Geography
Essay
Name :
Content
Page
Unit 1
2 - 27
Unit 2
28 - 37
Unit 3
38 - 52
Unit 4
53 - 61
Unit 5
62 - 77
Unit 6
78 - 95
Unit 7
96 - 109
Unit 11
110 - 123
1
Unit 1
1 Explain the occurrence of tsunamis in the Pacific Ocean. Discuss the effectiveness of tsunami-proof
designs in reducing the negative impacts of tsunamis in the Pacific.
Introduction
Tsunamis are a series of big sea waves travelling at high speed. They are actively generated at convergent
plate boundaries, with over 95% of them occurred around the Pacific Ocean. As tsunamis can be disastrous,
destroying everything along its path, tsunami-proof structures such as sea walls can be built to reduce the
negative impacts of them.
Reasons for the occurrence of tsunami in the Pacific Ocean
• tsunamis are caused by the sudden vertical movement of a large area of ocean floor/vertical
displacement of rocks on the seabed
• which displaces large amount of water
• such vertical displacement of rocks can be caused by submarine earthquakes, submarine volcanic
eruptions and/or submarine landslides
• these three causes are most active at convergent plate boundaries
• as compressional force produces strong earthquakes and volcanic eruptions, which may in turn trigger
big submarine landslides
• the Pacific Ocean is surrounded mainly by the convergent plate boundaries
• once generated, the tsunamis travel in all directions
• they arrive at the opposite coast and the islands in the Pacific Ocean are often affected
Effectiveness of tsunami-proof designs in reducing the negative impacts of tsunamis in the Pacific •
tsunami-proof designs help prevent the collapse of structures during tsunamis • examples include building
sea walls, reinforcing coastal structures and providing vertical evacuation routes for coastal structures
• sea walls which are either vertical or concave seaward are built along the shores to protect the coast
against tsunamis
• they help deflect the force of the plunging waves
• coastal structures are reinforced to withstand the force of waves
• vertical evacuation routes are designed for coastal structures so that people can escape from the
towering water
Effective:
• tsunami-proof designs are effective in protecting life and property, when the strength of the tsunami is
similar to the power that the reinforced structures are originally designed for
Ineffective:
• the tsunamis may be exceptionally strong, so that the reinforced structures may not be able to withstand
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the strong waves, e.g. the strong 2011 Tohoku Tsunami destroyed the sea wall specially built for
tsunamis in Kamaishi
• the structures may be lack of maintenance
• certain coastal areas may not be fully protected by tsunami-proof designs, e.g. not all Pacific countries
build sea walls against tsunamis in the coastal areas
• tsunamis may come so sudden that people do not have enough time to get protection from these
structures
Other measures:
• accurate monitoring and warning systems/Pacific Tsunami Warning System
• land use planning for tsunami-prone coastal areas, with beaches or woodland reserves along the coastal
belt in order to reduce potential losses
• short evacuation routes leading to higher ground are created along these coast •
education and drills to increase the people’s awareness of tsunamis
• well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams and advanced life-saving equipment help reduce death
tolls after the tsunami strikes
• disaster aid and insurance are provided to reduce losses and help rebuild homes respectively
Conclusion
Tsunamis occur rather frequently in the Pacific Ocean. As the coastal areas are often densely populated,
tsunami-proof designs have been adopted in some Pacific countries to protect life and property. They are
generally effective against moderate tsunamis, but other measures have to be adopted at the same time to
further reduce the negative impacts of the hazard.
3
2 Explain how plate movements result in earthquakes. Discuss the role of earthquake-proof
structures in reducing the losses caused by earthquakes.
• Introduction
- Earthquakes are the sudden shaking of the land, which is caused by the sudden release of
energy stored in the rocks beneath the earth’s surface. The movement of the broken pieces of the
lithosphere, or plates, can trigger earthquakes. In order to protect the life and property of
earthquake-prone areas, measures including designing earthquake-proof structures are adopted • How
plate movements result in earthquakes
- plates move towards each other at convergent plate boundaries
- plates move apart at divergent plate boundaries
- plates slide past each other at transform plate boundaries
- all these plate movements cause stress in rocks
- energy builds up in the rock layer, forming a fracture
- when the energy exceeds the strength of the rock
- the rock suddenly breaks and displaces along the fracture
- the energy released from the breaking of rock transmits as seismic waves
- which move out in all directions and shake the ground
- earthquake occurs
• Discussion on the role of earthquake-proof structures in reducing losses by earthquakes (7
marks)
- the building of earthquake-proof structures helps prevent their collapse during earthquakes earthquake-proof designs include the use of shock-proof technology and fire-resistant
materials
- steel frames are used instead of just concrete and stone
- height of buildings/structures is strictly controlled
- foundation is sunk deep into the bedrock and is reinforced
- stepped profile for buildings is designed
- as these structures do not easily collapse during earthquakes, they can significantly reduce the
number of injuries and deaths
Limitations:
- a large amount of capital and advanced technology are needed
- which may not be available in hazard-prone less developed countries
- it also depends on government efficiency
- as the efficiency is greatly reduced if the building laws are not enforced strictly by the
government
4
- poorly built ‘earthquake-proof’ structures may result in more casualties
Other measures:
- careful land use planning
- for example, avoid building facilities with potential dangers, such as nuclear power plants and oil
depots in earthquake-prone areas
- establish evacuation route with adequate road signs
- reserve large open spaces for evacuation
- raise people’s awareness of the hazard through education and regular drilling educate people how to react during and after earthquakes
• Conclusion
- Plate movements produce stress, which causes energy to build up in the rock layer. The release
of this energy results in earthquakes. Building earthquake-proof structures is important to help
reduce potential losses caused by earthquakes. However, local governments have to ensure strict
enforcement of the building laws
5
3 Describe the world distribution of tectonic hazards. Discuss whether the setting up of monitoring
and warning systems in the Pacific region helps reduce the potential losses caused by tectonic
hazards in the region.
• Introduction:
- Tectonic hazards are hazards that are caused by earth movement. They include earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions and tsunamis. They are mostly found at plate boundaries, and they can cause
great destructions. In hazard-prone areas in the Pacific region, governments set up monitoring and
warning systems to reduce the potential losses brought by these hazards
• Description about the distribution of tectonic hazards in the world (6 marks) Earthquakes:
- mostly found at convergent plate boundaries where two plates collide and produce friction:
around the Pacific rim, e.g. Japan, New Zealand, Taiwan, Indonesia; and the Alpine-Himalayan
and Mediterranean regions
- divergent plate boundaries where two plates move apart: e.g. at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, the
Mid-Indian Ridge, the Mid-Antarctic Belt, the East Pacific Rise in the Atlantic region, and in
Africa where divergent plate boundary is found over the land
- transform plate boundaries where two plates slide past each other produces shearing force: at
the San Andreas Fault and other strike-slip faults
- places away from plate boundaries: over the hot spots, e.g. in the Hawaiian Islands where
volcanic eruptions trigger earthquakes; and in places where faulting results in accumulation of
friction, e.g. in earthquakes generated in East Africa
Volcanic eruptions:
- at convergent plate boundaries where water released from subducted plate causes the
asthenosphere to melt at a lower temperature and forms magma: at the Pacific Ring of Fire, e.g.
volcanoes in Japan, Chile, the Philippines
- at divergent plate boundaries where magma rises through the cracks: e.g. volcanoes in Iceland
and eastern Africa
- over the hot spot, e.g. at the Hawaiian Islands
Tsunamis:
- places where submarine earthquakes, submarine volcanic eruptions and/or submarine
landslides occur
- most active in the Circum-Pacific region where the convergent plate boundaries are found - the
islands in the Pacific and the coastal regions at the Pacific rim are affected areas • Discussion on the
setting up of monitoring and warning systems in the Pacific region in helping reduce the potential
losses in the region (6 marks) - the Pacific regions are densely populated
6
- as the region suffers from all three tectonic hazards, they may bring great loss of life and
property
- monitoring and warning systems have been set up in hazard-prone countries - seismographs
have been used to measure seismic waves/detect movements below the earth’s crust
- past records of earthquakes have been analyzed
- satellites are used to detect slight movements in the ground
- signs of imminent activity from volcanoes are detected and observed
- history and geological structure of the volcanoes are studied
- open-sea tsunami buoys and ocean-bottom tsunami gauges are installed to detect vibrations on
the sea floor and abnormal changes in the height of waves in the oceans respectively - a tsunami
warning system is installed in the Pacific region, so that the Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre
will issue warnings to countries in the region when a tsunami is expected in the region
- individual countries in the Pacific, e.g. Japan, Chile and Peru, have set up local warning
systems
- early warnings help people get prepared for evacuation and protection of their property the potential losses caused by tectonic hazards can be reduced
Limitations:
- it requires great inputs of capital and technology to set up and maintain - some tectonic hazards
may not be easily predicted, e.g. it is difficult to predict the time, place and magnitude of an
earthquake
- even if the tectonic hazards can be predicted accurately and early warnings are given,
destruction can still be great due to the following reasons
~ the characteristics of the tectonic hazard, e.g. a very strong earthquake or a serious
tsunami, long duration, fast onset speed, the epicentre gives direct hit to an area, occurred at
midnight or rush hours
~ the characteristics of the area, e.g. dense population, high concentration of economic
activities, people not well-prepared, poor weather, local relief, many structures built with poor
materials
Other measures:
- build hazard-proof structures, e.g. earthquake-proof buildings, reinforced coastal structures,
sea walls
- careful land-use planning, e.g. reserve large open spaces for evacuation and shelter, avoid
building facilities with potential dangers in hazard-prone areas, establish evacuation routes with
adequate road signs
- educate people about tectonic hazards and hold regular drills
7
- improve rescue systems so that rescue teams are well-trained and well-equipped provide disaster aid and insurance cover
• Conclusion:
- Tectonic hazards are found mainly at plate boundaries. In the Pacific region, as it is densely
populated, it is necessary to adopt different measures to reduce the loss of life and property caused
by these hazards. Setting up monitoring and warning systems is an effective measure to help reduce
losses, but other measures are also necessary
8
4 Explain why tsunamis occur more commonly at convergent plate boundaries than divergent plate
boundaries. Evaluate the effectiveness of planting coastal forests in reducing the losses caused by
tsunamis.
• Introduction
- Tsunami is a series of big sea waves caused by the sudden vertical movement of a large area of
seabed. Most tsunamis (90%) occur at plate boundaries, particularly at convergent plate
boundaries. As tsunamis can cause great destructions to coastal areas, it is important to take
measures to minimize the losses
• Explain why tsunamis occur more commonly at convergent plate boundaries (6 marks) - strong
submarine earthquakes (i.e. those measuring 7 or above on the Richter scale) can generate
tsunamis more easily
- strong submarine earthquakes mainly occur at convergent plate boundaries
- this is because compared with divergent plate boundaries, energy can be built up more easily
and rapidly under compressional force at convergent plate boundaries
- once the energy is released, it may cause vertical displacement of the seabed near the
epicentre. Tsunamis are triggered
- in fact, about 80% to 85% tsunamis are generated at the Pacific rim, where plates mainly
converge
- tsunamis can also be caused by submarine volcanic eruptions
- again, they are stronger/more active at convergent plate boundaries than divergent plate
boundaries
- strong submarine volcanic eruptions occur when the melting of asthenosphere near the
subducted plates forms magma, which rises up the earth’s surface during eruption - when
submarine volcanic eruptions cause vertical displacement of the seabed, tsunamis may be
generated
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of planting coastal forests in reducing the losses caused by tsunamis (6
marks)
- to reduce the losses in the coastal areas caused by tsunamis, woodland reserves or coastal
forests can be developed in the coastal areas
- they reduce the speed of an advancing tsunami as the trees act as barriers
- they also reduce the energy of a tsunami as trees absorb some of the energy
- trees can save lives as people may climb up the trees and wait for rescue
Limitation:
- exceptionally strong tsunamis can destroy these forest
- some coastal areas may have a high land value, which discourages the planting of the forests
Other measures:
- set up a warning system to provide early warnings
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- build sea walls along the coast
- leave the ground floor of structures vacant/use the ground floor as a car park - avoid
development along the coastal belts/build settlement on higher ground - avoid developing
high-risk industries (e.g. the petrochemical industry) as well as rescue and emergency facilities
(e.g. hospitals) in coastal belts
- design evacuation routes with adequate road signs
- carry out evacuation drills regularly
- set up well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams
- provide relevant insurance schemes
• Conclusion
- Tsunamis are more commonly generated at convergent plate boundaries, because they favour the
occurrence of stronger submarine earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. As these boundaries are
usually near coastal areas where population is dense, it is important to take various preventive
measures. Apart from planting coastal forests, other measures are also necessary in order to reduce
the losses from tsunamis
10
5 Explain why losses caused by earthquakes with similar magnitudes vary with countries of different
levels of economic development. Discuss the role of technology in minimizing losses caused by
earthquakes.
