READING STRATEGIES
ADVANCED PRIMARY READERS
FOR
Texas Reading Initiative Task Force for the
Education of Primary Gifted Children
Edited by
Bertie Kingore
COPYRIGHT NOTICE:
Copyright © TEA staff, 2004 . The Materials are
copyrighted © and trademarked ™ as the property of the Texas Education Agency and
may not be reproduced without the express written permission of the Texas Education
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Texas Primary Reading Initiative Task Force for the Education of Primary Children
wishes to express its gratitude to:
• Evelyn Levsky Hiatt , Senior Director, Advanced Academic Services, Texas Education Agency and
• Ann Wink , Director of Elementary Gifted Education, Advanced Academic Services, Texas
Education Agency
for their vision of excellence and dedication to young advanced and gifted children.
ART AND GRAPH IC DESIGN
Jeffery Kingore
Art and graphic design copyright 2002 by Jeffery Kingore
Reprinted in this text with permission
EDITORIAL ASS ISTANTS
Nicole Drane
Matthew Kingore
The websites referenced in this text do not necessarily reflect
the positions and philosophies of the Texas Education Agency.
These text materials are copyrighted by and the property of the State of Texas and may not be reproduced
without the written permission of the Texas Education Agency, except under the following conditions :
1. Any portion reproduced will be used exclusively for educational purposes;
2. Any portion reproduced will be reproduced in its entirety and not altered in any form; and
3 . No monetary charge will be made for the reproduction of the documents or materials containe d
within them, except for a reasonable charge covering the cost to reproduce and distribute them .
Texas Reading Initiative Task Force
for the Education of Primary Gifted Children
2000·2002
I
I
MEMBERS
I
I
Dr. Bertie Kingore, Chair
Consultant, Professional Assoc iates Publishing, Austin
Dr. Am an da Ba tson
Texas Association for Gifted and Talented, Austin
Dr. Shirl ey V. Dickson
Director of Statewide Curriculum Initiatives , Texas Education Agency, Austin
Krys Goree
Program Director of Texas Beginning Educator Support System (TXBESS) and Gifted
Education Consultant , Baylor Un iversity, Waco
Susan Sp ates
Coordinator of Gifted and Talented, Pasadena ISO, Pasadena
Ann Trull
Director, Elementary and Gifted Education , Paris ISO , Paris
An n W ink
Director of Elementary Gifted Education , Division of Advanced Academic Services,
Texas Education Agency, Austin
Dr. Kei th Yost
Program Director Humanities, CREST, Tomball ISO , Tomball
Lau ra Youn g
Talented and Gifted Facilitator, Killeen ISO, Killeen
F~lip~
IBlrltifi
T. Alanis
I I
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While the Texas Student Success Initiative was created to ensure that all Te xas
children are able to rea d o n o r above grade level by th e end of third grade , m any
Texas primary-aged children already read at advanced levels . These ch ildren
should also have the ri ght to progress academically .
The Texas Read ing In itiative Task Force for the Education of Primary Gifted Ch ildren
has prep ared th is publication to assist the classroom teacher in identifying chi ldren
w ho may be advanced le arn ers and in prepa ring reading activities approp ri ate to
the ir learning level. Following th e T ex as tradition of supporting reading instructi on
based on scientific resear ch , th is work is based o n empirical evidence surroundi ng
these ch ildren's specific lea rnin g needs .
Re ading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers, produced by the Texas Read ing
Initia tive Task Force for the Education of Primary Gifted C hildren , expand s tea cher
kno wledg e about the ch ara cte ristics and needs of advanced and gifted reade rs. In
ad diti on , it e xpla ins how to differentia te reading instruction for these childre n and
provides the class room teach er wi th helpful strategies an d ideas .
In ess ence, th is pub lication defines yet another dimension of the Texas Student
Success In iti ative and expan ds its goal of provid ing all Te xas children with the too ls
th ey need to have successful academic careers.
