors are driven by their consequences.
Specifically,
reinforcement
schedules
determine
when
and
how
these
consequences are applied. There are two
main types of reinforcement schedules:
interval and ratio, each of which can be
fixed or variable.
Fixed-Interval Schedule: In this schedule,
reinforcement occurs after a specific
amount of time passes, regardless of
behavior
performance. For instance,
employees paid on a weekly or monthly
salary receive their wages predictably,
regardless of their work intensity during that
period.
Variable-Interval
Schedule:
Here,
reinforcement also depends on time
passing, but the exact timing varies. An
example would be a worker receiving
bonuses unpredictably based on when the
employer decides to issue them.
Fixed-Ratio Schedule: This schedule links
reinforcement to the completion of a set
number of behaviors. Workers paid based
on the number of products assembled or
tasks completed operate under this system,
known as piecework.
Variable-Ratio Schedule: Reinforcement is
tied to an unpredictable number of
behaviors. A classic example is a
salesperson earning commission based on
the number of successful sales pitches,
encouraging persistent effort due to the
uncertainty of when the next sale (and
commission) will occur.
Research suggests that ratio schedules
generally lead to higher motivation and
performance
compared
to
interval
schedules (Pritchard et al., 1980; Pritchard
et al., 1976). Organizations often use these
principles to shape employee behavior
through formal programs like Organizational
Behavior Modification (OBM). OBM involves
specifying desired behaviors, measuring
performance, providing frequent positive
reinforcement, and evaluating effectiveness
(Komaki et al., 1991).
For example, in a study of roofing crews,
incentives like monetary rewards for faster
job completion (positive reinforcement) and
earned time off for maintaining safety
standards
(negative
reinforcement)
significantly improved productivity and
safety behaviors (Austin et al., 1996). Such
strategies underscore how reinforcement
theory can effectively enhance motivation
and performance in workplace settings
(Hamner & Hamner, 1976; Luthans et al.,
2008).
Extrinsic
Motivation:
This
involves
performing a behavior to receive an external
reward from the environment, like money or
praise.
n Work motivation that arises from such
nonpersonal factors as pay, coworkers, and
opportunities for advancement
Intrinsic Motivation: This comes from
within the individual. It involves performing a
behavior because it is inherently satisfying
or enjoyable, such as a sense of
accomplishment or mastery.
Work motivation in the absence of such
external factors as pay, promotion, and
coworkers.
Work Preference Inventory (WPI) A
measure of an individual’s orientation
toward intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation
Key Points to Remember:
1. Extrinsic Motivation:
○ Example: Working extra
hours to receive a bonus.
○ Focuses
on
external
rewards.
○ Can
sometimes
reduce
intrinsic
motivation
if
overemphasized.
2. Intrinsic Motivation:
○ Example:
Enjoying
a
challenging project because
it helps you grow and learn.
○ Focuses
on
internal
satisfaction and personal
growth.
○ Encourages creativity and
resourcefulness.
self regulation: a person’s ability to select,
set, and modify goals to adapt to changing
conditions. Self-regulation is a four-step
process in which people: 1. Choose their
goals and set levels for each goal 2. Plan
how they will accomplish those goals 3.
Take action toward accomplishing the goals
(goal striving) 4. Evaluate progress toward
goal attainment and either maintain, revise,
or abandon a goal
Self-Determination Theory:
●
Developed by Ryan and Deci
(2000), this theory highlights three
crucial
factors
for
intrinsic
motivation:
1. Autonomy:
Feeling
in
control of your work and
having the freedom to make
decisions.
■ Example: Choosing
how to approach a
task rather than being
micromanaged.
2. Competence:
Feeling
effective and mastering skills
in your job.
■ Example: Completing
a
difficult
project
successfully.
3. Relatedness:
Feeling
connected to others at work.
■ Example:
Having
supportive colleagues
and a good team
spirit.
Research Findings:
●
●
Supportive managers who allow
autonomy
boost
employee
motivation and satisfaction (Deci &
Ryan, 1989).
Employees
in
supportive
environments perform better and
feel more satisfied (Baard, Deci, &
Ryan, 2004).
Goal-Setting Theory
This theory emphasizes setting clear,
specific, and challenging goals to motivate
workers. Developed by Edwin Locke, it
suggests that:
1. Goals must be specific, measurable,
attainable, relevant, and time-bound
(SMART).
2. Breaking down large goals into
smaller, manageable tasks can
increase motivation.
3. Workers are more motivated when
they participate in setting their own
goals.
Example of Goal-Setting:
●
●
Instead of just saying "Do your best,"
set a specific goal like "Complete
five reports by the end of the week."