• Introduction
- Some countries suffer more from earthquakes than other countries even if the earthquakes have a
similar magnitude. This can be explained by the level of economic development. In general,
technology plays a major role in minimizing losses caused by earthquakes. However, other
measures are also important
• Explanation on how losses caused by earthquakes with similar magnitudes vary with countries of
different levels of economic development (7 marks) - countries with a higher level of economic
development are called more developed countries (MDCs) while those with a lower level of
economic development are called less developed countries (LDCs)
- MDCs have capital and technology to reduce potential losses brought by earthquakes they spend more money on R&D than LDCs
- more money spent on R&D means that earthquakes can be studied in greater depths, and
there will be more precautions and remedial measures
- with technology and capital, MDCs can develop effective monitoring and warning systems,
well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams
- earthquake-prone MDCs have stronger building materials and buildings are of earthquake
proof designs. This helps prevent the collapse of structures
- their people are more prepared for earthquakes as they have a higher education level they are able to take out insurance against earthquakes
- some of these countries even have disaster aid to reduce losses
- many buildings in earthquake-prone LDCs are built by stones, bricks or wood. They cannot
withstand heavy shaking or fires after an earthquake
- their transport networks are often poorly developed. This hinders rescue work - lower
education level in these countries means people are less prepared for earthquakes - they lack
money to set up warning systems and have remedial measures to minimize losses - as their
people are poor, they are unable to afford insurance
• Discussion on the role of technology in minimizing losses caused by earthquakes (5 marks) earthquakes are unavoidable, but technology helps a lot in reducing losses
- with the use of advanced technology, such as seismographs, the occurrence of earthquakes
can be predicted
- this helps issue early warnings for evacuation
- some countries are able to use technology to reduce the intensity of earthquakes
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- good communication technology helps notify more people of earthquake warnings, this helps
people to get prepared before the hazard
- advanced building technology, such as earthquake-proof designs can greatly reduce injuries
and deaths caused by collapsed structures
Limitations:
- the effectiveness depends on accessibility and affordability of technology
- it also depends on government efficiency
- for example, the effectiveness of earthquake-proof designs will be greatly reduced if building
laws are not strictly enforced by the government
Other measures:
- careful land use planning is also important measures, apart from technology - for example, avoid
building facilities with potential dangers, such as nuclear power plants and oil depots in
earthquake-prone areas
- restrict building heights and structure
- establish evacuation route with adequate road signs
- reserve large open spaces for evacuation
- raise people’s awareness of the hazard through education and regular drilling educate people how to react during and after earthquakes
• Conclusion
- Level of economic development determines potential losses caused by earthquakes to a
country. Technology helps reduce losses effectively, but other measures are necessary to provide
effective protection to life and property
12
6 Explain why plate movements at convergent plate boundaries are both beneficial and hazardous to
humans. Discuss whether the decision of staying in tectonic hazard-prone areas is rational.
• Introduction
- Slab pull facilitates collision of plates at convergent plate boundaries. This results in active
volcanism, earthquakes and tsunamis. Convergent plate movement brings both benefits and
tectonic hazards to humans. Decision of staying in tectonic hazard-prone areas can be a rational or
irrational choice (students should state their stance about this point)
• Benefits and hazardous effects brought by convergent plate movement to humans (6 marks)
Benefits:
- volcanism favours the generation of geothermal power
- many metals and minerals in related areas are of great economic value
- example: iron ore is an important raw material for many industries/diamonds are valuable
precious stones
- volcanic ash and weathered solidified lava provide fertile soil for farming
- such as the farmland at the foothill of Mount Mayon in the Philippines
- the beautiful landforms/features such as hot springs/geysers/fold mountains/volcanoes are
scenic spots for tourism
- examples include hot springs in Japan and geysers in Yellowstone National Park in the USA all these bring job opportunities and wealth to local people
Hazardous effects:
- plate movements bring tectonic hazards
- earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis are tectonic hazards commonly found along
convergent plate boundaries
Earthquakes:
- earthquakes are a sudden shaking of the land
- result in loss of life and property
- causes great economic losses
- they may also trigger landslides, avalanches and tsunamis
- aftershocks may cause further loss of life and property
Volcanic eruptions:
- volcanic eruptions are processes by which extremely hot materials are ejected or emitted from an
opening in the earth’s surface
- theses hot materials include lava, volcanic ash and gases
- cause destruction and great economic losses
- molten lava will burn almost everything in its path
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- it destroys crops, houses, vegetation and communication links
- kills and injures people and animals
- mudflows will form when volcanic ash mixes with rainwater. It will bury villages volcanic ash in the air will make people difficult to breathe
- ash in the air will block sunlight, lower visibility and affect traffic
- if a large amount of volcanic ash covers farmland, it may lead to crop failure and therefore
food shortages
- poisonous gases will kill people
- gases may result in acid rain, killing vegetation over a large area
Tsunamis:
- tsunamis are a series of big sea waves triggered by submarine earthquakes, submarine
volcanic eruptions and submarine landslides
- cause great destruction and economic losses
- kill people and animals
- uproot trees
- destroy buildings and structures
- wash away beaches and make coastline more irregular
- sweep heavy objects such as ships inland
- inundate low-lying areas
• Discussion on whether the decision of staying in tectonic hazard-prone areas is rational (6
marks)
Open answer but students should state their decision clearly. The decision they made depends on
how they weigh possible gains and losses from the following considerations:
- social considerations
- economic considerations
- physical considerations
- political considerations
- perception of the risk of hazards
• Conclusion
Convergent plate movements bring both benefits and hazards to humans (Students should restate
their stance in the conclusion)
14
7 Describe the general distribution of tectonic hazards. Explain why tectonic hazard-prone regions
are usually densely populated.
• Introduction
Define the terms ‘hazard’ and ‘tectonic hazards’:
- hazard: an event that threatens human lives and property or causes destruction tectonic hazards: the hazards which are caused by earth movement
- examples: earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis
• General distribution of tectonic hazard-prone regions (6 marks) - they are mostly concentrated
in the belts along plate boundaries
- some tectonic hazards occur along certain kinds of plate boundaries
Earthquakes:
- can be found along all types of plate boundaries
- mostly occur along destructive and conservative plate boundaries
- examples: in Indonesia (destructive plate boundaries) and in California (conservative plate
boundaries)
Volcanic eruptions:
- frequent eruption along the destructive plate boundaries around the Pacific Ocean example: the Pacific Ring of Fire, Mount Fuji, Mount Pinatubo
- fewer eruptions at constructive plate boundaries
- because water pressure at the sea bottom suppresses volcanic activity
- example: Iceland
- rarely occur at conservative plate boundary
- because pressure of magma are difficult to build up
Tsunamis:
- most active at destructive plate boundaries
- example: coastal areas around the Pacific Ocean
• Hazard-prone regions that are far away from plate boundaries (2 marks) - volcanic islands which are
developed from a hot spot
- affected by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
- example: the Hawaiian Islands
- areas, where plates are broken apart by tensional force, experience earthquakes example: eastern Africa
• Reasons for the high population density in tectonic hazard-prone areas (4 marks) - vulcanicity
occurred along the destructive plate boundaries bring about benefits to people
15
- geothermal power as renewable power resource
- valuable metals and minerals for manufacturing
- volcanic ash and weathered solidified lava provide fertile soil for farming
- internal forces create beautiful landforms/features which favour the development of tourism more job opportunities
- example: fold mountains, volcanoes, hot spring, geysers
- some governments have sufficient capital and technology to provide protection, warning,
evacuation and relief work
- most of the populated hazard-prone areas are found on coastal lowlands
- favour farming
- is readily available for constructing buildings and infrastructure
- allow good accessibility with well established communication network
- these areas are favourable for economic development which provides plenty of job
opportunities
- all the above attract people to settle
- therefore, people will choose to stay
• Conclusion
- tectonic hazards are mainly found along plate boundaries
- tectonic hazard-prone regions along the destructive plate boundaries are usually densely
populated
- apart from the benefits provided by tectonic hazard (e.g. volcanic activity), other factors such as
low-lying relief and government factors can also explain the phenomenon
16
8 The impact of tectonic hazards can be reduced if suitable measures are taken. Describe the measures
that help minimize losses caused by tectonic hazards. Discuss whether the above statement is
correct for earthquakes the more developed countries.
• Introduction
- definition of tectonic hazards: the hazards which are caused by earth movement. They
threaten human lives and property
- taking suitable measures help minimize losses of earthquakes
- however, some more developed countries (MDCs) still experience losses
- this can be explain by different factors
• Measures which help minimize the potential losses
Monitoring and warning system:
- for earthquakes: seismographs and satellites
- for volcanic eruptions: instruments are installed to detect signs of imminent activity from the
volcano
- for tsunamis: buoy and tsunami warning systems
Hazard-proof structures:
- for earthquake-prone regions: foundation is sunk deep into the bedrock, houses are built with
shock-proof technology, etc.
- these measures help prevent the collapse of structures
- for eruption-prone regions: building steep-sided roofs to shed the ash
- building barrier to stop the lava flow
- building channel to divert lava flow from settlement
- for tsunami-prone regions: building a sea wall to protect the coast against tsunamis building an elevated platform for tsunami evacuation
Careful land use planning:
- avoid building facilities with potential dangers
- such as nuclear plants and oil depots
- establish an evacuation route with adequate road signs
- for earthquake-prone regions: large open spaces, schools and indoor stadiums for evacuation or
shelter centres
- for volcanic areas: volcanic hazard-zone maps
- for tsunami-prone areas: short evacuation routes leading to higher ground
Education and regular drills:
- increase the awareness of people
Well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams:
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- help reduce the death tolls caused by the hazards, disease, dirty water and starvation, etc
Other measures:
- examples: disaster aid and insurance
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of measures for reducing losses during earthquakes in the MDCs earthquakes that occurred in MDCs tend to cause fewer deaths and injuries - example:
earthquakes in Japan in recent years seldom caused more than 10 deaths - this is the result from
the various suitable measures in Japan, e.g. earthquake drills, hazard
resistant structures, appropriate evacuation plans, well-trained and well-equipped rescue
teams, monitoring and warning systems
• Exceptions
- the higher magnitude, the greater the destruction
- when the epicentre is in a built-up area, the destruction can be very serious - example: 1995
earthquake in Kobe, Japan, with a magnitude of 7.2 on the Richter scale, caused over 6,000
people died
- the longer the duration, the less the resistance of structures to the hazard
- the shorter the distance from the sources of destruction, the more the destruction - destruction
will be greater at midnight and at rush hour with heavy pedestrian and traffic flow - example:
2009 earthquake in central Italy, with a magnitude of 6.3 on the Richter scale, happened at 3 am.
Nearly 300 people died and over 1,000 people injured
• Conclusion
The statement quoted is partly correct. The MDCs have the ability to reduce potential losses by
implementing the measures mentioned. Yet, some uncontrollable factors may lower the
effectiveness of them.
18
9 Losses caused by earthquakes with similar magnitudes vary with countries of different levels of
economic development.
Explain the above statement. Discuss the role of technology in minimizing losses caused by
earthquakes.