Melanie Pritchett
As sistant Co mmissi oner
Office of Statewide Initiati ves
Texas Education Ag ency
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Th e Texa s Student Success Initiative is committed to assuri ng that eve ry child
r ead s at least on grade level by the third gra de. It is a lso committed to ass uri ng
tha t all children conti n ually im prove their reading ability and skills. That means stu­
dents must be challenged to read progressively more sophisticated material th at is
comm en surate with their abi lities,
Frequen tly, peo ple say that advanced readers "le a rn to read by themselves ," It is
tru e that many young gifted stude nts come to our schools already able to read
material of varying compl exi ty. But this does not mea n that th e students wi ll sustain
their interest in reading or savor the pleasures of reading to discover new id ea s, far
off places, and in teresting people. Teachers play a critical role in enco uragin g
yo un g readers to im prove their reading skills , It is ho ped th at this publication will
pro vide a background and activ ities to assist teachers in providing an appropriate
le arning environment for even our most gifted re aders ,
Thi s document reflects the dedication of many Texas educators that all st ude nts,
ev en those w ho already read at or a bove g rade level, mu st be instru cted o n how
they might better use th e ir co nsiderable skills , It was develope d ove r the course of
a year th rough long m e etings, many rewrite s, and inte n se discus sio n about how
te ac he rs m ig ht best e ngage ad van ced readers so th ey not only ma inta in bu t al so
expand thei r repertoi re of sk ill s an d compete nci es. T he T e xa s Ed uca tion Ag ency
thanks th e comm itted volunteers of the Te xas Reading Initiative Ta sk Force fo r th e
Education of Primary Gifted Children for their assistance.
We hope tha t readers of th is publicatio n w ill prov ide feedbac k about how th ey
used this do cum ent and how it might be imp ro ved. A nyo ne may contact us at
<gted@tea.state .tx .us> .
Evelyn Hiatt
Sen io r Director
A dvanced Academ ic Services
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CONTENTS
TASK FORC E MEMBERS
LETTER:
Melanie Pritchett
FORWARD:
ii
Evelyn Levsky Hiatt
Introduction
Understanding Advanced and Gifted Readers
5
Authentic Assessment: Documentation of Learning
11
Curriculum Compacting
Tiered Assignments
Flexible Grouping
High-Level Thinking and Inquiry
Visual Tools for Individuals or Groups
Vocabulary and Word Play
Reflections
APPE NDIX:
INDEX
29
41
49
55
69
83
95
Shirley V. Dickson
99
103
I NTRC>DUCTIC>
C ustomizing language arts instruction to match the
individual differences and readiness levels of all children is a
demanding task fa cing primary teachers. The adjustment
demands more th an flexibility in methods and materi al s; it
requires a belief that each child has the right to progress as
ra pidly as he or she is capable. Advanced a nd gifted readers
have th e ability to read beyond grade level. Thus, they risk
recei ving less instructional attention when concerned teach ­
ers struggle to meet th e needs of children performing below
grade level. While it is critica l that all children receive the
sup port necessary to read at least at grade level, students
who have achieved this goal must be challenged to continue
devel oping adv anc ed proficiencies.
One factor that disco urages the continued reading
develo p me nt of adva nced readers is the use of le ss difficult
books. Chall and Conard (1991) continu e to rese arch the
match of text difficulty to reader readiness . They found that
the re ading texts fo r advanced readers " ... provided little or no
challenge, since they we re matched to students' grade place­
ments, not thei r reading levels ." Chall, who also researched
text difficulty in 1967 and 1983, noted that "This practice of
using grade-level reading textbooks for those who read two or
more grades above the norm ha s c hanged little through the
years , alth ough it has be en rep eatedly questioned " (1 11 ).
For decades, educators ass umed that prim ary-ag ed ch il d ren who read ea rly
or at adva nced leve ls had bee n pu shed by a well-intending ad ult. The accompan ying
con ve ntion al wisdom has been that th ese stude nts plateau and re ad at grad e leve l
by th ird or fourth g rad e .