Participation in goal-setting leads to
higher motivation and performance.
Job Design Theories of Motivation
Overview
Job design theories focus on how the
structure and design of jobs can motivate
workers. The key theories in this area are
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory and the Job
Characteristics Model. These theories
suggest that well-designed jobs can satisfy
workers' needs and motivate them
effectively.
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
Key
Concept:
Herzberg's
theory
distinguishes between two types of factors
that
influence
job
satisfaction and
motivation: motivators and hygienes.
Motivators
●
●
Definition: Factors related to the
content of the job that lead to job
satisfaction.
Examples:
Responsibility,
achievement,
recognition,
advancement, growth.
Hygienes
●
●
Definition: Factors related to the job
context that, when absent, cause job
dissatisfaction.
Examples:
Company
policies,
supervision, interpersonal relations,
working conditions, salary.
Example:
●
●
High School Teacher:
○ Motivators: Shaping young
minds, professional status,
personal achievement.
○ Hygienes: Moderate salary,
varying working conditions.
Paramedic:
○ Motivators: Saving lives,
high responsibility, societal
value.
○ Hygienes:
Odd
hours,
high-pressure environment.
Application: To keep workers happy and
motivated:
1. Eliminate Job Dissatisfaction:
Provide basic hygiene factors such
as fair pay, good working conditions,
and job security.
2. Enhance Job Satisfaction: Include
motivators like giving meaningful
work,
responsibility,
and
opportunities for recognition and
growth.
Criticism:
●
●
●
Difficulty in clearly distinguishing
between motivators and hygienes.
Limited applicability to blue-collar
workers.
Mixed research support.
Job Characteristics Model
Key Concept: This model suggests that the
design of a job itself can enhance employee
motivation and satisfaction by improving
certain core job dimensions.
Core Job Dimensions
1. Skill Variety: Using a variety of
skills and talents.
○ Example: A graphic designer
working on different types of
projects.
2. Task Identity: Completing a whole
piece of work from start to finish.
○ Example:
A
carpenter
building custom furniture
from scratch.
3. Task Significance: Impact on
others and the organization.
○ Example: A nurse providing
critical care to patients.
4. Autonomy:
Freedom
and
independence in how the job is
done.
○ Example:
A
software
developer deciding on the
best approach to coding a
new feature.
5. Feedback:
Receiving
clear
information about performance.
○ Example:
A
sales
representative getting regular
feedback
on
sales
performance.
Psychological States and Outcomes
●
●
●
●
Experienced
Meaningfulness:
Feeling that work is important.
Experienced
Responsibility:
Feeling
accountable for work
outcomes.
Knowledge
of
Results:
Understanding how well one is
performing.
Outcomes: High motivation, job
satisfaction, and work effectiveness.
Application: To enhance motivation, jobs
should be designed to improve these core
dimensions, fostering intrinsic motivation by
making work more interesting and fulfilling.
Criticism:
●
●
Complexity in practical application.
May not suit all job types or
individuals equally.
Summary
●
●
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory:
Focuses on intrinsic motivators (job
content) and extrinsic hygienes (job
context) to determine job satisfaction
and motivation.
Job
Characteristics
Model:
Emphasizes designing jobs with key
dimensions (skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy,
feedback) to enhance intrinsic
motivation and satisfaction.
Job Characteristics Model
The Job Characteristics Model (JCM) by
Hackman and Oldham (1976) emphasizes
the role of certain job aspects in influencing
work motivation. According to this model,
employees must experience three critical
psychological states to be motivated:
1. Meaningfulness of Work: The work
must be perceived as valuable and
worthwhile.
2. Responsibility
for
Work
Outcomes: Employees must feel
accountable for the results of their
work.
3. Knowledge of Results: Workers
need to know how well they are
performing.
Core Job Characteristics
Five core job characteristics contribute to
these psychological states:
1. Skill Variety: The extent to which a
job requires various skills and
abilities.
○ Example: A graphic designer
who creates different types of
content (brochures, websites,
logos) experiences high skill
variety.
2. Task Identity: The degree to which
a job involves completing a whole,
identifiable piece of work.
○ Example: A carpenter who
builds custom furniture from
start to finish experiences
high task identity.
3. Task Significance: The extent to
which a job impacts other people
within or outside the organization.
○ Example: A nurse providing
critical care to patients
experiences
high
task
significance.
4. Autonomy: The degree of freedom
and independence an employee has
in scheduling work and determining
procedures.
○ Example:
A
software
developer who decides how
to approach and implement a
project
enjoys
high
autonomy.