• Introduction
- some countries suffer more from earthquakes than other countries even if the
earthquakes have a similar magnitude
- level of economic development affects a country’s vulnerability to earthquake
destruction
- technology plays a major role in minimizing losses caused by earthquakes however, other measures are also important
• Explanation on how losses caused by earthquakes with similar magnitudes vary with
countries of different levels of economic development
-countries with a higher level of economic development are called more developed countries
(MDCs) while those with a lower level of economic development are called less developed
countries (LDCs)
- MDCs have capital and technology to reduce potential losses brought by earthquakes they spend more money on R&D than LDCs
- they normally spend 1–3% of their GDP on R&D while LDCs spend less than 1% of
their GDP on R&D
- more money spent on R&D means that earthquakes can be studied in greater depths, and
there will be more precautions and remedial measures
- they have technology and capital to develop effective monitoring and warning systems they have capital to develop well-trained and well-equipped rescue teams earthquake-prone MDCs have stronger building materials and buildings are of
earthquake-proof designs. This helps prevent the collapse of structures
- their people are more prepared for earthquakes as they have a higher education level they are able to take out insurance against earthquakes
- some of these countries even have disaster aid to reduce losses
- many buildings in earthquake-prone LDCs are built by stones, bricks or wood. They
cannot withstand heavy shaking or fires after an earthquake
- their transport network is often poorly developed. This hinders rescue work - lower
education level in these countries means people are less prepared for earthquakes - they are
lack of money to set up warning systems and have remedial measures to minimize losses
19
- as their people are poor, they are unable to afford insurance
• Discussion on the role of technology in minimizing losses caused by earthquakes earthquakes are unavoidable, but technology helps a lot in reducing losses - with
the use of advanced technology, such as seismographs, the occurrence of
earthquakes can be predicted
- this helps issue early warnings for evacuation
- some countries are able to use technology to reduce the intensity of earthquakes - good
communication technology helps notify more people of earthquake warnings, this helps
people to get prepared before the hazard
- advanced building technology, such as shock-proof designs can greatly reduce injuries
and deaths caused by collapsed structures
- however, the effectiveness of technology in reducing losses depends on accessibility and
affordability of technology
- it also depends on government efficiency
- for example, the effectiveness of shock-proof designs is greatly reduced if building laws
are not enforced by the government
- careful land use planning is also important measures, apart from technology - for
example, avoid building facilities with potential dangers, such as nuclear power plants
and oil depots in earthquake-prone areas
- restrict building heights and structure
- establish evacuation route with adequate road signs
- reserve large open spaces for evacuation
- raise people’s awareness of the hazard through education and regular drilling educate people how to react during and after earthquakes also helps to minimize
potential losses
• Conclusion
- level of economic development determines potential losses caused by earthquakes to a
country
- technology helps reduce losses but it is not the sole measure
20
10 Plate movements are both beneficial and hazardous to humans.
With reference to convergent plate movement, explain the above statement. Discuss whether
a citizen who live a tectonic hazard-prone area would choose to move.
• Introduction
- plate movements are caused by the movement of convection currents of magma in the
asthenosphere
- when convection currents converge, plates are dragged towards each other and a
destructive plate boundary is formed
- convergent plate movement results in active vulcanicity, earthquakes and tsunamis along
destructive plate boundary
- convergent plate movement brings both benefits and tectonic hazards to humans state the decision to move or stay in tectonic hazard-prone area
• Benefits and tectonic hazards brought by convergent plate movement to humans
Benefits:
- vulcanicity occurred along the destructive plate boundaries favours the generation of
geothermal power
- many metals and minerals found along the destructive plate boundaries are of great
economic value
- iron ore, for example, is an important raw material for many industries/diamonds are
valuable precious stones
- volcanic ash and weathered solidified lava provide fertile soil for farming such as the farmland at the foothill of Mount Mayon in the Philippines
- the beautiful landforms/features such as hot springs/geysers/fold mountains/volcanoes
are scenic spots for tourism
- examples include hot springs in Japan and geysers in Yellowstone National Park in the
USA
- all these bring job opportunities and wealth to local people
Tectonic hazards:
- plate movements bring tectonic hazards
- earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and tsunamis are tectonic hazards commonly found
along destructive plate boundaries
Earthquakes:
- earthquakes are a sudden shaking of the land
- it occurs when the pressure exceeds the strength of the rock
- the rock displaces and the land then shakes
21
- earthquakes often result in loss of life and property
- they may damage buildings, bridges, dams and other structures
- collapsing buildings and structures injure and kill people
- causes great economic losses
- they may cause the breaking of underground pipes and power lines, leading to fires they may also trigger landslides, avalanches and tsunamis
- aftershocks may cause further loss of life and property
Volcanic eruptions:
- volcanic eruptions are processes by which extremely hot materials are ejected or
emitted from an opening in the earth’s surface
- lava, volcanic ash and gases ejected from volcanic eruptions will cause destruction
and great economic losses
- molten lava will burn almost everything in its path
- it will destroys crops, houses, vegetation and communication links
- causes great economic loss
- kills and injures people and animals
- mudflows will form when volcanic ash mixes with rainwater. It will bury villages volcanic ash in the air will make people difficult to breathe
- ash in the air will block sunlight, lower visibility and affect traffic
- if a large amount of volcanic ash covers farmland, it may lead to crop failure and
hence food shortages
- poisonous gases will kill people
- gases may result in acid rain, killing vegetation over a large area
Tsunamis:
- tsunamis refer to a series of big sea waves
- they are caused by the sudden vertical movement of a large area of sea floor such as
submarine earthquakes, submarine volcanic eruptions and submarine landslides tsunamis can cause great destruction and economic losses by:
- drowning people and animals
- uprooting trees
- destroying buildings and structures
- washing away beaches
- sweeping heavy objects such as ships inland
• Justification of the decision Open answer but students should state their decision clearly. The
decision they made depends on how they weigh possible gains and losses, which in turn
result from the following
22
considerations:
- social considerations
- economic considerations
- physical considerations
- political considerations
- perception of the risk of hazards
• Conclusion
- plate movements bring both benefits and hazards to humans
- the decision on whether to move or stay in hazard-prone area is usually subjective and
depends on how people evaluate possible gains and losses
23
11 Explain how plate movements form volcanoes. Discuss the importance of plate movements in
mountain building.
• Introduction
- the earth’s surface is covered by plates
- forces generated from within the earth cause plate movements
- plate movements result in different mountains such as volcanoes, fold mountains and block
mountains
• Explain how plate movements formation volcanoes - when plates move apart or move towards
each other, (extrusive) vulcanicity occurs - at constructive plate boundaries, plates move
apart and cracks form in the plates - if cracks develop and extend downward to the magma
chamber, the pressure of magma is released through the cracks. Magma rises up
- cracks also form in the plates at destructive plate boundaries where plates collide - when
plates subduct into the astenosphere and melt into magma, this adds pressure to the
magma chamber
- during a vent eruption, if the pressure of the rising magma is great enough, it may eject through
a crack in the plates
- magma reaches the earth’s surface as lava
- lava cools and solidifies into rocks around the crack
- besides lava, ash, broken rock fragments and gases also erupt through the vent to the
earth’s surface
- as these erupted materials build up in height, a volcano is formed
• Discuss the importance of plate movements in mountain building
- besides volcanoes caused by vent eruptions, lava may well up through the cracks onto
the earth’s surface in the form of fissure eruption
- sheets of lava flow pile up to form a lava plateau, e.g. the Deccan Plateau in India - apart
from extrusive vulcanicity, folding and faulting are another two major processes of mountain
building, which are related to plate movements too
- at destructive plate boundaries, plates move towards each other may produce
compressinoal force
- rocks at the plate boundaries are bent and folded up into fold mountains, e.g. the
Himalayas and the Andes
- compressional force may displace rocks and result in reverse fault too
- the central block between two faults would be squeezed up as a block mountain
24
- in contrast, tensional force may be resulted when plates move apart tensional force may displace rocks and result in normal fault
- side blocks would sink along the faults and the central block is left as the block
mountain
- however, not all mountain building is related to plate movements
- the building of some volcanoes is related to hot spots, e.g. the Hawaiian Islands provided that there are cracks in the plates and there is enough pressure at a hot spot,
magma from the hot spot may rise up through the cracks and form volcanoes
• Conclusion
- although not all mountains in the world are formed by plate movements - the
formation of fold mountains, block mountains and 95% of the world’s known
volcanoes are related to plate movements
- to a very large extent, plate movements play a very important role in the formation of
various mountains, including volcanoes, fold mountains and block mountains
25
12 Explain why tsunami hazards are more common along a destructive plate boundary than a
constructive plate boundary. Evaluate the effectiveness of measures that can be taken to
minimize the losses caused by tsunamis.
• Introduction
- a hazard is an event that threatens or causes destruction to human lives and property - tsunami
is a series of big sea waves caused by the sudden vertical movement of a large area of sea floor
- most tsunamis (90%) occur at plate boundaries, particularly at destructive plate
boundaries
- as tsunamis may become hazards threatening human life and property, it is important to take
measures to minimize the losses
• Explain why tsunami hazards are more common along a destructive plate boundary
- strong earthquakes ( i.e. those measuring 7 or above on the Richter scale) can generate
tsunamis more easily
- strong earthquakes mainly occur at destructive plate boundaries
- this is because compared with constructive plate boundaries, pressure can be built up more
easily and rapidly under compressional force at destructive plate boundaries - once the
pressure/energy is released as submarine earthquakes, it may cause vertical displacement of
the sea floor near the epicentre. Tsunamis are triggered
- in fact, about 80–85% tsunamis happen at the Pacific Ring of Fire, which is a zone of
convergence
- tsunamis can also be caused by submarine volcanic eruptions, as well as submarine
landslides in coastal areas
- again, they are stronger/more active at destructive plate boundaries than constructive plate
boundaries
- not only because of much pressure built up in the crust under compressional force - but
also due to much magma pressure caused by the melting of subducted plates - stronger
submarine volcanic eruptions/landslides trigger stronger tsunamis - besides, destructive
plate boundaries are usually found at the coastal areas where population is high
- tsunamis generated there can arrive at coastal settlements more easily and result in
hazards
- in contrast, constructive plate boundaries are usually located at the middle of an
ocean/far away from coastal areas
26
• Measures that can minimize the losses caused by tsunamis
- set up a warning system to provide early warnings
- build sea walls along the coast
- leave the ground floor of structures vacant/use the ground floor as a car park - avoid
development along the coastal belts/build settlement on higher ground - avoid developing
high-risk industries (e.g. the petrochemical industry) as well as rescue and emergency
facilities (e.g. hospitals) in coastal belts
- design evacuation routes with adequate road signs
- carry out evacuation drills regularly
- set up well-trained and well-quipped rescue teams
- provide relevant insurance schemes
• Conclusion
- most tsunamis in the world are generated at destructive plate boundaries - because of stronger
submarine earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and landslides - as these boundaries are usually near
coastal areas where population is dense - it is important to take various preventive measures and
carry out good land use planning in order to reduce the losses from tsunami hazards
27
Unit 2
1 Explain why most of the early settlements are found along rivers. Evaluate the effectiveness of land
use zoning in managing flooding on flood plains.
Introduction
Early settlers liked to settle along rivers because rivers are beneficial to human activities. However, the risk
of flooding along rivers is high, particularly on flood plains. Flooding often leads to loss of lives and
properties. In order to prevent flooding and sustain human activities, flood control measures are necessary.
Reasons why most of the early settlements are found along rivers (6 marks) ‧ rivers provide freshwater
for various uses
‧ such as for drinking, irrigation, domestic and industrial uses
‧ rivers provide fish for people
‧ some lakes along rivers can be converted for freshwater fishery
‧ flood plains formed by regular flooding provide fertile soil for farming
‧ land productivity of flood plains is high
‧ rivers facilitate the transport of goods and people
‧ some rivers are important inland navigation network
‧ for example, the Chang Jiang in China
‧ cost of river transport is low
‧ the lower course provides low-lying relief for housing/settlements
Effectiveness of land use zoning in managing flooding on flood plains (6 marks) • flooding occurs
when water overflows the banks and spills out across adjacent land • during flooding, sediment
carried by the flood water is deposited on the valley floor • repeated flooding and deposition build up
a large flat area called a flood plain ‧ land use zoning is a kind of soft strategies of flood control
‧ areas on flood plains are divided into different zones according to their risk of flooding ‧
development is prohibited in places where risk of flooding is high
‧ the areas can only be used as pastureland or open ground
‧ in areas with moderate risk of flooding, land use is restricted to farming only
‧ in areas further away from the river which have a low risk of flooding, settlement is allowed ‧
such land use zoning can minimize losses caused by flooding
‧ it also helps balance development and preservation of natural resources on flood plains ‧
however, it cannot minimize the occurrence of flooding
‧ it should match with other suitable measures to make flood management effective ‧
such as dredging/channelisation/building dykes/retention ponds/diversion
channels/afforestation/monitoring
‧ land use zoning is difficult to carry out in areas which are already developed
‧ costs of relocation will be very high
28
‧ enforcement of land use regulations is necessary
‧ needs high technology to assess flood risks and construct flood-hazard maps
Conclusion
Rivers provide many advantages to people and attract settlements. However, flooding is a threat particularly
to people living on flood plains. Land use zoning helps protect life and property of people, but in order to
manage flooding effectively, other flood control measures should be adopted.
29
2 Describe the erosional and depositional processes at the lower course of a river. Explain how the
resulted landform at the lower course may benefit farming activities.