Reading Strategies for Advanc ed Prim ary Readers
Indee d , recent studies document that advanced re aders w ho are lim ite d to a
grade-level re ading prog ram do regress on standard ized tests and in th eir pace of
progress (CAG, 1999; Reis , 20 01). At the same time, other studies substan ti ate that
wh en advanced readers are taught with resources and instruction commensurate
wi th their needs and abilities, regression does not take place. By eliminating work on
skills already mastered and progressing through the language arts curriculu m at an
accelerated pace, students generally continued to extend the ir read ing proficiency
(Gentry, 1999; Kulik & Kulik , 1996). The evidence from these research stud ies
demonstrates that to continue optimum learning, advanced readers need to be ch al­
lenged through instruction at their highest readiness level and most appro priate
pace. Teachers need support and strategies to manage this challenge wi thin the
diversity of a classroom that also includes a wide range of children who expe ri ence
difficulty in learning to read.
T he read ing strategies presented in this publication are des igned to prov id e
teachers with alternatives and re pl acement tas ks to use in differentia ti ng lesso ns
for students who are assessed as developed on the Texas Primary Readi ng
Inventory (T PRI ) or other appropriate reading tests . After teacher modeli ng and
demonstrations , advanced students can use many of these strategies individ uall y
or in small groups as teachers provide direct instruction to other groups of stud ents .
The strategies and examples in this book have been assembled from teachi ng
experiences based upon research and responses to the nature and needs of gifted
learn ers. All of the strategies relate to the Task Force's Position Statement th at follows .
Texas Reading Initiative Task Force For the
Education of Pritnary GiFted Children
POSITION STATEMENT
The goal of the Te xas Reading Ini tiative is for all children to read on or above
grade leve l by the end of the third grade. A lthough this goal is critical , it is
minimal relative to st uden ts wh o read well. The Texas Reading Initiativ e
does not intend fo r advanced rea de rs to stagnate or re gress. Rather, the
objective is that all stude nts, in clu ding advanced reade rs , receive in struction
and materials com men surate w ith the ir abilities. Ad va nc ed reade rs must
p ro gress at their approp riate rate , wh ich is ty picall y more t ha n one grad e
level per year. The result of ignoring gifted rea ders is educa tionall y an d emo­
tiona lly unj ust to these chil dren .
2
In trod uctio n
The Task Force also developed the following eleven Reading Re com mendation s
fo r Advanced Learners. As each strategy is discussed throughout this pu blication , th e
applicable Reading Recommendations are listed .
Texas Reading Initiative Task Force "'or the
Education
0'"
Primary Gif"ted Children
Reading Recommendations
'for Advanced Learners
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
Use preinstruction assess me nt to accu rately dete rmine stu d ents'
instructi on al and independent levels of reading .
Use a va riety of assessments beyond sta ndardized achievement tests
to document students' progress and gui de in struction .
Use strategies geared to gifted students' instructi ona l needs in cluding
cu rriculum compacting , advanced content, app ro pri ate pacing, and
above grade-level materials .
Focus on far greater depth and complexity.
Incorporate into reading programs rich, inviting tasks requ iring spati al
as well as analytical and abstract thinking.
Encoura ge students to develop more complex , high-level compre hen ­
sion and reach advanced interpretations.
Encourage and support advanced levels of vocabula ry an d word stu dy .
Promote students' research using tech no logy to gen erate original inves­
tigations and adva nced products.
Provide frequent opportunities for students to explore authentic text an d
a variety of genres .
Allow students to pursue individual interests through reading.
Provide examples of supe rior w ork in order to challenge students to
ever-increasing levels of excellence.
This publication briefly discusses the characteristics and needs of advanced and
gifted readers and then addresses differenti ation strategies for readin g instru ction. The
strategi es include authentic assess me nt and docum entation , curri cul um compacting ,
tiered assi gnmen ts, fl exible grouping , high -level thi nking and in quiry, visu al tools for
indivi duals or grou ps , an d voca bul ary and w ord play. Ea ch strateg y incl ud es a brief
explanation, connectio ns fo r adva nced and gifted learners, di scu ssion of research, and
Rea ding Strategies fo r Adva nced Primary Reade rs
3
multiple applications appropriate to primary advanced readers . Printed-text and intern et
resources are listed at the end of each se ction. This publication concludes w ith an
Appendix addressing assessment as a guide to reading instruction.