5. Feedback: The degree to which the
job provides clear information about
performance.
○ Example: A salesperson
receiving regular feedback
on sales performance from a
manager.
Psychological
Outcomes
States
and
These core characteristics affect the three
critical psychological states:
●
●
●
Skill Variety, Task Identity, and
Task Significance: Influence the
meaningfulness of work.
Autonomy: Influences the sense of
responsibility for work outcomes.
Feedback:
Influences
the
knowledge of results.
Motivating Potential Score (MPS)
The Motivating Potential Score (MPS) is a
formula used to determine the overall
potential of a job to motivate:
zero, the MPS will be zero,
indicating no motivating potential.
Application
To enhance job motivation:
1. Increase Core Characteristics:
Improve skill variety, task identity,
task significance, autonomy, and
feedback.
2. Tailor Jobs: Design jobs that
provide
these
characteristics,
especially for workers high in growth
need strength.
Example
High MPS Job: Software Developer
●
●
●
●
●
Skill Variety: Uses various skills like
coding, testing, and debugging.
Task Identity: Completes entire
projects.
Task
Significance:
Develops
software that impacts users.
Autonomy: Has freedom to choose
development methods.
Feedback:
Receives
regular
updates on performance and project
outcomes.
Low MPS Job: Assembly Line Worker
●
●
●
Calculation: The average score of
skill variety, task identity, and task
significance is multiplied by the
scores of autonomy and feedback.
Zero MPS: If any of the core
characteristics (autonomy, feedback,
or the average of skill variety, task
identity, and task significance) score
●
●
●
●
Skill Variety: Performs repetitive
tasks.
Task Identity: Contributes to a small
part of the product.
Task Significance: Limited impact
on end-users.
Autonomy:
Follows
strict
procedures.
Feedback: Minimal feedback on
individual performance.
Moderators
The success of the JCM in predicting
worker motivation can be influenced by
moderators such as growth need
strength—an
individual's
desire
for
personal growth and development on the
job. Workers high in growth need strength
are more likely to be motivated by jobs
offering responsibility, autonomy, and
accountability.
Validation
Research using the Job Diagnostic
Survey (JDS) and other tools has generally
supported the JCM, though some studies
have found mixed results. Enriched jobs
with high motivating potential typically lead
to better attendance, performance, and
psychological well-being.
Job Enrichment
Job enrichment is a strategy derived from
Herzberg’s two-factor theory and the Job
Characteristics Model (JCM). It focuses on
redesigning jobs to enhance workers'
responsibilities
and
increase
their
engagement by involving them in planning,
execution, and evaluation tasks. This
approach aims to improve job satisfaction
and motivation by addressing higher-level
psychological needs.
Key Elements of Job Enrichment
1. Increasing
Responsibility:
Enhancing the level of responsibility,
freedom, and independence in
workers' roles.
○ Example:
Allowing
employees to set their own
work schedules or make
decisions about their tasks.
2. Completing Entire Tasks: Enabling
workers to see a task through from
beginning to end.
○ Example:
A
production
worker involved in all stages
of manufacturing a product
rather than just one part.
3. Providing
Feedback:
Offering
direct and constructive feedback to
help
workers
improve
their
performance.
○ Example:
Regular
performance reviews with
actionable
insights
for
improvement.
4. Encouraging Learning: Promoting
continuous learning by assigning
more
challenging
tasks
and
opportunities for skill development.
○ Example: Offering training
programs or rotating job roles
to broaden employees' skill
sets.
Comparison with Job Enlargement
●
●
Job Enrichment: Raises the level of
responsibility and independence in a
job, often including higher-level
tasks that were previously performed
by supervisors.
Job Enlargement: Expands the
number of tasks an employee
performs, but does not necessarily
increase the level of responsibility or
complexity.
Effectiveness and Challenges of
Job Enrichment
Effectiveness:
●
●
●
Case Studies: Many case studies
show successful implementation,
leading to increased motivation, job
satisfaction, and performance.
Monotonous Jobs: Particularly
beneficial in monotonous roles, such
as call centers, where it can reduce
boredom and increase engagement
(Parker, 2014).
Post-Downsizing: Can help boost
morale and motivation in employees
who remain after organizational
downsizing (Niehoff et al., 2001).
Challenges:
●
●
●
Controlled Evaluation: Difficult to
evaluate due to the organizational or
departmental
level
of
implementation.
Mixed Results: Some case studies
indicate failure, often due to poor
implementation or lack of support
from management.
Individual
Differences:
Effectiveness varies depending on
individual workers' growth need
strength—those with high growth
needs benefit more from enriched
jobs.