• Introduction
- major factors controlling fluvial erosion and deposition: velocity/speed of water flow and
amount of channel water
• Description of the erosional process at the lower course of a river
- volume of channel water: large
- speed of water flow: high, because the large amount of water and smooth river bed more than
compensate for the reduction in speed due to gentle slopes
- vertical erosion is rare because of the gentle gradient
- lateral erosion is active at the outer banks of the river
• Description of the depositional process at the lower course of a river
- deposition occurs when river energy drops
- deposition occurs at the river mouth
- and the inner banks of the river
- where velocity is low
- at the river bed during the dry season
- when flood water overflows from the channel and inundates the valleys
- gentle slope favours deposition of sediments
- large amount of load, mostly fine and rounded, brought from the upper and middle courses deposition takes place according to the size of the load: sorting process
- forms stratification
• Benefits brought to farming activities
- because of the low relief and the depositional processes at the lower course of a river, several
landforms formed which benefit farming activities, they are flood plains, deltas and
distributaries
- flood plain and delta provide large pieces of flat land which favours farming activities alluvial soils on the flood plain and delta is fertile
- the rich nutrients leads to high productivity of the land
- the distributaries in the area provide irrigation water
• Conclusion
- dominates by deposition but there are also some erosional processes
- flood plains and deltas are favourable places for farming
- however, frequent floods may occur which cause loss of life and property
30
3 Explain how deforestation in a drainage basin increases the risk of flooding. Discuss the pros and
cons of building dams and reservoirs in controlling flooding.
• Introduction
People often clear forests in a drainage basin to obtain land for development. In some areas,
people cut trees for fuelwood. Deforestation will increase the risk of flooding by shortening the
time lag and reducing the water-holding capacity of a river channel.
• Explanation on how deforestation increases the risk of flooding (6 marks) - deforestation
reduces interception and infiltration
- increase in overland flow
- increase in surface run-off
- rainwater reaches the river channel within a short time/short time lag
- amount of water in the river channel/discharge increases rapidly
- lack of vegetation to bind the soil together
- increase in soil erosion
- more soil/sediment is washed into the river channel
- leads to silting
- raises the river bed
- reduces the water-holding capacity of the river channel
- water level rises and overflows the banks
• Pros and cons of building dams and reservoirs in controlling flooding (6 marks) Pros:
- effective in regulating water flow
- water can be stored in the reservoir behind the dam
- lower peak discharge
- so that the places downstream can be safe from flooding
Cons:
- expensive
- reduces sediment supply to the downstream areas
- lowers soil fertility and therefore land productivity in the downstream areas degrades fish habitats in the downstream areas
- blocks fish from migrating and makes them unable to reproduce
- inundates settlements/historical sites/farmlands/wildlife habitats behind the dam people have to relocate to other areas
- huge resettlement cost
31
- dam may collapse and trigger catastrophic flooding in the downstream area •
Conclusion
Deforestation in a drainage basin increases the risk of flooding by shortening the time lag and
reducing the water-holding capacity of a river channel. To control flood, people build dams and
reservoirs. This measure is effective, but may cause socio-economic and environmental
problems.
32
4 Discuss the need to implement river and coastal management. Evaluate the efficiency of hard and
soft engineering strategies.
• Introduction
- the need of river and coastal management to solve the problems brought by flooding and
coastal erosion
• Discuss the need to implement river and coastal management
- people have been living along rivers and coasts for thousands of years
- important to implement river and coastal management for the continuance of human
activities along rivers and coasts
- river management can help minimize the loss of life and property caused by water problems
such as flooding
- reduces harmful effects brought by people on the environment such as pollution and
deforestation
- wave erosion may cause loss of life and property in coastal areas
- loss of sand caused by wave erosion at the beach may reduce recreational grounds for people and
affect the commercial value of some seaside tourist spots
• Examples of hard and soft engineering strategies
- hard engineering strategies for river management: dams, reservoirs, channel straightening
and dredging
- soft engineering strategies for river management: land use zoning, lakes and wetlands
restoration and afforestation
- hard engineering strategies for coast management: groynes, breakwaters, sea walls and rock
armour
- soft engineering strategies for coast management: beach nourishment, mangrove planting,
coral reef planting, vegetation planting, relocation and land use zoning
• Assess the efficiency of hard and soft engineering strategies - both hard and soft engineering
strategies have their advantages and limitations - hard engineering strategies can solve flood
problems or coastal erosion in a short period of time
- but it is not long-lasting and sustainable
- they often involves special construction techniques
- they are expensive to build and maintain
- they may cause ecological problems
- they may cause erosion and problems elsewhere as coastal and river systems are dynamic they destroy the natural beauty of the environment
33
- soft engineering strategies work with natural processes, its damage to the natural
environment is little and are considered as more sustainable
- they conserve the wildlife and wildlife habitats
- the cost is lower
- they take a long period of time to see the effectiveness
- they involve land use planning/zoning or relocation
- compensation for relocation may be very high
- they preserve the natural beauty of fluvial and coastal environments
• Conclusion
- the fluvial and coastal environments are difficult to manage, a solution to this may become a
problem to others
- it is a continuing challenge to manage these environments as the environments keep on
changing
- sustainable management may be a solution
34
5 Describe and explain the characteristics of upper course. Explain how people can make use of the
upper course of a river.
• Introduction
- rivers are usually divided into three sections
- namely the upper course, the middle course and the lower course
- each section has its own characteristics
- people make use of different river sections with respect to these characteristics •
Description and explanation of the characteristics of upper course
- the gradient of river channel is steep
- channel path is relatively straight, with bends around obstacles
- channel is small and shallow
- large and angular rocks and boulders are found in the channel
- river bed is rough
- the catchment area at the upper course is small
- the amount of discharge is small
- the energy of river is limited
- much of the energy is used to overcome friction
- energy left for transportation is little
- vertical erosion is the major fluvial process at the upper course
- valley is narrow and steep-sided
- in deep v-shaped
- headward erosion increases the valley in length
- the steep gradient and weak energy of river create many fluvial features at the upper
course
- for example, interlocking spurs, rapids, gorges, waterfalls, plunge pools and potholes •
Human activities found at the upper course
- steep gradient of upper course of river provides great energy
- this favours the generation of hydroelectric power (HEP)
- therefore, HEP plants are often constructed at the upper course
- for example: the HEP plants at the Sanxia Dam at the upper course of the Chang Jiang river forms an inland river navigation network
- the shallow and narrow river channel at the upper course provides a cheap transport
route for timber
- manufacturing industries are developed at the river-side location
35
- because some industries need to use large amount of water
- iron and steel industry in Panzhihua is an example of industry developed at the upper
course of the Chang Jiang
- some major industrial centres are also found at the upper course of the Chang Jiang such as Chongqing and Chengdu
- beautiful landscape/landforms at the upper course are tourist attractions such as the Sanxia/Leshan Giant Buddha
- all the above attract people to settle at the sides of the upper course
• Conclusion
- the limited energy of river creates different fluvial erosional features and channel
characteristics
- these have become benefits to people which help them make a living and attract them to
settle there
36
6 Describe the physical factors that control the erosive power of waves. Explain how human
activities may affect the erosive power of waves.
• Introduction
- the greater the energy, the greater erosive power of waves
- several physical factors influence the erosive power of waves
- in order to protect the coast from erosion, human may apply various methods to lessen the
erosive power of waves
• Factors resulting in high erosive power of waves
Marine factors:
- long fetch/long distance of open water that a wave has travelled from its beginning to the
coast without land obstruction
- high wind speed
- long duration of wind from a particular direction
- the gradient of shore where the waves break at: a steeply sloping bottom favours the
creation of plunging breaker, causing erosion
- the tidal range: narrow tidal range has a high rate of erosion
Atmospheric factors:
- variations in rainfall and air temperature affect the rate of weathering on rocks which weakens the structure of rocks
- therefore speeding up the rate of wave erosion
- intense low pressure with extremely high wind speed may form storm surges
Geological and relief factors:
- resistance of rocks: low resistant rocks are eroded more quickly by waves example: chalk
- presence of faults/lines of weakness: rocks with more faults/bedding planes/lines of
weakness are less resistant to wave erosion
- the shape of the coastline: headlands are prone to wave erosion because of wave
refraction
• Human factors affecting the erosive power of waves
- humans adopt some structural engineering methods along the coast
- to protect the coast from active wave erosion
- constructing breakwaters and sea walls to reflect the energy of incoming waves placing rock armour at the coastline to soak up the wave energy
- the following soft approaches are also adopted to stabilize beaches and coastlines from
wave erosion
37
- planting mangrove
- growing coral reef
- planting vegetation on cliffs
• Conclusion
- the erosive power of waves is controlled by three main physical factors - but
human interference on the coast can affect the erosive power of waves
38
Unit 3
1 Explain the trend of having more iron and steel works established in central and western China in
recent decade. Discuss the socio-economic and environmental impact of this trend to these regions.
Introduction
In recent decade, an increasing number of iron and steel works have been established in central and western
China. The decision of the central government to develop these regions is the major force of developing the
iron and steel industry there. Since the iron and steel industry is the ‘backbone of all industry’, the
development of such industry may boost the urban and industrial development in central and western China.
However, the increasing number of iron and steel works may cause environmental problems there. Factors
leading to the establishment of more iron and steel works in central and western China • the central
government has introduced the ‘Go West’ policy since the early 2000s in order to facilitate the
development of central and western China
• since the iron and steel industry is regarded as the ‘backbone of all industry’ • the iron and
steel industry has played an important role in boosting the urban and industrial development in
these regions
• under the ‘Go West’ policy, industries from eastern China are encouraged to move westwards • the policy
has created a large demand for iron and steel products from the construction sector and iron and steel
consuming industries
• saving transport costs by locating the iron and steel works near the market in these regions • this can
also reduce the dependence on the iron and steel works in the east, which is far away from these
regions
• the iron and steel industry requires a large amount of iron ore and coal as raw materials and power
supply
• most coalfields and ore fields can be found in central and western China
• these materials are heavy and bulky
• therefore, by locating the plants near the sources of raw materials and power, transport costs can be
greatly reduced
• with the help of more efficient transport network developed in recent decade, the iron and steel
enterprises can import iron ore and coal of better quality from other countries
Socio-economic and environmental impact of setting up more iron and steel works in central and
western China
Socio-economic impact
Positive:
• create job opportunities
• facilitate the growth of other manufacturing industries (in particular, the iron and steel consuming
industries)
39
• more people will shift from the primary sector to the secondary sector
• causing a restructuring of the economy
• more money will be available for spending in local shops, and on local goods and services •
boost the local economy
• increase tax revenue of the local governments
• more money will be available for improving the infrastructure
• further attract investors to set up more industries there
• the ‘multiplier effect’ will promote further growth of the economy in central and western China •
thus improving the living standard of people there
Negative:
• more people migrate to central and western China because of more job opportunities •
means a higher demand for social facilities, e.g. housing, health care
• this puts burden to local society
• fewer people work in the primary sector
• there may not be enough farm labour
• may need to import food/rely on food transported from other provinces
• put pressure to other provinces
Environmental impact
Negative:
• setting up more iron and steel works in central and western China may upset the environment there • as coal
is the source of power and a major raw material of the iron and steel industry • burning coal releases a large
amount of air pollutants such as sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX)
• leading to smog, acid rain and reduced visibility
• air pollution will adversely affect human health and the natural environment in central and western
China
• sewage and waste from these production plants may cause water and solid waste pollution there
Positive:
• with advanced technology, new iron and steel works are built with environmental friendly technology •
better land use planning helps minimize the possible negative impact
• e.g. building more parks/green space, separation of the iron and steel works and residential areas
Conclusion
An increasing number of iron and steel works have been established in central and western China in line with
the ‘Go West’ policy of the central government. Although the development of the iron and steel industry in
these regions can help promote the economic growth there, the environment could be upset if the central
government does not have a careful planning.
40
2 Describe the location factors of setting up the headquarters in Hong Kong even though most Hong
Kong manufacturing firms have moved their production operations to the mainland. Evaluate the
feasibility of moving the production operations back to Hong Kong in recent years.