ReFerences
CAG (California Association for the Gifted). (1999).
Academic advocacy for the forgotten readers-­
Gifted and advanced learners. Communicator, 30 (1): 1,33-35.
Chall, J . & Conard, W. (1991). Should textbooks challenge students? The case for easier or
harder textbooks. New York: Teachers College Press.
Gentry, M. (1999) . Promoting student achievement and exemplary classroom practices through
cluster grouping: A research-based alternative to heterogeneous elementary classrooms.
Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Jackson, N . & Roller , C. (1993). Reading with young children . Storrs, CT: The National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented .
Kulik , J. & Kulik, C. (1996). Ability grouping and gifted students . In Colangelo , N. & Davis, G.,
Eds. Handbook of gifted education, 2nd ed. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Reis, S. (2001). What can we do with talented readers? Teaching for High Potential, 111(1): 1-2.
4
Introduction
UNDERSTANDING
ADVA
CED AND
G
F I
D READERS
A myriad of characte ris tics are associated with
advanced potential. The brief list shared in this sectio n is spe­
cific to beha viors demo nstrated in language arts in struction
rather than inclusive of all areas of the curriculu m. It is not
exp ected that a gifted reader w oul d demonstrate all or even
most of the li sted behaviors. Hence, the behaviors are wo rded
as to what adva nced and gifted readers may demonstrate in
order to provide teachers with so me specific ideas re ga rding
what gifte dness looks and sounds like as children learn
together.
The list is organized into seven categories characte ristic
of advanced and g ifted students (Kingore, 2001). All children
may demonstra te some of the characteristics in these cate­
gories so me of the tim e. For exam ple , all children can and
should en gage in an alytical thin king . However, adva nced and
gifted students sta nd out in these categori es as their responses
are noticed as beyond expectations, more complex, accele ra ted,
and higher-level th an the behaviors of age-mates .
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Using these seven categ ories , a distincti on between
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advanc ed and gifted students becomes cleare r. While
advanced stude nts may excel in one or more categorie s,
gi fted st ud e nts typi ca lly excel in three o r more categories. Advanced read ers may
on ly demonstrate ad vanc ed level s in rea din g (Jackson et ai, 1993), w here as gifted
readers may al so use their advan ced readi ng abili ty to ac cele ra te learn ing in oth er
academ ic areas .
Reading Stra tegies for Advan ced Primary R eaders
5
However bright students may be, they are less li kely to dem onstrate
ad vanc ed or gifted performance if learning experiences are limited to the regu lar,
grade -level reading curriculum. Duke (2000) foun d inform ational te xts almost nonex­
iste nt in first gra de classrooms, yet gifted readers demonstrate a vo ra cious appetite
for nonfiction. Other studies admonish that instruction in most reg ular cla sses
includes few, if any, provisions for advanced or gifted learners (Ross, 1993;
We stberg et ai, 1993).
Students' behaviors can be perceived as positive or negative depending upon
the situation and the observer (Ki ngore, 2001). Richert (1997; 1982) noted that
behaviors interpreted as negative tend to screen gifted students out of consideration
for gifted programs. Slocumb and Payne (2000) stress that teachers must cons ider
both positive and negative behaviors if students from poverty are to be recog nized
for their gifted potentials . Thus, both the positive and negative manifestatio ns of gift­
edness are included in this overview . To accent the relationship between both points
of view , the negative behaviors are correlated to the positive gifted characteris tic
tha t may be associated.