Examples of Job Enrichment in
Practice
●
●
●
Allocating Work Tasks: Employees
decide how to allocate tasks among
themselves.
Self-Appraisal: Workers evaluate
their own performance, setting
personal goals and standards.
Personnel Decisions: Employees
participate in hiring, firing, and other
personnel decisions.
●
Setting Output Quotas: Workers
set their own production targets and
strive to meet them.
Equity Theory of Motivation
Equity theory, proposed by J. Stacey
Adams in 1965, posits that workers are
motivated by a desire for fair treatment.
According to this theory, workers compare
their inputs (efforts, experience, education)
and outcomes (pay, recognition, benefits)
with those of others. The perception of
equity or inequity influences their motivation
and behavior.
Key Concepts of Equity Theory
1. Inputs: Elements that workers
invest in their job, such as
experience, education, effort, and
skills.
○ Example:
Years
of
experience,
level
of
education, amount of effort
put into tasks.
2. Outcomes:
Rewards
workers
expect to receive from their job, such
as salary, benefits, recognition, and
job satisfaction.
○ Example: Pay, bonuses,
promotions,
and
acknowledgment.
3. Comparison Others: Individuals or
groups used as a benchmark for
evaluating equity.
○ Example:
Coworkers,
individuals
in
similar
positions, or one's own
previous job experiences.
Perceptions of Equity and Inequity
Underpayment Inequity
Occurs when workers perceive that their
inputs are greater than their outcomes
compared to others.
●
Example: Discovering a new, less
experienced coworker earns more
money for the same job.
Possible
inequity:
reactions
to
underpayment
1. Increasing Outcomes: Seeking a
raise
or
other
compensatory
benefits.
2. Decreasing Inputs: Reducing effort
or quality of work.
3. Changing the Comparison Other:
Finding a different benchmark that
justifies the current situation.
4. Leaving the Situation: Quitting the
job to seek fairer compensation
elsewhere.
Overpayment Inequity
Occurs when workers perceive that their
outcomes are greater than their inputs
compared to others.
●
Example: Receiving a higher salary
than peers for the same work level.
Possible reactions to overpayment inequity:
1. Increasing Inputs: Working harder
to justify the higher pay.
2. Decreasing Outcomes: Voluntarily
accepting a pay cut (rare).
3. Changing Comparison Others:
Comparing oneself to higher-status
workers to rationalize the higher pay.
4. Distorting
the
Situation:
Reinterpreting one's own input or
outcome to perceive equity.
Moderators
Differences
and
Individual
Equity Sensitivity
Individuals differ in their sensitivity to equity
and
their
preference
for
balanced
input–outcome ratios.
●
●
●
Equity Sensitive: Prefer balance
and react strongly to inequity.
Benevolent: More tolerant of
underpayment inequity.
Entitled: Prefer overpayment and
may feel justified in receiving more
outcomes for fewer inputs.
Research and Applications
1. Laboratory vs. Field Studies: Most
research has been conducted in lab
settings, with mixed results for
underpayment and overpayment
conditions.
○ Example: Laboratory studies
show strong reactions to
underpayment,
but
less
consistent
responses
to
overpayment.
2. Alternative
Outcomes:
Non-monetary outcomes, such as
job titles and recognition, also play a
role in perceived equity.
○ Example: Workers might
increase their effort in
response to a prestigious job
title, provided they perceive it
as earned.
3. Emotional
and
Psychological
Effects: Perceived inequity can lead
to stress and emotional exhaustion.
○ Example: Finnish workers
who
felt
overburdened
reported
stress.
higher
levels
of
Inputs In equity theory, the elements that
employees put into their jobs. Outputs In
equity theory, what employees get from their
jobs. Input/output ratio The ratio of how
much employees believe they put into their
jobs to how much they believe they get from
their jobs
Expectancy
Motivation
(VIE)
Theory
of
Expectancy theory, also known as VIE
theory, is a cognitive theory of motivation
that explains how individuals make
decisions regarding their behavior based on
expected outcomes. The theory, primarily
associated with Victor Vroom (1964),
incorporates three core components:
valence, instrumentality, and expectancy.
Core Components of Expectancy
Theory
1. Valence: The desirability of an
outcome to an individual. Outcomes
can be positive (e.g., pay raise,
recognition) or negative (e.g.,
reprimands, demotions).
○ Example: A student values
admission to a prestigious
graduate program highly
(positive valence), whereas
another student might not
care about graduate school
at all (neutral or negative
valence).
2. Instrumentality: The perceived
relationship
between
the
performance of a specific behavior
and the likelihood of receiving a
particular outcome.