• Introduction
- Most manufacturers in Hong Kong have chosen to move their production operations to the
mainland of China as to lower production costs. However, there are favourable factors in Hong
Kong for the manufacturers to establish their headquarters locally
• Location factors for the Hong Kong manufacturers to set up their headquarters in Hong Kong (6
marks)
- headquarters is the administration centre of a firm which is responsible for formulating
business strategies and solving business problems
- because of its rich trading experience and high education levels, Hong Kong has a good
supply of high quality managerial and financial professionals
- politically stable and secure
- efficient and transparent government
- free flow of information
- a well-established legal/financial system
- simple tax system with low rates
- free market/economy
- efficient telecommunication facilities allow easy and frequent communications with the
business partners
- frequent international flights to a wide range of destinations
- enables people all over the world to come to the city for business trips easily proximity to the mainland of China
- the road and rail networks are well-connected with the mainland
- the major manufacturing centres in the Zhujiang Delta Region (ZDR) can be reached
within one-day travel distance from Hong Kong
• Feasibility of moving the production operations back to Hong Kong (6 marks) Feasible
- some high value-added industries can move back to Hong Kong to cover the high
production costs here
- e.g. making electronic toys and high quality fashions
- the production of high-end products requires precise skills and high levels of technology/
good designs
- labour in Hong Kong are with higher quality and productivity
41
- high education and technological levels
- the brand of ‘made in Hong Kong’ adds much value to the finished products - compared
with the growth rates in other areas such as the Zhujiang Delta Region, salary levels of the
manufacturing workers in Hong Kong are stable over the past decade - vacant flatted
industrial buildings are available for the factories
- because of the higher levels of security and labour quality, there is a better protection on the
intellectual property in Hong Kong
Not feasible/Limitations
- difficult for low value-added/labour-intensive industries to move back
- e.g. making plastic toys and cheap fashions
- high labour costs
- high land prices/rent
- strict environmental regulations
- face keen competition from the mainland and the less developed countries in south-east
Asia
- may not attract the high-tech industries to move back
- most manufacturing firms in Hong Kong are small and medium enterprises (SMEs). It is
hard for them to have a large investment in research and development (R&D) to produce high
value-added products
- in fact, the share of expenditure on R&D to GDP in Hong Kong is low even in Asia (less
than 1%)
- compared with other more developed countries such as South Korea, government’s
support on the IT/creative industries is limited
- face keen competition from the well-established innovators in the more developed
countries, e.g. the USA and Japan
• Conclusion
- Although the production operations of the low value-added manufacturing industries have
been moved away from Hong Kong to the low-cost locations, tthere are still favourable
location factors for Hong Kong to keep the headquarters of the firms. It is more feasible for the
high value-added production operations to move back to Hong Kong, as the profits made can
cover the high production costs. However, adequate support from the government is also
important to foster the local industrial development
42
3 Contrast the socio-economic and operation factors of the IT industry at the development and
maturity stages. Discuss whether India is a favourable place for the IT firms in the USA to
outsource their software development process.
• Introduction
- At the development stage, the IT industry focuses on research and development (R&D). At
the maturity stage, the IT industry is mainly engaged in standardized production. Both stages
have different location requirements
• Contrast of the location factors of the IT industry at the development and maturity stages (6
marks)
Socio-economic factors
- at the development stage, regions where the government provides financial support on
R&D
- and the government policies which maintain a favourable business climate and an
innovative culture within the community are preferable
- at the maturity stage, regions with governments providing good infrastructure and
amenities are preferable
- good access to venture capital is required to support innovation at the development stage large amount of foreign direct investment (FDI) is required to set up factories overseas at the
maturity stage
- good access to technology and innovation at the development stage
- i.e. locate near universities and research institutes
- at the maturity stage, it is preferred to locate in the regions which are ready to receive
transferred technology from high-technology regions at the maturity stage
Operation factors
- both stages require different types of labour
- good access to researchers, scientists or technicians in order to carry out R&D at the
development stage
- high-wage labour is required in pilot production of products
- the more developed regions/countries are more preferable locations
- in the maturity stage, good access to large pools of cheap and semi-skilled labour for
standardized production work is necessary
- the less developed regions/countries are more preferable locations
• Justification on whether India is a favourable place for the IT firms in the USA to outsource their
software development process (6 marks) Favourable factors
- abundant labour with high education levels
43
- specializing in the field of engineering and technology
- low labour costs
- e.g. the salary of a software developer in India is about one tenth of that of the USA labour with high English proficiency
- nice environment with green areas in the IT industrial clusters
- e.g. Bangalore, which is known as the ‘Garden City of India’, has lots of parks and public
areas
- India and the USA are located in different time zones
- the time difference between the two countries helps save time costs, i.e. when staff in the
USA stop working in the evening, the staff in India start working
- well-developed telecommunication systems
- e.g. high-speed internet access and computer networks in the high-tech industrial parks facilitate long-distance communication between the headquarters in the USA and the
branch offices in India
- favourable government policies
- e.g. tax incentives/tax holiday
- active promotion of Bangalore’s city image as the centre of software development centre by
the Indian government
- as a measure to attract FDI
Unfavourable factors
- India is located far away from the USA
- costly and time-consuming for the managerial and technical staff to travel between the two
countries
- far way from the major markets of IT products, i.e. the more developed countries less responsive to the recent market trend
- different culture
- social unrest, e.g. conflict between different social classes under the caste system corruption
• Conclusion
- The IT firms in the USA can tap the cheap and quality labour force in India by
outsourcing the software development process there. This helps lower production costs
during the development stage. However, the physical distance from the USA and the
difference in social and cultural aspects may discourage foreign investment
44
4 Assess whether market forces are the dominant factor changing the location of the iron and steel
industry in China since the 1980s. Explain why some iron and steel works still remain at their
present locations despite there are advantages in some new sites.
• Introduction
- Since the 1980s, the iron and steel industry in China has changed from raw material- and
power-oriented to market-oriented, with more and more plants locating in coastal cities.
Market forces play an increasingly important role in this aspect. However, the central
government and technological advancements also play a role. In spite of these changes in
location factors, some iron and steel works choose to stay at their present locations for a
number of reasons
• Assess the influence of market forces on changing the location of the iron and steel industry in
China since the 1980s
The ways that market forces affect the industrial location
- the coastal cities are large markets for the iron and steel industry
- iron and steel works are built near these cities
- can respond to the market (e.g. iron and steel consuming industries) in these cities more
quickly
- and save the transport costs of finished products/steel to the markets
- new iron and steel production bases have been setting up in the south
- e.g. Zhanjiang in Guangdong and Fangchenggang in Guangxi
- to satisfy the growing demand for high-end steel products in the coastal cities
Other factors affecting the industrial location
- government policies play an important role in determining the industrial location - since the
1980s, the central government has adopted the policy of ‘having some regions developed
first’
- coastal regions have been chosen for such purpose
- modern iron and steel works have been set up there to provide steel products for rapid
industrialization and urban development
- since the early 2000s, the central government has implemented the ‘Go West’ policy - as
the ‘backbone of all industry’, new iron and steel production bases have been built in
central and western China
- in order to provide steel products and boost the urban and industrial development there the new iron and steel bases in the south are developed under the central government’s
approval
- advancements in technology contribute to the change in the industrial location too
45
- large vessels and trains can carry a larger amount of raw materials and steel products in
one go
- this lowers the transport costs per unit of raw materials and steel products new furnaces can use less iron ore and coal to produce a unit of steel
- the location of iron and steel works can no longer be close to the sources of raw materials
and power resources
- occurrence of bulk carriers also allows to transport imported raw materials and power
resources from overseas at lower prices
- this facilitates iron and steel works to locate near coastal ports/cities
- scrap iron and steel can be used as substitutes for raw materials
- as the coastal cities are major sources of scrap iron and steel, it is economical to locate
iron and steel works near these large cities
• Reasons for some iron and steel works remain in their present locations despite there are
advantages in some new sites
- this phenomenon is called industrial inertia
- e.g. the production base of the Anshan Iron and Steel Group in Liaoning and the iron and
steel works in Sheffield in the UK
- high cost of relocation as equipment is heavy and bulky/machinery is difficult to move - a
pool of skilled labour at the present location
- training new labour is costly and time-consuming
- enjoys agglomeration economies
- well-developed infrastructure such as roads, water and electricity supply at the present
location
- established good relationships with suppliers and other business sectors proximity to existing markets
- market reputation
- personal preferences
• Conclusion
- Although market forces have been important in determining the location of the iron and
steel industry in China since the 1980s, government policies and technological
advancements in particular also play a dominant role. This is because the locations of major
iron and steel centres have to be in line with the government’s plan. Besides, industrial
inertia is also a factor affecting the location of some iron and steel works
46
5 Account for the reasons of an IT multinational firm to adopt multi-point production. Discuss the
impact of this production mode on the less developed countries.
• Introduction
- Multinational firms appear when globalization becomes a trend in the world’s economies.
Most of these firms adopt the mode of multi-point production which helps make more profit
and reduce production costs. However, this mode of production has both positive and negative
impact on the less developed countries
• Reasons for adopting multi-point production by IT multinational firms (6 marks) - the IT
industry is R&D intensive at the development stage
- a large amount of researchers, scientists or technicians are required
- at the maturity stage, production processes become standardized and are labour-intensive IT multinational firms tend to have their headquarters and R&D centres in the more
developed countries, where adequate supply of venture capital, managerial professionals,
scientists and IT technicians are found
- besides, technological levels are higher in the more developed countries
- intellectual protection in the more developed countries is better too
- examples of famous IT firms in Silicon Valley: Hewlett-Packard (HP), Apple
Incorporation
- in contrast, standardized production processes are usually carried out in less developed
countries through foreign direct investment (FDI)/outsourcing/licensing
- this is because the less developed countries have abundant supply of semi-skilled and
unskilled labour
- low labour costs
- low land price/land rent
- favourable government policies such as tax benefits, less stringent pollution control this helps reduce production costs so as to maximize profits
• Impact of multi-point production mode on the less developed countries (6 marks) Positive
impact
- increases job opportunities
- increases the revenue of the local government
- improves and increases social amenities and services
- improves transport/communication/logistic services
- improves education level
- improves living standard of local people
- multiplier effect
47
- improves social stability
- improves technological level
Negative impact
- causes environmental pollution since the manufacturing of IT products involves the use of
toxic chemicals
- e.g. mercury used for making LCD screens will pollute water if not treated properly over-exploits local natural resources
- workers are often forced to work in poor working conditions and long hours/exploitation of
workers
- leads to the decline of small local industries, as local companies may not be able to
compete with the multinational firms
- economic stability of some less developed countries depends heavily on the economic
situation of the more developed countries
- when there is economic recession in the more developed countries, the local economy of the
less developed countries will be adversely affected
- besides, local economy and even some policies may be influenced by/may incline to
foreign multinational enterprises
• Conclusion
- IT multinational firms adopt multi-point production in order to make full use of the
advantages of the more and the less developed countries. This helps produce quality goods
at the lowest production costs. Such mode of production have positive and negative
impact on the less developed countries
48
6 Describe the pull and push factors leading to the relocation of manufacturing industries from Hong
Kong to Guangdong since the 1980s. Discuss the measures that the HKSAR government can do to
attract industries back to revitalize the economy.
• Introduction
- the changes in location of Hong Kong manufacturing industries since the 1980s are a
logical response to changing location factors
• Factors leading to the relocation of Hong Kong manufacturing industries since the 1980s (6
marks)
Pull factors of Guangdong
- Hong Kong manufacturing industries demand a large amount of labour/are mostly
labour-intensive industry
- labour costs account for a large proportion of the production costs
- in Guangdong, there is an abundant supply of cheap labour
- low land prices/rent
- availability of flat land for the expansion of production scale
- favourable government policies
- such as tax cuts
- improved infrastructure and transport network
- less strict environmental protection laws
- near Hong Kong
- lower production costs
- higher profits
Push factors of Hong Kong
- high labour costs
- high land prices/rent
- limited flat land
- strict environmental protection laws
- high production costs
- reduce profits
• Measures that can attract industries (6 marks) - better to attract high value-added and high-tech
industries such as design, research and development, etc. rather than low value-added and
labour-intensive manufacturing industries as labour costs in Hong Kong are high
- set up industrial parks and improve infrastructure
- provides concessions on land prices/rent
49
- lowers taxes
- provides low-interest loans
- to attract new investments
- and encourage agglomeration
- provides funds for research and development
- provides all-rounded education to encourage creativity and innovation sets up regulations to protect patent and intellectual property
• Conclusion
- When a place’s favourable location factors have diminished, industries will relocate to
other places where location factors are more favourable. Relocation of industries may
cause unemployment and a decline in local economy, measures to attract industries back
are thus needed
50
7 Discuss whether the location of the iron and steel industry in China is driven by government
policies. Explain how technological advancements have made the location changes of the iron and
steel industry possible.
