Тадеев Артур Маирбекович.
Работа по английскому языку на тему "Философы Древней
Греции и их вклад в формировании научного знания".
Tadeev Artur Mairbekovich.
English language work on the topic "Philosophers of Ancient
Greece and their contribution to the formation of scientific
knowledge".
Introduction.
Philosophy is a unique phenomenon that covers many issues and problems important for
human civilization. It is an attempt to understand the nature of the world, to build a system of
social structure, to establish moral norms and values. All this makes philosophy an important
component of our culture and affects our lives, even if we are not aware of it.
Ancient Greek philosophers are a fundamental part of the history of philosophy, especially at an
early stage of its development. In the XI-V centuries BC, philosophy did not exist as a science,
but starting from the VI century BC, the methodology and organization of philosophical thought
began to develop, especially in Athens, where a philosophical circle was discovered. These
devotees of knowledge began to discuss problems that affected metaphysical, ethical, aesthetic
and logical issues, as well as those issues that were related to public life. The time when these
thinkers lived is called the "Period of Antiquity", it was at this time that concepts and
understanding of the nature of the world and the reality surrounding us began to form.
Among these thinkers, Plato, Aristotle, Socrates deserve special mention. Their theories were of
great importance at that time and still influence the formation of scientific knowledge and
philosophical thought in general. They were the first to conduct various scientific experiments,
which helped them to better understand the world, the surrounding nature and man himself.
They created systems of knowledge that were universal and infinite, and in the period of
different epochs were in demand in science and industry.
A colossal amount of research has been done in such topics as metaphysics, ontology,
epistemology, politics and ethics. Thanks to this, the science of philosophy emerged, which has
become one of the most influential in the world of sciences.
In turn, the ancient Greek philosophers also had a significant impact on modern education,
where much attention is paid to science and philosophical thought. All their ideas and thoughts
are still preserved and continue to influence our science education system. Undoubtedly, the
contribution to philosophy and knowledge made by ancient Greek philosophers is an important
component in the overall picture of the development of our civilization.
Heraclitus of Ephesus (540 - 480 BC)
Heraclitus of Ephesus was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived in the 5th century BC. Very
little information has been preserved about his life, but it is known that he was a famous thinker
of his time. His teaching attracted many students and was known outside of Greece. In his
writings, he emphasized the importance of self-knowledge and critical thinking, which made him
one of the first representatives of philosophy aimed at understanding the world through logic
and reason.
The death of Heraclitus of Ephesus is unknown, but it is known that he died at the age of about
60 years. His works were known at the time, but very few of his works have survived to this day.
This is due to the fact that Heraclitus wrote his works in ancient Greek and used a complex,
metaphorical style that was difficult to understand even for modern readers. In addition, many of
his works have been lost over time. Despite this, we know about him thanks to quotations and
mentions in the works of other philosophers and historians.
The Teachings of Heraclitus
The teaching of Heraclitus was one of the most influential in ancient Greek philosophy. He
believed that everything in the world is in constant motion and change, and that it is impossible
to stand still, because everything around us is constantly changing. He expressed this idea in
the famous saying: "You cannot enter the same river twice, because new waters always flow
towards you."
Heraclitus argued that opposites are an integral part of the world and that they cannot exist one
without the other. For example, day cannot exist without night, life without death, light without
darkness. He also claimed that everything in the world is connected and that everything is part
of a single whole.
One of the key concepts of Heraclitus' teaching was the idea of the logos. Logos is a concept
that can be translated as "mind" or "word". He believed that the logos is the basis of all things
and that it permeates everything in the world. He also argued that the logos is the law that
governs all things and phenomena.
Finally, Heraclitus argued that a person should strive for harmony and balance in his life. He
believed that man should be in harmony with nature and follow the laws of the logos. He also
argued that a person should strive for self-knowledge and understanding of his place in the
world.
The role of Heraclitus' teaching.
His teachings became the starting point for the dialectical method of cognition, as they were
taken into account and improved by many philosophers. "Divergent converges and the most
beautiful harmony is born from different tones" – this saying finds meaning in many things and
truly reveals the essence of the teachings of this great Greek.
Socrates (470 - 399 BC)
Socrates was an ancient Greek philosopher who lived in Athens in the 5th century BC. He did
not leave any written works, so we know about his teaching only from the writings of his
students, especially Plato.