Categories of Characteristics
of Advanced and Gifted Readers
POSITIVE CHARACTERISTICS
Advanced Language
•
•
•
•
Reads one to five years or more above grade level
Is articulate; has advanced oral skills and a strong vocabulary
Uses language ability to display leadership qualities
R ads differently fo r different pu rpose s or materia ls
Analytical Thinking
•
•
•
•
6
Dem onstra te s comple x and abstract thi nking w he n resp on ding to text
Works an advanced proble m to its con clusion
Co nnects id eas acro ss a range of circums tances an d materi als
Enj oys lo gi c prob lems, comp lex puzzles , and word g ames
Understanding Advanced and Gifted Reade rs
Meaning Motivation
•
•
•
•
Makes philosophical statements that exceed expectations for age
Prefers to work independently
Concentrates/reads for long periods of time on a topic of personal, interest
Asks penetrating, intellectual questions
Perspective
• Is creative or inventive in approaches to problems
•
•
•
Oral interpretations and written responses represent multiple points of view
Draws pictures from unexpected angles and dimensions
Infers possibilities missed by peers: It could also mean that...
Sense of Humor
•
•
•
•
Understands humor and puns missed by age peers in a story
Uses figurative language for humorous effect
Has a more sophisticated sense of humor and understands adults' jokes
Enjoys books with multiple layers of humor
Sensitivity
•
•
•
•
Wants to discuss character motivation with a depth that exceeds the interest
of peers
Expresses concern for human needs in the story, community, and world
Verbally or nonverbally demonstrates concern for the feelings and motivations
of characters, peers, or adults
Seeks resolution for anything perceived as injustice
A ccelerated Learning
•
•
•
•
•
Seeks and enjoys advanced-level challenges
Requires minimum repetition for mastery of language arts skills
Displays musical, artistic, numerical, mechanical, or intel,lectual abilities beyond
expectations for age
Wants to read and develop a depth and complexity of information about a
topic beyond the interests or attention span of most classmates
Accesses data with ease using an unexpected variety of technological tools
and printed resources
Adapted from the KOI (Kingore, 2001)
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
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Is self-critical; impatient with failures
Appears bored with routine curriculum
Makes jokes or puns at inappropriate times
Refuses to do rote homework
Shows erratic behavior; easily upset ; ove rreacts
Does messy work
Is demanding of teachers' and other adults ' ti m e
Dominates other children
Se ems intolerant of othe rs
Is reluctant to move to another topic
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NEGATIVE CHARACTERISTICS
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Adapted from Ri chert (1997, 1982 ) and Kingore (2 001).
Expectations to Ponder
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Advanced and gifted readers are children first and need to be valued for who
they are, not what they are . C onsider the following points as you plan approp riat e
lea rn ing experiences to match the readiness level of advanced readers .
• The younger the ch ild, the more inconsistent the test behaviors (Jac kson &
Roller, 1993; Roede ll et aI., 1980).
• Ch ildren may have gifted heads and hearts , but their hands are more age -bound .
G ifted primary children may have poor co ordi nation and may not enjoy length y
written tasks (Kingore , 2 00 1).
• Many gifted ch ildren are as ynchron ous--the levels of th eir cogn itive , social , and
physi cal development vary. Sk ills in some academ ic are as may be signif icantly
above age expectati ons while other areas ma y match regul ar curriculum expec­
tati ons (Silverm an, 1993).
8
Unders tanding Ad vanced and Gifted Rea ders
•
•
•
•
•
C hildren can be advanced in reading and not in other academic areas . All preco­
ci ous readers are not necess ari ly gifte d. All gifted children are not nece ssaril y
advanced in reading (Jackson & Roller, 1993) .
The most sophisticated and enthusiastic precocious readers are those chil dren who
have driven their parents and teachers to keep up with them (Jackson & Roller, 1993).
Reading materials for advanced and gifted readers need to be sufficiently challenging
and engaging yet appropriate in con tent. Materials should match both thei r linguistic
and social/emotional development (Polette, 2000; Jackson & Roller, 1993).
Many talented students become underachievers in later grades if their le arni ng
environments are unchallenging (Reis et ai , 1995).
Recognizing that some students have gifted potentials does not make the m more
important or more valuable. Having gifted potential means that students le arn dif ­
ferently tha n others--not th at they are better than others (Kin gore, 2001) .