• Introduction
- Location of the iron and steel industry in China is largely driven by government policies
since the 1950s. In line with the policies of the central government, there were an inland shift
of the iron and steel industry between the 1950s and 1970s and a coastal shift between the
1980s and the early 2000s. From the early 2000s onwards, the central government has
approved to set up new production bases in the south and the west, in order to meet the
increasing market demand in these regions
• Justification on the government influence on the location of the iron and steel industry in China
Government policies that affect the industrial location of the iron and steel industry established iron and steel works in the inland regions between the 1950s and 1970s - 'moving
industries into the inland' to safeguard its industries from foreign attack during wars
- to exploit the natural resources such as coal and iron ore in the inland regions to develop the economy of the inland regions
- to achieve a more balanced economic development between the coastal and inland regions to relieve the problem of overpopulation in the coastal regions
- the iron and steel industry shifted to the coastal regions between the 1980s and the early
2000s
- 'having some regions developed first' and coastal regions have been chosen for this
purpose
- the ‘Go West’ policy implemented in the early 2000s
- rapid development in central and western China
- setting up new iron and steel production bases in these regions in order to fulfill the
growing demand there
- setting up more iron and steel production bases in the south upon the approval from the
central government
- such as Zhanjiang in Guangdong and Fangchenggang in Guangxi
- to meet the increasing demand for steel in urban and industrial development these projects are a part of the 12th Five-year Plan
Other factors affecting the industrial location of the iron and steel industry
- economic considerations are also important in determining the industrial location industrial centres in the coastal regions are large markets of steel products
51
- high reliance on imported coal and iron ore
- developing the iron and steel industry near the coastal ports can save transport costs efficient railway networks in the coastal regions facilitate the transport of raw materials and
finished products
- can respond to the market (e.g. iron and steel consuming industries) in the cities more
quickly
- enjoys agglomeration economies
- sufficient supply of skilled labour
- sufficient supply of cooling water
- reclamation is possible to provide more flat land for the expansion of the production scale the inland regions are not beneficial to develop the iron and steel industry - because of low
accessibility/not well-developed transport network
- harsh environment
- lack of skilled labour
- far away from the major markets
- coal and iron ore are of low grade, it is uneconomical to exploit
• Explain how technological advancements affect the location of the iron and steel industry new furnaces reduces the amount of coal and iron ore needed in production - this reduces
the reliance on coal and iron ore
- iron and steel plants are not necessarily tied to coalfields and iron ore mines able to use scrap iron and steel as raw materials
- iron and steel plants thus tend to locate near big cities where a large supply of scrap iron
and steel is available
- bulk carriers are able to transport more bulky goods at a lower price
- this reduces the location ties of coalfields and iron ore mines
- iron and steel plants can locate in the coastal regions to import raw materials from
overseas
- instead of coalfields and iron ore mines, big cities and coastal regions have become the
favourable locations
• Conclusion
- The location of the iron and steel industry is subject to the changing policies of the central
government, but economic considerations have become more important in determining the
industrial location in recent years. With technological advancements, the location importance
of power resources and raw materials has reduced
52
Unit 4
1 Explain changes in the demand for urban land use in Hong Kong over past few decades. Discuss
whether reclamation is a good way to cope with the land use demand in Hong Kong.
Introduction
The demand for urban land use in Hong Kong keeps on increasing over past several decades. This can be
reflected by the urban expansion in rural areas and the continuous reclamation of land for various urban
uses Explain changes in the demand for urban land use (6 marks)
‧ economic development and population growth are the major factors resulting in large demand for urban
land use in Hong Kong
‧ economic development has attracted plenty of migrants from the mainland of China ‧
the demand for residential land use/housing has long been very intense
‧ industrial development in the 1950s–70s resulted in great demand for industrial land ‧
industrial areas expanded in the main urban areas, as well as in new towns
‧ however, industrial relocation to the ZDR since the 1980s has resulted in an reduction in industrial land ‧
more and more industrial land has been converted to commercial land use, e.g. offices and hotels ‧ in fact,
as a trade port, the demand for commercial land for offices has long been very keen, this is
particularly true after Hong Kong has changed from an industrial centre to an international financial
centre
‧ this results in the expansion of CBD in Central District, including seaward, eastward, westward and
vertical expansion
‧ growth of tourism, especially since the adoption of the Individual Visitor Scheme in 2003, stimulates
the demand for commercial land for retailing shops and hotels
‧ active economic development and population growth also result in an increase in the flows of people
and goods in the city. Therefore, the demand for transport increases too
‧ similarly, the demand for other urban land use has increased, such as institutional and recreational land
use
Discuss whether reclamation is a good way to cope with the land use demand in Hong
Kong (6
marks)
‧ Benefits:
– no resumption of land is needed
– this saves plenty of time
– and no money is needed for compensation
– reclaimed land is flat
– which is easy for planning/few constraints on planning
– if necessary, land can be expanded through further reclamation. This makes large-scale
development possible
– compared with small development projects scattering here and there, large-scale development can
53
ease urban problems in a more comprehensive and effective way
– no need to exploit green space
‧ Problems/Limitations:
– damage aquatic ecosystem/wildlife habitat, e.g. the Chinese white dolphins
– damage public assets/natural sea view
– affect shipping routes
– and fishery
– possible opposition from the public
– expensive to reclaim land. This results in expensive land price after reclamation ‧
Other strategies of land supply:
– e.g. urban renewal, development of rock caverns, use of ex-quarry sites, rezoning
Conclusion
Although reclamation is an effective way to provide land, it will cause environmental problems which are
irreversible. Therefore, we should consider other strategies such as fully utilizing existing ‘brown areas’ first.
Reclamation should be considered as a last resort
54
2 Describe and explain the urban problems that are found in the urban areas of Hong Kong. Explain
why it is necessary to apply the concept of sustainable development to tackle these problems. •
Introduction
- with the rapid urban development, many urban problems have occurred in the urban areas of
Hong Kong. However, when tackling these problems, new problems may arise. The concept
of sustainable development is needed to tackle the problems
• Urban problems found in the urban areas of Hong Kong
- housing shortage and overcrowding
- substandard housing
- poor living environment
- traffic congestion
- excess consumption of resources and large amounts of solid waste / large ecological footprint pollution problems, e.g. air, water, noise
- land use conflict
• Reasons to apply the concept of sustainable development to tackle these problems - when solving a
problem, other new problems may be brought about by the measures - e.g. building new towns
can solve a series of problems such as housing shortage, poor living environment, traffic
congestion and land use conflict
- at the same time, it results in urban encroachment and diminishing of green areas - e.g.
redevelopment in the inner city can also solve most of the problems mentioned above, but we may
lose the cultural identity and characteristics of the local area
- e.g. although pollution-control measures can solve pollution problems, strict measures may
put heavy burden on production costs. Industry moves to other areas and results in
unemployment
- from these examples we can see that if a particular measure solely aims at solving particular
problems without considering other aspects, it may conflict with environmental conservation,
cultural preservation and / or economic development
- therefore, a development approach that balances the interests of these three main aspects is
needed
- e.g. when building a railway to solve the problem of traffic congestion and promote economic
development, we should also consider the possible negative environmental and social impacts
caused by the railway, and find out a way to minimize the negative effects
- sustainable development is the approach that balances these aspects
• Conclusion
- when solving a problem, we should not just focus on the problem itself. We need to balance all
major aspects of society, including environmental conservation, cultural preservation and
economic development. Therefore, the concept of sustainable development is a choice
55
3 It is difficult to develop environmental sustainability in Hong Kong.
Discuss the above statement. To what extent do you think that environmental conservation hinders
economic development.
• Introduction
- although the public awareness of environmental conservation has increased, there are still
many difficulties for Hong Kong to develop environmental sustainability because of its
special context
• Difficulties of developing environmental sustainability in Hong Kong (6 marks) - the major
obstruction comes from the economic sector
- Hong Kong is a small territory with many people, there is keen competition for land between
urban development and natural conservation
- it is particularly difficult as Hong Kong has been a trade port / an economic city since the
mid-19th century, many Hong Kong people are mainly concerned with economic growth while the economic return / land-bidding power of natural areas is low
- as Hong Kong has been urbanized for a long time, people’s awareness of natural conservation is
relatively low
- there is opposition from individuals and private sectors since developing environmental
sustainability inevitably increases their economic burdens
- e.g. under the polluter-pays principle, individuals and businesses need to pay sewage charges
and possible higher electricity tariff for using cleaner fuels
- e.g. manufacturers and importers of electrical and electronic equipment need to collect and
recycle the waste that is created from the goods they produce or sell under the product
responsibility schemes (PRS)
- it is particularly difficult since most enterprises in Hong Kong are small and medium
enterprises (SME). They have limited capital to deal with these extra costs
- developing environmental sustainability limits the development in certain natural and rural
areas
- local villagers who want to get compensation from land resumption do not welcome
environmental conservation in their villages, e.g. the Long Valley incident
- some estate developers, one of the major economic pillars in Hong Kong, do not welcome
this principle too since they cannot build a large area of low-density housing in the natural
areas, or high-rises with high plot ratio
• Environmental conservation hinders economic development (3 marks) - as mentioned above, limiting
development in natural areas hinders the development of, for example, the property market
- levying charges under the polluter-pays principle and PRS increases business costs
56
- costs are needed to clean up the environment, e.g. it costs over $20 billion to set up the
facilities of the HATS
- the building of the Lok Ma Chau Spur Line also illustrates this point well. In order to preserve
the wetland in Long Valley, it costs $2 billion more to build the railway
- consuming less means fewer businesses to the manufacturing industries, trading, etc. the
whole economy would slow down
• Environmental conservation does not hinder economic development (3 marks) - although limiting
development in natural areas and various costs of environmental improvement and conservation
may make certain economic sectors and parties earn less / pay more, it does not necessarily mean
hindering economic development in the long run - economic development means good resource
management, not just an increase in income and wealth
- without the support of a sound natural environment, no economy can last long since the natural
environment provides us all the necessary resources to run the economic activities - using the
example about estate development above, conserving natural areas may sometimes hold back the
development of the property market, but it provides valuable resources to other economic sectors,
such as (eco)tourism
- environmental conservation also promotes the development of the eco-industries, such as the
eco-tech industry and the recycling industry
- waste recycling and consuming less help us save money on waste treatment. Besides, valuable
land can be released from being used as landfills
- saving energy also means saving money
- a cleaner environment saves our expenditure on public health care
- minimizes the economic loss caused by various environmental problems, such as smog, acid
rain and global warming
- and attracts investment and talent
• Conclusion
- assert again your standpoint on whether environmental conservation hinders economic
development
57
4 Describe and explain the causes of urbanization in Hong Kong. Explain how the government
solve the problem of overcrowding in urban areas of Hong Kong.
• Introduction
- in Hong Kong, urbanization had become rapid since the twentieth century - this was due to
rural-urban migration, migrants from the mainland China and natural increase - a large proportion
of population lives in urban areas. Overcrowding occurs - in order to make a pleasant living
environment, the government has adopted many measures to solve the problem of overcrowding
in the urban areas of Hong Kong
• Causes of urbanization in Hong Kong
- rural-urban migration took place in the 1960s and early 1970s
- urban areas attracted rural population
- young people found life hard in rural areas. They moved to urban areas to find jobs or to
further their studies
- migration from the mainland of China since the 1950s sped up the process of
urbanization
- these migrants mainly lived in Kowloon and Hong Kong Island
- natural increase between the 1950s and the 1970s is also another factor for urbanization since 1997 the new migration scheme allows a fixed amount of mainland residents to come
and live in Hong Kong daily, resulting in further increase in urban population
• Solutions to the overcrowding problems in urban areas of Hong Kong
- develop new towns in the New Territories
- which provides residential areas for urban residents to move to the New Territories build more public and private housing in new towns
- develop mass transit systems and new roads to link up all new towns and urban areas, in
order to attract people moving out of the crowded urban areas
- reclamation in Victoria Harbour provides large amount of urban flat land more land for residential and urban uses
- urban renewal can make better use of land in the urban areas
- for examples replace low buildings into higher ones to house more people relocate some industries from urban areas to the New Territories
• Conclusion
- urbanization is rapid in Hong Kong. A large population lived in the urban areas in Hong
58
Kong. This caused overcrowding in urban areas
- government needs to take measures, such as building more housing in new towns and
improve transport networks to disperse the high population in urban areas - urban renewal is
also necessary to make better use of the urban land to house more people
59
5 The development of sustainable city can bring benefits to everyone. However, the cost is
enormous.
Describe and explain the cost of developing Hong Kong into a sustainable city. Discuss whether
it is worth to do so.