Socrates was known for his simplicity and modesty. He had no material wealth and lived very
modestly. His teaching was focused on helping people achieve happiness and true knowledge.
Socrates was very popular in his day, but he also had many enemies. His teaching caused
discontent among many people, especially those who did not want to change their worldview.
The teachings of Socrates.
Socrates believed that true knowledge could not be achieved by simply memorizing facts or
learning from books. He taught that true knowledge must be obtained through analysis and
reasoning. Socrates believed that every person has knowledge in himself, but this knowledge
can only be revealed through dialogue and introspection.
He also stressed the importance of ethics and morality for achieving justice and harmony in
society. Socrates taught that a person should live according to his principles and be responsible
for his actions. He believed that a person should be ready for introspection and criticism of his
actions.
The Socratic method of dialogue was based on the constant asking of questions and the
analysis of answers. He used this method to help people discover their knowledge and better
understand their principles and beliefs. This method allows people to understand themselves
and the world around them more deeply.
Socrates believed that cognition occurs through introspection and dialogue. He said: "I know
that I don't know anything," which means that the path to knowledge begins with the realization
of one's ignorance. He also said, "The one who knows will not say that he knows, and the one
who does not know will claim that he knows." This means that only those who are aware of their
ignorance can begin the path to knowledge.
Socrates also taught that true knowledge comes only through dialogue and interaction with
other people. He said: "I don't teach, I help people think." This means that Socrates did not
consider himself a teacher, but rather a guide for other people on the path to knowledge.
In general, Socrates' teaching about cognition is that the path to true knowledge begins with
awareness of one's ignorance and continues through dialogue and interaction with other people.
The death of Socrates.
Many people could not accept Socrates' position, because his teaching raised doubts about
traditional values and established orders. He encouraged people to introspect and think
critically, which could lead to a change in their worldview and behavior. Some people were
afraid of these changes and believed that Socrates was undermining the stability of society. In
addition, his teaching was contrary to traditional religious beliefs, which caused outrage among
religious leaders and their supporters. In general, Socrates' position was a challenge to the
established order in society and caused discontent among those who did not want to change
their beliefs.
Socrates was sentenced to death for "corrupting youth" and "blasphemy." He drank poison and
died in 399 BC. His death became a symbol of freedom of thought and the high price a person
can pay for his beliefs.
The role of Socrates' teaching in the progress of world knowledge.
His methods of dialogue and introspection became the basis for the development of philosophy
and science. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle continued to develop his teachings and
created new schools of philosophy, which in turn influenced the development of culture and
society.
In addition, Socrates was one of the first to call for equality and justice in society. His teaching
that everyone should strive for knowledge and wisdom, regardless of their social status, became
the basis for the development of education and science.
In general, Socrates became a symbol of freedom of thought and critical thinking, which
contributed to the progress and development of society. His influence on world culture and
philosophy continues to be significant to this day.
Plato (427-347 B.C.)
Plato's life began in Athens in 428/427 BC. He was the son of an aristocrat and was born into a
family that had ties to the political and cultural elite of the city. In his youth, Plato was a student
of Socrates and was very inspired by his philosophy. However, after the death of Socrates in
399 BC, Plato left Athens and went to Egypt, where he studied mathematics and astronomy.
After returning to Athens, Plato founded the Academy, the first higher school in the Western
world. He taught classes with his students and wrote many philosophical works that became
classics of Western philosophy. In his works, he discussed topics such as ideas, goodness,
justice, the soul, the state and many others.
Plato's teaching.
Plato believed that the world we see around us is not the real world, but only a reflection of the
ideal world that exists outside of our perception. According to Plato's teaching, ideas are the
basis of everything in the world. They exist independently of our perception and determine
everything we see and feel. He divided the world into two parts: the world of sensory experience
and the world of ideas. The world of sensory experience is incomplete and insufficient, and the
world of ideas is complete and perfect. In this understanding, the soul is immortal and eternal,
as well as the soul exists before the birth and after the death of the body.
Another feature of Plato's teaching is his use of dialogue as a form of presentation of his ideas.
In his dialogues, he often acted as Socrates to show his vision of philosophy.