○ Example:
An
employee
believes that completing a
project successfully will lead
to a promotion.
3. Expectancy:
The
perceived
relationship between an individual's
effort and performance. This is the
belief about the likelihood that
increased effort will lead to improved
performance.
○ Example: A student believes
that studying for five extra
hours will improve their grade
in an exam.
Application of Expectancy Theory
Expectancy theory suggests that the
motivation to perform a particular behavior
depends on:
1. The desirability of the outcome
(valence).
2. The belief that the performance will
lead to the desired outcome
(instrumentality).
3. The belief that effort will improve
performance (expectancy).
Example: Student Motivation
●
●
●
Valence:
A
student
values
admission to a PhD program.
Expectancy: The student assesses
their ability and willingness to study
hard and achieve high grades.
Instrumentality:
The
student
evaluates the likelihood that high
grades will lead to admission to the
PhD program.
The student will be highly motivated if they:
1. Strongly desire the PhD admission
(high valence).
2. Believe that studying hard will lead
to high grades (high expectancy).
3. Believe that high grades will
significantly increase their chances
of admission (high instrumentality).
Expectancy theory is a comprehensive
model that accounts for individual goals, the
links between effort and performance, and
performance and outcomes. It provides
practical guidance for managers to motivate
employees by clarifying goals, linking
performance to rewards, and ensuring goals
are achievable.
However, the theory has limitations:
Factors Influencing Motivation
1. Work Outcomes: Managers should
clearly define potential rewards and
costs associated with performance.
2. Performance-Reward
Relationship: Workers need to
understand the link between their
performance and the rewards they
can expect.
3. Attainable Goals: Performance
goals should be realistic and
achievable for employees.
●
●
●
Complexity: Measuring valence,
instrumentality,
and expectancy
accurately can be challenging.
Rationality
Assumption:
The
theory
assumes
rational
decision-making, which may not
always apply as individuals can act
irrationally.
Individual Differences: People
process
information
differently,
affecting how they evaluate effort,
performance, and outcomes.
Example: Workplace Motivation
Conclusion
An employee aims to avoid their
supervisor’s criticism (negatively valent
outcome). They will consider:
Expectancy theory highlights the importance
of understanding individual motivations and
ensuring that effort, performance, and
rewards are clearly linked and perceived as
achievable by employees. By addressing
these components, managers can create a
motivating work environment that aligns with
employees' goals and expectations.
1. Expectancy: Whether they can
perform their job flawlessly to avoid
criticism.
2. Instrumentality:
Whether
performing flawlessly will actually
prevent criticism, especially if the
supervisor is overly critical.
If the employee perceives that avoiding
criticism is possible and that flawless
performance will indeed prevent it, their
motivation will be higher.
Strengths and Criticisms
Behavior-Based Theories
Comparing,
Contrasting,
and
Combining Motivation Theories
Work motivation is a complex and
multifaceted topic, reflected in the various
theories developed to explain motivational
processes. Below is a comparative analysis
of different motivation theories, as
summarized in Table 8.4.
Need Theories
1. Maslow's Need Hierarchy
○ Components: Levels of
needs
arranged
in
a
hierarchy from lower-order
(physiological, safety) to
higher-order needs (social,
esteem, self-actualization).
○ Applications:
No
direct
intervention programs.
○ Perspective: Internal push
from within individuals.
2. Alderfer's ERG Theory
○ Components: Three levels
of
needs
existence,
relatedness, and growth.
○ Applications:
No
direct
intervention programs.
○ Perspective:
Similar
to
Maslow but with more
flexibility
between
need
levels.
1. Reinforcement Theory
○ Components:
Consequences of behavior reinforcers and punishment.
○ Applications: Organizational
behavior modification.
○ Perspective: External pull
from the environment.
2. Goal-Setting Theory
○ Components: Setting of
challenging
goals
and
commitment to goals.
○ Applications:
Various
goal-setting programs (e.g.,
Management by Objectives MBO).
○ Perspective: Combination of
internal
motivation
and
external goal-setting.
Job Design Theories
1. Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory
○ Components: Jobs must
provide
hygienes
(e.g.,
salary, company policies) and
motivators
(e.g.,
achievement, recognition).
○ Applications:
Job
enrichment.
○ Perspective: Focus on job
content and environment to
motivate workers.
2. Job Characteristics Model
○ Components: Jobs must
provide
five
key
job
characteristics (skill variety,
task
identity,
task
significance, autonomy, and
feedback).
○ Applications:
Job
enrichment.
○
Perspective: Focus on job
design
to
enhance
motivation.
●
Cognitive Theories
1. Equity Theory
○ Components:
Inputs
=
outcomes; emphasizes drive
to reduce inequities.