• Introduction
- a sustainable city means a city which applies the concept of sustainable development. It
refers to the mode of development that meets the need of present without compromising
the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
- a sustainable city can take many forms and develop in many ways. We have to choose
between all the options. The cost for sustainable development is enormous, but we can
also benefit in the long run
• Costs paid by individuals (6 marks) - cost of treating rubbish/sewage
- introduce polluters-pays principle
- pay for the sewage/pollutants/garbage we produce
- abandon certain aspects of comfortable lifestyle, and pay the cost for polluting activities
such as using plastic bags
- change habits, such as sorting our rubbish before disposal
- save energy and water in daily life
• Cost for providing incentives for waste reduction and recycling
- initiative used to encourage people to abandon unsustainable practices. For example,
encourage car owners to switch to use LPG instead of diesel-fueled vehicles
- incentive for setting up recycling and environmentally-friendly facilities in factories. For
example, encourage developers to install renewable resource facilities
• Costs for education
- cost for promoting public awareness
- subsidize voluntary organizations such as World Wide Fund for Nature, Friends of the
Earths, etc
- provide fundings for promoting sustainable development
• Costs for improving the environment
- expenditures related to the improvement and preservation of our natural environment
60
and cultural heritage
- measures to protect the quality of air, water, land and wildlife habitats - for examples,
building Stonecutters Island Sewage Treatment Plant, implementing Harbour Area
Treatment Scheme and preserving large areas for country parks - in special case such as the
Long Valley incident, over billions of dollars were spent to build a tunnel form railway to
conserve a large piece of farmland and wildlife habitats
• Benefits from sustainable development (6 marks) - sustainable development is about the wise
use of resources
- saving energy means saving money
- reduction of waste means lowering the cost of raw materials and disposal fee - reducing
waste and consuming less can reduce community’s costs for waste treatment - less
pollution helps lessen expenditure on public health care
- the development of some industries such as environmental engineering, ecotourism and
recycling will be easier with the financial support from government
- develop recycling industries creates more job opportunities
- a cleaner environment attracts foreign investment and raises Hong Kong international
image
- a pleasant natural environment, valuable cultural and historic structures help promote
tourism, including ecotourism
• Conclusion
- the cost for developing Hong Kong into a sustainable city is very high
- however, sustainable development is about the wise use of resources, it will bring a lot of
economic benefits to Hong Kong in the long run
- a clean and pleasant environment is priceless. It is worth to pay for the cost of sustainable
development in Hong Kong
61
Unit 5
1 Explain how irrigation helps increase farmers’ income and profit in southern California. Discuss
whether irrigation is a sustainable way of farming.
Introduction
Water shortage is the major physical constraint of farming in southern California. In southern California,
different irrigation methods are employed to overcome this constraint. These irrigation methods include
gravity flow system, sprinkler system and drip irrigation system. They greatly increase farm production and
thus the income and profit of the farmers
How different irrigation methods help increase farmers’ income and profit
‧ they provide reliable water to formerly dry areas, more land can be developed into farmland ‧
this can extend farming areas, more crops can be grown
‧ there is enough water even it is in the dry season
‧ the impact of unstable and uneven rainfall on crops can be minimized
‧ the growing season can be extended
‧ more choices of crops can be grown, e.g. crops that can only be grown in a wetter climate ‧ more
crops can be grown in a field because there is adequate irrigation water to support more crops ‧ all the
above can increase farm production per unit of irrigated area
‧ as a result, higher yield brings higher income and profit to farmers
Discuss whether irrigation is a sustainable way of farming
‧ it depends on which and how irrigation method is used
‧ if gravity flow system and sprinkler system are used improperly, it is not a sustainable way of farming –
the climate in southern California is hot and dry
– this leads to high evaporation rate
– gravity flow system and sprinkler system apply large amounts of water to the soil –
there will be excess water in the soil
– salts in the soil are dissolved
– these dissolved salts are brought to the land surface together with the water through capillary
action
– when water evaporates, salt is left on the surface and a crust of salt is formed –
salinization takes place
– land affected by salinization may be completely unproductive and it cannot be used to grow crops
any more
‧ if drip irrigation system is used, it is a sustainable way of farming
– small tubes are put near the roots of a crop
– when water dripping out from the holes of the tube, the roots absorb water efficiently –
less water evaporates
– besides, it calculates and applies the necessary amounts of water to the soil
62
– there is no or less excess water
– it will not lead to salinization
Conclusion
Although irrigation methods can help increase farm production and farmers’ income, if they are used
improperly, they can in turn damage the farmland and decrease farm production. Therefore, only using
suitable and proper irrigation methods, such as drip irrigation system, can increase farm production in the
long run and lead to a sustainable way of farming
63
2 Explain the environmental impacts of using chemicals in farming. Evaluate the effectiveness of
precision agriculture in minimizing these impacts.
• Introduction
- Farmers use various chemicals such as chemical fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides to
overcome farming constraints. The misuse and overuse of these chemicals will incur high
environmental costs. Precision agriculture can help minimize these costs
• The environmental impacts of using chemicals in farming
- in general, the misuse and overuse of chemicals in farming will damage the natural
environment
By the application of chemical pesticides and herbicides:
- not only the target pests or weeds are killed, but also other insects and plants - some
organisms may be killed completely, while others may suddenly rise in number - it will
lead to a loss of biodiversity
- and the breaking down of the food chain/modification of the food web
- when pest species/weeds become resistant to pesticide/herbicides
- farmers have to apply more pesticides/herbicides
- causing a vicious cycle
- the natural ecosystem will be upset
By the application of chemical/nitrate fertilizers:
- excess fertilizers will percolate slowly into the ground, causing water pollution excess fertilizers will also be washed into rivers and streams
- more nutrients in water
- it will cause excess growth of algae and water plants
- level of oxygen in water will fall
- light penetration will be blocked
- fish and other aquatic life will die
- eutrophication is resulted
- the aquatic ecosystem will be destroyed
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of precision agriculture in minimizing the environmental impacts
caused by the use of chemicals
- precision agriculture involves the use of several advanced technologies
- such as computers/geographical information system (GIS)/global positioning system
(GPS)/remote sensing/telecommunications/mobile computing/advanced information
processing - field conditions can be measured and recorded
- such as nutrient level, soil texture and chemistry, moisture content and pest patterns
64
- these data help farmers to apply inputs, such as fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides, more
precisely and effectively
- through the use of drip irrigation system
- it can avoid polluting the environment
- it is a sustainable farming method
Limitations:
- precision agriculture requires high investment cost
- high capital input is needed
- rich data resources are needed for analysis
- farmers should have high education/technology level
- the government should provide aid/technical assistance/training to farmers Other
ways to minimize the environmental impacts caused by the use of chemicals: practise organic farming
- use naturally decomposed fertilizers and manure to improve soil fertility use natural methods to control pests and weeds
- practise multiple cropping
- this avoids depletion of a particular kind of soil nutrient
- apply different soil conservation methods
• Conclusion
- The misuse and overuse of chemicals in farming will damage the natural environment.
Although precision agriculture can help minimize the environmental impacts of using chemicals,
its effectiveness depends on the availability of capital and the education level of farmers
65
3 Describe the climatic constraints of farming in the Sahel. Discuss whether climatic hazard is the
sole cause of environmental degradation in the Sahel in recent years.
• Introduction
- Farmers in the Sahel have to face climatic constraints. Climatic hazard such as drought is
common there. However, it is not the sole cause of environmental degradation in recent years.
Cultural factors also contribute to environmental degradation there
• Description of the climatic constraints of farming in the Sahel
- the Sahel has a tropical semi-arid climate
- rainfall is unreliable and inadequate
- annual rainfall varies from 200 mm to 600 mm
- temperature is high throughout the year
- strong evapotranspiration rate
- climatic hazard such as drought is common
- water is not available for farming during persistent drought
- hot and dry offshore winds from the Sahara Desert bring hot, dry climate to the Sahel all year
round
• Discussion of whether climatic hazard is the sole cause of environmental degradation in the Sahel in
recent years
- drought is the major climatic hazard in the Sahel
- in recent years, there is prolonged drought in the region
- the water stored in plants, soil and underground is used up
- vegetation cannot regenerate
- environmental degradation is resulted
- however, cultural factors also contribute to environmental degradation
- the increase in population in the region creates greater demand for food
- this adds great pressure on the land
- more land formerly used for pasture is being used for growing crops
- the fallowing periods have been reduced
- livestock population has increased rapidly
- as nomads rear more animals to provide more food
- better transport linkage also encourages nomads to rear more livestock
- pastureland does not have enough time to recover
- there is not enough pastureland to support a large population of livestock
- the large number of herds trample and destroy the thin soil
- overgrazing occurs
66
- soil nutrients are depleted
- soil erosion is worsened
- more land becomes barren
- there is misuse of water resources as well
- the local government encourage nomads to become sedentary pastoralists people have to dig boreholes to tap water from underground
- with a greater water supply, people raise more animals
- after a period of time, water in the area is used up
- the land around boreholes is damaged
• Conclusion
- The climate in the Sahel is not favourable for farming, yet nomads have been able to adapt to the
environment without damaging it. However, prolonged drought, increase in population and the
misuse of water resources have caused environmental degradation in recent years
67
4 Describe the cultural factors leading to food insecurity in the Sahel. Evaluate the effectiveness of
developing local infrastructure in improving food security in the area.
• Introduction
- Cultural factors in the Sahel affect food production there and people’s ability to get access to
food, leading to serious problem of food insecurity. Development of local infrastructure helps
improve food security in the area
• Description of the cultural factors leading to food insecurity in the Sahel (6 marks) - food insecurity
is the result of combined failures of the food supply and food access Cultural factors affecting
food supply:
- farmers have low education level
- the capital input is low
- the technology level is low
- farmers farm with traditional methods
- wars and conflict are common
- farmers have to abandon their fields
- troop movement may destroy crops
- irrigation system and transport are paralysed
- governments encourage farmers to grow cash crops
- multinational enterprises buy up farmland to develop plantations
- local subsistence farmers are forced to cultivate on marginal land
- all these factors reduce local food production, thus reducing food supply
Cultural factors affecting food access:
- poverty is common
- people are too poor to buy food in the market
- governments cannot import food from other countries
- governments cannot respond to food crisis efficiently because of wars and conflict some countries have corrupt governments
- some dictatorship governments deny food supplies to people who oppose their rule people of lower social class cannot get enough food
- all these factors reduces people’s ability to get access to food
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of developing local infrastructure in improving food security in the
area (6 marks) - development of local infrastructure encourages food production
- the governments can maintain a reliable electricity supply
- develop and improve the transport network
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- to transport farm produce to urban market
- a healthy marketing system can be set up
- to stabilize farmers’ income and food price
- a sound financial support system can be set up
- to provide easy access to loans and credit for farmers and non-farmers
- farmers can use the loan and credit to apply more inputs to increase farm productivity such as buying/renting farm machines
- with better infrastructure, farm work can be improved
- it can increase food production as well as farmers’ income
- with higher income, farmers can buy food from the market in case of crop failure
Limitations:
- it depends on how strong and determined the local governments are
- corrupt governments or governments of low efficiency cannot carry out such development governments may have a large foreign debt
- they may not be able to provide loans to farmers
- stable political condition is necessary
Other ways to improve food security in the area:
- measures that help increase food supply and the ability of people to access sufficient amount of
safe food can be carried out
- Development of non-agricultural sectors
- small-scale industries can be set up in rural areas
- for example, leather producing workshops can be developed parallel with cattle raising farmers can do work other than farming
- it can help diversify the sources of income and increase income
- the problem of rural poverty can be eased
- Favourable government policies
- the governments can provide training for farmers
- invest more in the agricultural sector
- maintain the political stability of the region
• Conclusion
- Different cultural factors contribute to food insecurity in the Sahel. Developing local
infrastructure encourages food production, but other measures are also necessary to improve food
access, so as to improve food security of the area. Therefore, a better way to solve the problem is to
carry out agricultural development with rural development
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5 Compare a natural ecosystem with an agro-ecosystem. Discuss the role of humans in increasing
farm output in an agro-ecosystem.