This philosopher had his own view of society: He believed that an ideal state should be
arranged as a harmonious organism, where each person performs his function and works for
the benefit of society. At the same time, he paid great attention to the level of education of
people and believed that only educated people can become good rulers. The ideal state in his
teaching had to stand on justice, for him it was the most important criterion of the social
structure and interaction of people. He divided people into three types: philosophers, warriors
and workers. Philosophers are those who strive for knowledge and wisdom, warriors are those
who protect society, and workers are those who are engaged in production.
Another feature of Plato's teaching is his use of dialogue as a form of presentation of his ideas.
In his dialogues, he often acted as Socrates to show his vision of philosophy.
In his dialogues Plato also discussed questions about the nature of evil, free will and fate. He
believed that evil is the absence of good, and free will is the ability to choose good.
Plato developed the concept of "anamnesis" - the idea that knowledge is not acquired, but
resurrected in our memory. He believed that we already know all the truths, but have forgotten
them, and the task of philosophy is to remind us of these truths.
The role of Plato's teaching.
In general, Plato's teaching left a deep mark on Western philosophy and culture. His ideas
about the soul, ideas and justice continue to be relevant and discussed to this day. Plato's
teaching had a great influence on the development of Christian philosophy. His ideas about the
immortality of the soul and the ideal world are reflected in Christian theology. To this day, his
dialogues are in great demand among philosophical circles, and his teachings are firmly
entrenched in philosophical textbooks and the works of many philosophers.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.)
Aristotle is one of the most outstanding thinkers in the history of mankind. He is the author of
more than 150 works and was a student of Plato at his Academy. He was born in 384 BC in
Stagira, on the territory of modern Greece. His father was a doctor, which no doubt had an
impact on his future.
After the death of his Aristotelian parents, he came to Athens at the age of 17 and joined the
Platonic Academy. But he soon left it, as his approach to philosophy was too different from
Platonov's. In 335 BC, he was invited to Alexander the Great to become the mentor of his son
Alexander IV. After the death of Alexander the Great, Aristotle returned to Athens and created
his own Philosophical School, which was called "Lycaeus". He spent the last 12 years of his life
there.
Aristotle wrote a huge number of works on various topics, including metaphysics, ethics, political
philosophy, biology and logic. He was the first to study logic as an independent discipline. His
works are considered classics of philosophy and had a huge impact on the development of this
science.
The main teachings of Aristotle in his most significant books.
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1. The Book of Metaphysics:
The book of Metaphysics is one of the key works of the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. In
this work, he analyzes the philosophical theories of previous thinkers, and also develops his
own system of metaphysical philosophy.
Aristotle's teaching in the book Metaphysics is based on the concepts of essence, being and
action. He sought to describe the main categories of being and to understand how these
categories interact with each other.
At the center of Aristotle's teaching is the understanding of being as a whole, not consisting of
individual elements, but representing a certain certainty. He regarded being as something
concrete, not abstract.
Aristotle divided being into substance and properties. Substance is a certain basic element of
which all being consists. It remains unchanged and is subject only to qualitative development.
Properties are characteristics that a substance may have, but which are not essential to it.
An important concept of Aristotle's teaching is potentiality and relevance. Potentiality is the
possibility of existence, but not actual existence. Relevance is actual existence. Aristotle
believed that the purpose of human life is to achieve maximum relevance.
In addition, Aristotle developed the concept of causality, which became the basis for the
development of science and technology. According to his theory, everything happens for a
reason. He distinguished four types of causes – material, formal, driving and target.
In general, Aristotle's teaching in the book Metaphysics is a fundamental analysis of the basic
concepts of metaphysical philosophy, which has influenced many fields of science and
philosophy for many centuries.
2. The Book of Politics:
Aristotle in his book "Politics" presents his views on the governance of the state and society,
which are distinguished by a deep analysis of social and political phenomena, a high level of
logical development and philosophical validity.
In the first chapters of the book, Aristotle defines the essence of the polis (state) and identifies
two main types of social structure - the monarchy and the polis. At the same time, he criticizes
the monarchy as a form of government based on the personal power of the ruler, who can be
unfair and tyrannical. Instead, Aristotle proposes the polis as a form of government based on
civil liberty, equality and law, which ensure justice and the well-being of society.