○ Applications: Various, but
no agreed-upon intervention
programs.
○ Perspective:
Rational
evaluation of fairness in
work-related exchanges.
2. Expectancy (VIE) Theory
○ Components:
Valence
(desirability of outcomes),
Instrumentality (link between
performance and outcomes),
Expectancy (link between
effort and performance).
○ Applications: Various, but
no agreed-upon intervention
programs.
○ Perspective:
Rational
decision-making based on
expected outcomes.
Similarities and Differences
●
Need Theories vs. Cognitive
Theories:
○ Need
theories
(Maslow,
Alderfer)
are
primarily
descriptive and focus on
internal
motivations,
explaining that people are
driven by different levels of
needs.
○ Cognitive theories (Equity,
Expectancy)
focus
on
rational
decision-making
processes where individuals
evaluate
inputs
and
outcomes.
Behavior-Based vs. Job Design
Theories:
○ Behavior-based
theories
(Reinforcement,
Goal-Setting) focus on how
external factors, such as
rewards and goal clarity, can
influence motivation.
○ Job
design
theories
(Herzberg's Two-Factor, Job
Characteristics) emphasize
how
job
content
and
characteristics
can
be
structured
to
enhance
motivation.
Combining Theories
●
●
●
Overlap in Theories:
○ McClelland’s need theory
and cognitive models of
motivation both consider
internal and external factors.
○ Behavior-based
theories
share common elements with
cognitive models, such as
the importance of goal
setting and intrinsic rewards.
Complex Nature of Motivation:
○ Different theories highlight
the complexity of human
motivation,
acknowledging
that it can be influenced by
internal desires, external
rewards, rational evaluations,
and emotional factors.
Practical Implications:
○ Managers can use insights
from multiple theories to
design
comprehensive
motivation strategies that
address various aspects of
worker
motivation,
from
setting clear goals and
providing meaningful rewards
to ensuring job roles are
fulfilling and equitable.
Understanding
Performance
Motivation
and
Motivation is often seen as crucial for good
work performance. The idea is that a
motivated worker will naturally be a
productive
worker.
However,
this
assumption doesn't always hold true
because productivity can be influenced by
many other factors beyond motivation
alone. Simply having motivated employees
doesn't guarantee high productivity; the
workplace environment is far more intricate.
Example: Imagine a factory where workers
are highly motivated but lack efficient
machinery and tools. Despite their
motivation, their productivity is limited
because they are hindered by inadequate
technology.
Team-Based Rewards
There's a growing trend towards using
team-based
strategies
to
motivate
employees. Instead of solely rewarding
individuals, organizations are exploring
ways to reward entire teams for their
collective performance. Research indicates
that team-based rewards can be just as
motivating as individual rewards, particularly
when team members are committed to their
group's success and understand the
fairness of the reward system.
Example: In an office setting, a team of
sales representatives earns a bonus based
on their overall sales targets rather than
individual achievements. This approach
encourages collaboration and
support among team members.
mutual
Systems and Technology Variables
Regardless of motivation levels, outdated or
inefficient systems and technologies can
significantly
impact
productivity.
For
instance, in agricultural settings in
developing countries, low productivity isn't
solely due to worker motivation but often
stems from the lack of advanced agricultural
technology.
Example: A farm where workers are eager
to increase yield but lack modern irrigation
systems and equipment. Despite their
motivation, their productivity remains low
due to technological limitations.
Individual Difference Variables
Individual factors such as skills, abilities,
and knowledge also play a critical role in
productivity. Even the most motivated
individuals may struggle if they lack the
necessary skills for their job or are placed in
roles that don't align with their strengths.
Example: A new employee who is
enthusiastic but lacks training may struggle
to perform efficiently until they gain the
necessary skills and knowledge for their
role.
Group Dynamics Variables
Workplace productivity isn't just about
individual motivation; it also hinges on how
well team members collaborate and
coordinate their efforts. Even if most team
members are motivated, poor group
dynamics—such as a lack of teamwork
among key members—can undermine
overall productivity.
Example: A project team where most
members are motivated and skilled, but a
few members consistently fail to collaborate
or communicate effectively, causing delays
and reducing overall project efficiency.
Organizational Variables
Productivity across an organization can be
uneven due to factors like organizational
politics or conflicts between departments.
Even if employees are motivated within their
teams, broader organizational issues can
impede overall productivity.
Example: In a large corporation, one
department consistently meets targets due
to high motivation and teamwork, while
another department struggles with internal
conflicts, leading to lower productivity
despite individual efforts.