Girted Readers Like ...
A classic study by Dole and Adams (1983) , surveyed gifted students to eli cit
th eir perceptions of the most important attri butes of good reading materials. A sum ­
mary of those findings is included here .
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Sophisticated begi nning-to-read books
N uanced language
M ultidimensional ch aracters
Visually inventive picture bo oks
Playful th inking
Unusual connections; finding patterns and parallels within and among books
Abstractions and analogies
A blend of fantasy an d non-fiction
Extraordinary quantities of inform ation about a favorite topic
Books about gifted children
Use this info rma ti on as a guide to prepare questions for surveying gifted stu­
dents in your class or even all of the gifted students in you r sc hool. W hat do they most
like or dislike about re ad ing? W hat do th ey most want in bo o ks an d sto ri es ? W ha t
makes them pick up a book and w ant to read it? We can better custom ize readi ng
in structi on to challenge advanced re adiness le ve ls an d motivate gifted lea rn ers wh en
we und ers ta nd how to more cl osely match their preference s an d in te rest.
Re ading Strate gies for Advanced Primary Readers
9
References
Dole, J. & Adams, P. (1983). Reading curriculum for gifted readers A
survey. Gifted Child Quarterly, 27.
Duke, N. (2000). 3.6 minutes per day: The scarcity of international texts in
first grade. Reading Research Quarterly, 35, 202-224.
Kingore, B. (2001). The Kingore observational inventory (KOI) , 2nd ed.
Austin: Professional Associates Publishing.
Jackson, N. & Roller, C. (1993). Reading with young children. Storrs, CT: The National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Polette , N. (2000). Gifted books, gifted readers . Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited, Inc.
Reis , S., Hebert, T , Diaz, E., Maxfield, L., & Ratley , M. (1995). Case studies of talented students
who achieve and underachieve in an urban high school. Storrs, CT: National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Richert, E, Alvino , J., & McDonnel, R. (1982). National report on identification: Assessment and
recommendations for comprehensive identification of gifted and talented youth . Washington,
DC: U.S. Department of Education, Educational Information Resource Center.
Richert, E. (1997). Rampant problems and promising practices in identification. In N. Colangelo &
G. Davis, Eds. Handbook of gifted education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Roedel!, W., Jackson, N, & Robinson, H. (1980). Gifted young children. New York: Teachers
College Press.
Ross, P (1993). National excellence. The case for developing America 's talent. Washington, DC:
U.S. Department of Education , Office of Educational Research and Improvement.
Silverman , L. (1993) . Counseling the gifted and talented. Denver: Love Publishing Company.
Slocumb , P & Payne, R. (2000). Removing the mask.' Giftedness in poverty. Highlands, TX: RFT
Publishing.
Westberg, K, Archambault, F, Jr, Dobyuns, S , & Salvin, T. (1993). The classroom practices
observation study. Journal for the Education of the Gifted, 16(2), 120-146.
Additional Resources
Collins, N. and Alex, N. (1995). Gifted readers and reading instruction. ERIC Digest, EDO-CS-95-04 .
Halstead, J. (1994) . Some of my best friends are books. Dayton, OH: Ohio Psychology Press .
Kingore, B. (2001) . Gifted kids, gifted characters, & great books. Gifted Child Today, 24 (1), 30-32 .
Polette , N. (2001). Non fiction in the primary grades. Marion , IL: Pieces of Learning.
10
Understanding Advanced and Gifted Readers
Webography
Hoagies Gifted Educations. <www.hoagiesgifted.org>
=
.
National Association for Gifted Children (NAGC). <www.nagc.org>
NRC/GT online resources. National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented.
<www.gifted.uconn.edu/nrconlin.html>
Texas Association for the Gifted and Talented (TAGT). <www.txgifted.org>
Texas Education Agency (TEA). <www .tea.state.tx.us>
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
11
12
Understanding Advan ced and Gifted Readers
AUTHE
IC
A S S E S S M E N T:
OOCU
ENTATION
OF
EARN NG
Strategy Introduction
Assessment drives instruction as it documents that
learnin g has occurred and guides which instruction al objec­
tives to pursue. To be authentic, assessment must be ongoing ,
occur in natural learning situation s, and involve real learning
tasks. Those tasks should require students to generate
responses rather than choose am ong descriptors, as in a
forced choice response.