Next, Aristotle analyzes the various forms of government and identifies three main forms:
monarchy, aristocracy and democracy. At the same time, he recognizes that each form of
government has its own advantages and disadvantages, but he considers the "mixed
constitution" to be the most fair and effective form, where power is distributed among various
social groups and authorities, while each of them controls the actions of others.
Another important topic that is considered in Aristotle's book is the theory of civil property and its
role in public life. Aristotle believed that private property is a necessary element for the
prosperity of society, while he points out the need to comply with certain restrictions and rules
so that private property cannot become a source of social inequality and conflict.
In conclusion, the book "Politics" by Aristotle is a highly valued source of scientific knowledge
about the political theory and philosophy of our civilization. It opened up new horizons for
understanding the complex processes taking place in society and the state, and for many
centuries influenced the direction of thinking and practice of political activity.
3. The Book of Poetics:
The book "Poetics" is one of the most important works of the ancient Greek philosopher
Aristotle. In it, he explores and analyzes poetic art, discusses the principles and foundations of
the construction of drama, tragedy, comedy, epic, lyrics.
At the beginning of the book, Aristotle defines poetry as "the art of imitation", that is, the ability
to create images of the world, including the inner, spiritual world of a person. He also says that
the purpose of poetry is not only entertainment, but also education and moral education.
Aristotle analyzes in detail the various genres of poetry, shows that each of them has its own
characteristics and requirements for the construction of the plot, characters, dialogues and style.
He says that tragedy should cause the viewer to feel fear and pity, and comedy - laughter and
joy.
Aristotle also discusses various elements of drama, such as scenes, characters, action, chorus,
and others. He says that the characters should not only be realistic, but also of ethical qualities,
and at the same time they should be authentic and convincing.
In Poetics, Aristotle expresses the opinion that the main value of poetry is the unity of action
and causality, that is, the connection between what is happening on the stage and the causes
that these events generate. He argues that such unity is a key factor in the success of any
drama.
In general, Aristotle's teaching in "Poetics" about poetic art has been accepted by the art culture
for many centuries. The book has become a must-read for anyone interested in drama, and is
still considered one of the most important works in the history of literature.
4. The Book of Rhetoric:
The book Rhetoric contains the teachings of Aristotle about rhetoric, the art of persuasion and
expression of their ideas, goals and thoughts.
Aristotle distinguishes three types of rhetorical proof: logical (logos), emotional (pathos) and
ethical (ethos).
Logos is the use of rational arguments and facts to convince an audience. Aristotle attaches
great importance to logical proofs, considering them more important than emotional arguments.
Pathos is the use of emotional arguments to influence the emotions of the audience. For
example, the use of cruelty in the story to arouse the audience's compassion.
Ethos is the use of the speaker's personality to convince the audience of the correctness of his
arguments. Aristotle believes that a speaker's strong personality can influence the audience's
beliefs, regardless of the content of his speech.
However, Aristotle did not believe that rhetoric should be used to convince the audience of
anything. He paid attention to ethics and believed that rhetorical arguments should be truthful
and morally permissible.
The book Rhetoric also contains Aristotle's teachings on various styles of speech, such as
oratorical, negative and generalizing, as well as techniques for improving rhetorical speech,
such as the use of metaphors and rhythms.
In general, the book Rhetoric of Aristotle gives a complete picture of how you can convincingly
and effectively express your ideas and thoughts in your speeches.
5. The book of Nicomachean Ethics:
Aristotle in his book "Ethics of Nicomachus" explores ethics as a philosophical science that
studies how a person should live his life in order to achieve happiness and well-being. He
argues that the essence of a person consists in his ability to think rationally and make decisions
based on reason. On this basis, Aristotle formulates his concept of happiness, putting in the
center the idea of eudaimonia, that is, life in accordance with the highest good.
Aristotle divides ethics into two parts: the ethics of judgments and the ethics of actions. In the
ethics of judgments, he studies the moral qualities of a person, including virtues, vices and the
middle between them, as well as what qualities are considered worthy of respect and trust in
society. In particular, Aristotle identifies four main virtues: wisdom, justice, courage and
moderation.
In the ethics of actions, Aristotle explores how a person should act in accordance with the
virtues. He believes that everyone should act in accordance with the situation, taking into
account the context and realizing that it is impossible to prescribe the correct answer to all moral
questions in advance.