Conclusion
While motivation is important for work
performance, it's just one piece of the
puzzle. Understanding and addressing
factors
like
technology,
individual
differences,
group
dynamics,
and
organizational challenges are equally crucial
for improving overall productivity in complex
work environments.
Job Characteristics Theory,
developed by Hackman and Oldham in
1976, suggests that jobs can be more
motivating if they meet certain criteria that
make them meaningful and engaging for
employees. These criteria include:
1. Meaningfulness of Work
2. Autonomy
3. Feedback
Key Characteristics
1. Skill Variety:
○ Using different skills and
talents in a job.
○ Example: A graphic designer
uses artistic skills, software
knowledge, and creativity.
2. Task Identity:
○ Completing a whole piece of
work from start to finish.
○ Example: A carpenter builds
a complete piece of furniture,
from cutting wood to the final
polish.
3. Task Significance:
○ The impact of the job on
others.
○ Example: A nurse's work
significantly affects patients'
health and recovery.
4. Autonomy:
○ The degree of freedom and
independence in scheduling
and performing tasks.
○ Example: A research
scientist decides the direction
and methods of their
experiments.
5. Feedback:
○ Receiving clear and direct
information about the
effectiveness of one's
performance.
○ Example: A sales manager
gets immediate sales reports
and customer feedback.
Motivation Potential of Jobs
Jobs with high motivation potential tend to:
●
Allow employees to use a variety of
skills.
●
●
Connect efforts to meaningful and
appreciated outcomes.
Provide autonomy and feedback.
Example:
Analysis
Factory
Worker
Job
Job Description: A factory worker stitches
logos on shirts.
●
●
●
●
●
Skill Variety: Low - Only involves
stitching.
Task Identity: Low - Only a small
part of the production process.
Task Significance: Low - Putting
logos on shirts is not highly valued
by society.
Autonomy: Low - Closely
supervised.
Feedback: Low - Quality checked by
someone else, not direct feedback.
Conclusion: The job has low motivation
potential due to the lack of skill variety, task
identity, task significance, autonomy, and
feedback.
Impact
of
High
Potential Jobs
Motivation
According to meta-analysis results by Fried
& Ferris (1987), jobs with high motivating
potential lead to:
●
●
●
Higher levels of employee
satisfaction.
Better performance.
Lower absenteeism.
Two-Factor Theory
Overview: Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory,
introduced in 1966, categorizes job-related
factors into two types: hygiene factors and
motivators. This theory suggests that both
are needed for job satisfaction and
motivation, but they function differently.
Key Concepts
1. Hygiene Factors:
○ Elements that result from but
do not involve the job itself.
○ Necessary to prevent
dissatisfaction but do not
lead to higher motivation if
present.
○ Examples:
■ Pay and Benefits:
Salary, health
insurance, bonuses.
■ Work Conditions:
Safety, comfort,
facilities.
■ Job Security:
Stability of
employment.
■ Relationships:
Interactions with
coworkers and
supervisors.
2. Motivators:
○ Elements that are directly
related to the tasks and
duties of the job.
○ Lead to higher motivation
and job satisfaction when
present.
○ Examples:
■
■
■
■
■
Responsibility: Level
of responsibility in the
job.
Job Control: Degree
of control over how
tasks are performed.
Interest in Work:
Engagement and
interest in the job
itself.
Achievement: Sense
of accomplishment in
work.
Advancement:
Opportunities for
career growth.
Impact on Job Satisfaction and
Motivation
●
●
Hygiene Factors: If absent or
inadequate, they cause
dissatisfaction. However, even if
they are adequate, they do not
significantly increase motivation.
○ Example: An employee with
low pay and poor working
conditions will be dissatisfied.
Improving these conditions
will neutralize dissatisfaction
but won't necessarily
motivate.
Motivators: These directly increase
job satisfaction and motivation when
present.
○ Example: An employee with
interesting tasks,
responsibility, and control
over their work will be more
motivated and satisfied.
Illustrative Scenarios
1. High Pay, Low Control:
○
Hygiene Factors: Adequate
(high pay).
○ Motivators: Inadequate (low
control, low responsibility).
○ Outcome: Employee is
neutral – neither highly
motivated nor unmotivated.
2. Low Pay, High Control:
○ Hygiene Factors:
Inadequate (low pay).
○ Motivators: Adequate (high
control, high responsibility).
○ Outcome: Employee is
unmotivated due to
dissatisfaction from low pay.
3. High Pay, High Control:
○ Hygiene Factors: Adequate
(high pay).
○ Motivators: Adequate (high
control, high responsibility).
○ Outcome: Employee is
motivated and satisfied.