• Introduction
- Agro-ecosystem is a human manipulated agricultural system that functions like a natural
ecosystem. Energy flow in an agro-ecosystem is altered by humans to increase outputs • Similarities
of the two ecosystems (6 marks) - both ecosystems comprise of living (biotic) and non-living
(abiotic) components - biotic and abiotic components interact with each other in the systems
- biotic components include producers, consumers and decomposers
- abiotic components include sunlight, water, land, soil and nutrients
- sunlight is the primary source of energy
- energy and nutrients are passed from one organism to another along the food chain different food chains are connected to form a food web
- energy loss occurs when transfer to a higher trophic level
- energy is lost during respiration, excretion and metabolism
- energy will not returned to the system again
• Discussion of the role of humans in increasing farm output in an agro-ecosystem (6 marks) - in
an agro-ecosystem, human control is dominant
- an agro-ecosystem can only be maintained with constant human management substantial energy inputs are given to an agro-ecosystem by humans
- humans determine the type of crops to be grown or livestock to be reared
- and the amount of organisms in each trophic level
- food web is simplified and energy flow is shortened by eliminating unwanted species in the
system
- through the use of pesticides and herbicides
- energy flow in an agro-ecosystem is altered so as to allow as much energy flow to the
targeted species
- other subsidiaries, e.g. energy subsides such as machines and manpower are given to the
system to raise productivity
- however, human activities may adversely affect farm output as well
- the misuse and overuse of farming technologies will reduce land productivity the use of heavy machines will cause more serious soil erosion
- improper/overuse of irrigation will worsen salinization
- over-cultivation and overgrazing will lead to a loss of vegetation cover
- as the land does not have enough time to regenerate
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- soil nutrients will be depleted
- the fertility and productivity of the soil will be reduced
- it will lead to land degradation
- land may even become barren/completely unproductive
• Conclusion
- A natural ecosystem is a complex system. An agro-ecosystem is a simplified and human
manipulated agricultural system maintained by substantial energy inputs. Humans in the agro
ecosystem can pose positive and negative impacts on farm output
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6 Explain how physical constraints lead to low farm production. Evaluate the effectiveness of
farming technologies in increasing farm production in less developed countries.
• Introduction
- Physical constraints such as climatic, relief and soil constraints will lower farm production of a
place. By applying appropriate farming technologies, farm production can be increased • How physical
constraints lead to low farm production
- rainfall affects the amount of farm production
- inadequate and unreliable rainfall will lower farm production
- unusual precipitation patterns such as rainstorms and hailstorms may damage crops high temperature results in high evaporation rate
- salts in the soil are brought to the surface
- salinization of soil occurs
- the land will become unproductive
- when temperature is low, frost may appear and destroy crops
- natural hazards such as flooding and drought will destroy crops
- strong winds, such as tropical cyclones and tornadoes, will damage crops
- places with rugged/hilly relief are not favourable for farming
- slopes which are in the rain shadow may not have enough water for crop growth - highland
areas are not favourable for farming as temperature is low and winds are strong infertile/thin/poorly-drained/easily eroded soil will result in poor crop yields - it is difficult for
places where large rivers are absent to develop efficient irrigation systems
• Evaluation of the effectiveness of farming technologies in increasing farm production in less
developed countries
- farming technologies can help improve farm production and overcome physical constraints fertilizers can improve the quality of farmland/soil fertility and therefore productivity of land pesticides can protect crops from pests and vaccine can protect livestock from diseases herbicides can prevent weeds from competing nutrients with crops
- biotechnology can improve the quality of crops
- irrigation and drainage systems can improve the physical conditions for crops and livestock
production
- the use of greenhouses can lengthen growing season
- machines can improve farm production, farm efficiency and quality of farm work drought-resistant species can be grown in areas with low rainfall
- increases area for farming
Limitations:
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- less developed countries have difficulties to apply farming technologies
- they have low level of economic development
- people do not have money to buy machines, fertilizers, install irrigation systems, etc. people’s education level is low
- they usually farm with traditional methods
- they do not have the knowledge to use modern farming technologies
- there is a lack of government support
- frequent wars and conflicts make it difficult to develop irrigation and drainage system
Other ways to increase farm production in less developed countries:
- the governments can provide training for farmers
- invest more in the agricultural sector
- maintain the political stability of the region
- set up a sound financial support system so that farmers can have easy access to loans and
credit
- set up a healthy marketing mechanism for farm produce to stabilize farmers’ incomes - with
higher income, farmers can apply more inputs for farming to increase farm productivity - farmers can
also grow different crops/rear different livestock to secure farm production • Conclusion
- Physical constraints will lower farm production of a place. Although farming technologies
can increase farm production, their effectiveness depends on the availability of capital, the
education level of farmers and the political condition
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7 Explain why nomadic herding in the Sahel is an ecologically balanced system. Explain how the
population growth in the Sahel affect this balanced system in recent years.
• Introduction
- The physical environment in the Sahel is not favourable for farming. Nomadic herding is
ecologically balanced system that adapts to such environment in the Sahel. However, such balance
has been disturbed by the rapid population growth in recent years
• Reasons why nomadic herding in the Sahel is an ecologically balanced system (6 marks) - the
carrying capacity of land in the Sahel is low
- nomadic herding is a way of farming that adapts to the physical environment - the ways in which
the nomads raise their animals help keep the ecological balance of the area Migration of
herds/Practising transhumance:
- the nomads/pastoralists rear livestock and move from one place to another to look for water
and pasture
- after the pasture is exhausted, the herds are moved to another site
- the old site is left fallow
- the soil recovers its nutrients and water
- with enough time for fallowing, the grass regenerates at the old site
- the herds return to the old site again
- and are grazed at the old site
- the other areas which the pasture is exhausted are left fallow and recover
- damage to the environment is minimized
Controlling the size of herds:
- the nomads control the number of animals in the herd carefully
- they keep smaller size of the herd in dry seasons
- larger size in the wet seasons
- therefore, pasture has enough time to regenerate
Keeping a variety of herd species:
- different types of herds eat different plant species
- this prevents the complete consumption of any one particular plant species this helps conserve the soil fertility
Simple and small amount of cultural inputs:
- cultural inputs to the nomadic herding system are low
- the nomads use simple and traditional technologies to manage their herds
- there are low inputs of energy which may have harmful effects to the ecosystem such as irrigation, chemical fertilizers and pesticides
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• How population growth in the Sahel affects this balanced system (6 marks) - the rapid rate of
population growth means that there is a greater demand for food - it adds pressure on the
land
- nomads change to practise sedentary farming
- more grazing land is being converted into farmland
- farmers have reduced the fallowing periods of the farmland
- besides, the livestock population increases rapidly
- the fallowing periods of pastureland are shortened
- the pasture does not have enough time to regenerate
- there is not enough pastureland to support a large population of livestock the large number of herds trample and destroy the thin soil
- overgrazing occurs
- these changes lead to the depletion of soil nutrients
- soil erosion and environmental degradation are worsened
- the land becomes barren
- finally, desertification may occur
- land productivity falls
• Conclusion
- Nomadic herding has been practised in the Sahel for centuries. It is an ecological balanced
farming system. However, the rapid population growth creates a greater demand for food. This
leads to a greater pressure on the land. The balanced system of nomadic herding is therefore
disturbed
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8 Describe how the advanced technologies help overcome the climatic and soil constraints to
agriculture in southern California. Explain why the environmentalists oppose the application of
these farming technologies.
• Introduction
- Climate and soil are the major physical inputs of a farming system. Unfavourable climatic and
soil conditions in Southern California hinder agricultural development and lower farm production.
As farmers there have enough capital and technological know-how, they use advanced
technologies to overcome these physical constraints. However, the advanced technologies may also
create harmful effects to the environment
• Climatic and soil constraints in southern California and the advanced technologies used to
overcome these constraints (6 marks)
Climatic and soil constraints in
The advanced technologies for overcoming
southern California
these constraints
Climate:
- provide a reliable water source for
- high temperature leads to high
evaporation rate
farmland
- various water schemes are constructed
- low annual rainfall
- large dams for storing water
- which is seasonal, scanty and unevenly
- canals and aqueducts for transporting
distributed in the region
- the climate is characterized by warm, wet
winters and hot, dry summers
water to farms
- examples: Imperial Dam and All
American Canal in the Imperial Valley - apply
different irrigation methods on farms examples: gravity flow system, the sprinkler
system, the drip irrigation
system
Soil:
- improve the soil fertility
- alkaline and infertile soil
- by applying chemical fertilizers
- example: nitrate fertilizers
• Reasons why the environmentalists oppose the application of these farming technologies (6
marks)
- the environmentalists oppose the application of these farming technologies because misuse
and overuse of farming technologies can upset the natural ecosystem
By improper irrigation:
- in general, southern California is hot and dry
- evaporation rate exceeds precipitation
- capillary action draws salts in the soil upward
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- a crust of salt forms on the ground surface
- results in salinization of soil
- it hinders the growth of crops by limiting their ability of taking water
- the land may become unproductive
- land degradation is resulted
- excess irrigation may increase surface run-off
- leading to soil erosion
- improper irrigation may also wash away the chemicals/pesticides
- which leads to pollution of ground water
By misuse of chemicals/nitrate fertilizers:
- too many chemical fertilizers are used
- excess fertilizers will be washed into rivers/streams
- this will increase the nutrients in water
- it cause excess growth of algae and water plants
- level of oxygen in water will fall
- light penetration will be blocked
- most aquatic life may die
- eutrophication
- aquatic ecosystems will be destroyed
• Conclusion
- The advanced farming technologies used in southern California can overcome the climatic
and soil constraints. However, the misuse of technologies can lead to a fatal impact to the
environment, such as the upset of ecosystem. Therefore, environmentalists oppose to the
application of the above mentioned technologies
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Unit 6
1 Explain why agricultural activities have resulted in diminishing tropical rainforest cover in the
world. Evaluate the effectiveness of agroforestry in developing the tropical rainforest
sustainably.
Introduction
People have been practising various types of agriculture in the tropical rainforest regions. However, certain
agricultural activities have become the major reasons causing tropical deforestation in recent years. In order
to conserve tropical rainforests, agroforestry has been adopted in recent years.
How various agricultural activities have resulted in diminishing tropical rainforest
cover Cattle ranching:
• a large area of rainforest is cleared to provide pastureland for raising millions of cattle •
cattle ranching accounts for the 80% of the deforested areas
• world demand for beef has been increasingly rapidly
• most of the pasture comes from the cheap land obtained from the rainforest for higher economic return •
improved road networks allow ranchers to reach previously inaccessible forest lands. This leads to further
deforestation
• after several years, soil erosion on the deforested land becomes so serious that pasture is difficult to
grow on it
• many ranchers will then buy and clear another piece of rainforest for cattle ranching •
this causes extensive and severe damage to rainforests
Plantation:
• a plantation is a large farm and huge capital is invested. It is usually carried out by large corporations • it
involves a complete removal of a large piece of rainforests
• only one kind of cash crop is grown in the farm (monoculture), such as soybeans and oil palm •
expansion of plantations has driven cattle ranchers to clear more rainforest
• highway construction causes further loss of rainforests
• with a larger world population and rising living standards, the demand for tropical cash crops is
increasing. Land will be used more intensively. This accelerates deforestation in these rainforest
regions
Small-scale farming:
• small patches of rainforest are cleared by the native tribe or local community for small-scale farming •
they clear the forest by cutting and burning the trees (i.e. slash and burn) in order to increase soil fertility
• when the cleared land declines in productivity, farmers are forced to abandon it and clear a new plot of
land wherever they can access
• more crops have to be grown on the same amount of land to support the increasing population •
carrying capacity of the land in rainforests is low, growing more crops would mean soil nutrients are
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depleted at a faster rate. This shortens the fallowing period and therefore the farming cycle and the time
allowed for the rainforests to regenerate
Effectiveness of agroforestry in conserving the tropical rainforest
• agroforestry is a farming practice of growing trees and crops on the same plot of land • it
can increase productivity and income in rainforests by conserving the soil
• fruit trees such as Inga trees, cassava or pineapple are grown on field
• such intercropping improves soil fertility and results in higher yields
• allows farmers to increase income by selling fruit and firewood
• with suitable crop combination and rotation, chemical fertilizers and pesticides are not required
Effective:
• this can be more productive than agriculture or forestry alone. It can be a solution to both the problems of
land degradation and shortage of forest products, by encouraging farmers to plant trees rather than cut
them down
Ineffective:
• increasing demand for land and food due to population growth in the region may pose threat to the
practice
• among farm workers, usually local people, may not understand the operation of the practice well due to
low educational level
• the use of farm machines is more difficult in the confined space of a forest, causing a lower farm
yield/productivity of the land
Other measures:
• other ways to increase productivity of existing farmland, e.g. improving soil fertility •
increase productivity of ranches and plantations
• develop sustainable forest and tree plantations
• restore degraded forest land
• put forward eco-product certification system to encourage the production of farm produce from
sustainable practices
• ecotourism
Conclusion
Various agricultural activities in the three major tropical rainforest regions contribute to the significant loss
of rainforest cover. Much land has been converted into farmland and pastureland. Agroforestry which
involves a suitable mixture of crops and fruit trees, is a more sustainable farming practice in managing the
rainforest. Other sustainable uses of the rainforest also help develop the rainforest in a healthy way.
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