Aristotle also draws attention to the fact that virtues cannot be achieved alone, they depend on
the social situation and the influence of people around them. He calls for the development of
friendship and close communication so that people can further enrich their experience and learn
from each other.
All together, Aristotle's teaching in the book "Ethics of Nicomachus" points to the importance of
ethics and interaction in the light of the search for happiness, and reminds that making moral
decisions is not always easy, but it is possible with the help of a reasonable and empathic
approach.
Aristotle's contribution to science.
Aristotle made significant contributions to various fields of knowledge, including logic,
metaphysics, ethics, politics, physics, astronomy, biology and much more. He made a great
contribution to the development of logic and formulated the basic principles of causality and
proof theory.
In addition, Aristotle had a huge influence on science and philosophy up to the present day. His
ideas and concepts had a great impact on the early Christian tradition, as well as on medieval
philosophy and the scientific revolution.
In general, Aristotle left a huge mark on the history of mankind, and his influence on the
development of science and philosophy cannot be overestimated.
Pythagoras (570-495 BC)
Pythagoras was an ancient Greek philosopher, scientist and mathematician, the founder of the
Pythagorean doctrine.
He was born on the island of Samos in the family of a buyer. He was educated in Miletus by
Thales and Anaximander, and then traveled to Egypt, Babylonia and India, where he studied
with the sages of these countries.
Returning to his homeland, Pythagoras founded his school in the city of Crotone in southern
Italy. He and his students studied mathematics, astronomy, music and ethics.
The teaching of Pythagoras.
The main principle of the Pythagoreans was the belief in the immortality of the soul and
reincarnation. They also believed that the world is harmonious and regulated by mathematical
laws.
One of the famous experiments of Pythagoras was connected with music. He noticed that the
sounds produced by strings of different lengths can be consonant if their ratio corresponds to
integers. This discovery became the basis of Pythagorean music and influenced the
development of musical theory.
Pythagoras' contribution to science.
The teachings of Pythagoras and his followers had a great influence on the development of
science and philosophy. It is impossible to evaluate the contribution to mathematics, which is
the foundation of mathematical knowledge. Pythagoras secured the title of a great thinker and
scientist.
Democritus (460 - 370 BC)
Democritus (460-370 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher, the first systematizer of the
atomistic doctrine of the world. Democritus' life was closely connected with the city of Abdera in
northern Greece. He was one of the richest people in the city, and in addition to philosophy, he
was also fond of astronomy, mathematics and medicine. It is believed that he wrote about 70
volumes of works, but most of them have not survived to this day.
Democritus was a supporter of a certain lifestyle – he refused excesses and believed that a
person should follow simplicity and moderation. His philosophical teaching also reflected this
idea: he claimed that the happiest person is the one who lives in accordance with nature and
knows how to enjoy small things.
The doctrine of Democritus.
According to his teaching, the world consists of several elements – indivisible and infinitely small
particles called atoms. Democritus believed that all natural phenomena are explained by the
interaction and movement of atoms. Atoms are unchangeable and eternal, they can move and
connect with each other, forming many different compounds.
Democritus is considered one of the heirs of the Greek philosophical school of the Elites, which
was based on the doctrine of being and non-being. However, unlike his predecessors,
Democritus did not believe that the world is one and immobile, but, on the contrary, argued that
the world is always in motion and change.
Democritus' contribution to science.
The teachings of Democritus have had a significant impact on the development of philosophy
and science up to the present day. His ideas about atoms became the basis of modern
chemistry, and also inspired the development of many scientific theories and philosophical
concepts.
Conclusion.
In conclusion, we can safely say that the ancient Greek philosophers left the most vivid trace in
the history of human thought. Their ideas and opinions were invested in every science and
branch of knowledge, which formed modern ideas about science and philosophy. Philosophers
not only opened new horizons of knowledge, but also contributed to the development of
science, technology and much more. Moreover, they left a legacy in the form of scientific
methods and ideals that we use in science to this day. Ancient Greek philosophers have shown
that with a rational approach it is possible to achieve high results in the study of the surrounding
world and human nature. Their knowledge has become the basis of our knowledge and
contributes to the continuous evolution of sciences. Therefore, it is important not only to
remember this heritage, but also to be able to use their knowledge in our modern world in order
to also contribute to the expansion of our knowledge and the development of science in general.