Criticisms
Theory
●
●
●
of
the
Two-Factor
Research Methods: Critics argue
that the methods used to develop
the two factors were not robust.
Overlap: Some factors, like pay, can
act as both hygiene factors and
motivators.
Replication: Few studies have
successfully replicated Herzberg's
findings.
Summary
Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory provides a
framework for understanding job satisfaction
and motivation:
●
Hygiene Factors: Prevent
dissatisfaction but do not motivate.
●
Motivators: Lead to higher
motivation and job satisfaction.
■
For effective job design, both hygiene
factors and motivators should be addressed
to ensure employees are both satisfied and
motivated.
○
Premack Principle The idea that
reinforcement is relative both within an
individual
and
between
individuals.
Reinforcement hierarchy A rank-ordered list
of reinforcers for an individual
Most Preferred:
Money, time off.
■ Least Preferred:
Cleaning the press,
typesetting.
Application:
■ Instead of offering
money, allow the
worker to throw out
oily rags after
cleaning the press.
This task is slightly
more enjoyable
because it provides a
break and an
opportunity to go
outside.
Financial Rewards
1. Compensation Plan: A comprehensive
compensation plan includes:
●
1. Reinforcement Hierarchy:
○ A list ranking an employee's
preferences for various
activities or rewards.
○ Helps identify which activities
can be used as effective
reinforcers.
2. Relative Reinforcement:
○ Using a more preferred
activity to reinforce a less
preferred activity.
○ The preference is subjective
and varies between
individuals.
Example Scenarios
1. Factory Worker:
○ Reinforcement Hierarchy:
●
●
Base Pay and Benefits Package:
Provides employees with security.
Salary Adjustments: Addresses
undesirable shifts and high
cost-of-living areas.
Variable Pay: Acts as an incentive
for better performance.
Benefits:
●
●
Can result in higher performance
levels.
Provides clear financial motivation.
Risks:
●
Poorly designed systems can
increase stress and decrease
performance.
Examples:
●
●
●
Scholarship Programs: Chick-fil-A
and McDonald’s offer scholarships to
employees.
Productivity Bonuses: Banker
Steel provides bonuses for
increased productivity.
Reward Pesos: Abuelo’s gives
tokens for exceptional performance,
exchangeable for merchandise.
Recognition Programs
●
Travel Incentives
1. Executive Nominations:
●
1. Formal Recognition:
●
●
●
●
Service Emblems: United Airlines
gives emblems for years of service.
Employee Recognition Programs:
Dierbergs’ Extra Step program led to
a significant decrease in turnover by
recognizing employees who meet
customer needs.
Titles and Honors: Universities
award titles like associate professor
and professor for service and
performance quality.
Special Privileges: Best Buy and
other companies offer personal
parking spaces for employees of the
month.
2. Peer Recognition:
●
●
People’s Choice Award:
Employees at Angus Barn
Restaurant choose peers for
awards.
Staff Member of the Year:
Employees at Oakland Mercy
Hospital vote for this honor.
3. Social Recognition:
●
Informal Programs: Includes
personal attention, signs of approval
(e.g., smiles, head nods), and
expressions of appreciation.
Effectiveness: Proven to be a
significant source of employee
motivation.
McDonald’s: High-performing
employees nominated for a week in
company condos in desirable
locations (e.g., Hawaii, Florida, Lake
Tahoe).
2. Sales Team Competitions:
●
Chick-fil-A: Sales teams compete
for vacations in Hawaii.
3. Manager Nominations:
●
Motorola: Managers can nominate
employees for travel awards.
4. Unique Applications:
●
Just Born Candy: Promised trips to
Hawaii for sales increase and to
Fargo, North Dakota, for unmet
goals.
Merit pay -The major distinction between
merit pay and pay for performance is that
merit pay systems base their incentives on
performance appraisal scores rather than
on such objective performance measures as
sales and productivity. Thus, merit pay is a
potentially good technique for jobs in which
productivity is difficult to measure
Group Incentive Plans- Rather than
encouraging individual competition, these
plans reward employees for reaching group
goals\\ problems with group incentive plans
are that they can encourage social loafing
Profit sharing was developed in the United
States by Albert Gallatin way back in 1794
(Henderson, 2006). As its name implies,
profit-sharing programs provide employees
with a percentage of profits above a certain
amount
Gainsharing A group incentive system in
which employees are paid a bonus based
on
improvements
in
group
productivity.gainsharing
ties
groupwide
financial incentives to improvements (gains)
in organizational performance
Stock options A group incentive method in
which employees are given the option of
buying stock in the future at the price of the
stock when the options were granted