It is important to use a ba lan ce of data from authentic
assessments and standardized tools. A combination of tests
and assessments ensures a more accurate cons ideration of
the multiple facets of children's talents.
For the gifted primary re ader, comp rehen sion should
be assessed authentically. A test in which students list the
name of the main cha ra cter and bubble-in the main id ea lim­
its the gifted stude nt's opportunities to dem onstrate more
advanced inte rp reta tions. Oral summaries via tape reco rders,
creatio n of a hyper- studio stack for use by other students,
read ing/writi ng log s , and other cre ative, open -e nded option s
pro vide broader opportu ni ties to de monstrate comprehensi on
depth and complexity.
Reading Strategies for Advan ced Primary Readers
13
Assessment tasks provide tangible evidence of students' understa nding an d
growth before instruction begins (preasse ssmen t) , as instruction progresses (forma ­
tive assessment), and at the end of a segment of instruction (summative assessment)
(Tomlinson, 2002). Many teachers need a larger repertoire of authentic asses sment
procedures to implement with their students, so a variety of options are discu ssed in
this section.
Read ing Recommendations for Advanced Learners
Authentic assessment is applicable to the following reading recommendations that are listed on page
three: 1,2,4,6, 10, and 11.
Texas State Plan for the Education of Gifted/Talented Students
Several statements in the Texas State Plan (2000) support incorporating authentic assessment for
documentation of the learning achievements of gifted students.
School districts assure an array of learning opportunities that are commensurate with the abilities
of gifted/talented students .. (2 .1A; 3.1A; 19 TAC §89.3)
Program options enable gifted/talented students to work together as a group, work with other
students, and work independently ... (2.2A; 19 TAC §89.3(1))
School districts shall ensure that student assessment and services comply with accountability
standards ... (2.6A ; 10 TAC §89.5)
Opportunities are provided for students to pursue areas of interest in selected disciplines through
guided and independent research. (3.1.1 R)
A continuum of learning experiences is provided that leads to the development of advanced-level
products and/or performances . (3.2A; 19 TAC §89.3(2))
Student progress/performance in programs for the gifted is periodically assessed, and this
information is communicated to parents or guardians. (3.6R)
Overview
0'(
Research
Authentic assessment applications are required to provide curriculu m and
instruction appropriate for advanced an d gifted learn ers. Researchers document the
followin g .
• Early assessment of a child's reading and writing ski ll s may fa ci litate the deve lop­
ment of appropriate curriculum for both precoci ous an d slow-to-devel op rea ders
(Jackson & Roll er, 1993).
• Gifted learn ers should experie nce co nsistent opportunities to demonstra te previous
maste ry before a parti cular un it of work is taught (Wi ne bren ner, 20 01 ).
14
Authentic Assessment
•
Gifted readers may be able to read at a higher level than they can comprehe nd
(Assouline , 1997). However, ass essmen t may docu men t that they also co mpre­
hend at a hig he r level than adults assume.
A curriculum to develop high potentials assesses both concrete and abstract
products. Concrete prod ucts (skills and the range of things stude nts produce) are
vehicles through which abstra ct products are developed and appli ed. Abstract
products are the more en durin g and tran sferable outcomes of learni ng, includ ing
framew orks of kno w ledge , ideas, problem-solving strategies, atti tud es, values,
and self-efficacy (Tomlinson et ai, 2002).
Effective curriculu m helps learners monitor their work to ensure competent
approaches to problem solving. It involves students in setting goals for their
learning and assessing the ir progress toward those goals (Tomlinso n et ai, 2002).
•
•
Applications
II
Types of Authentic Assessment
A wide range of assessm ent processes are appro pri ate for primary learne rs .
An alphabetized list of assess ment techniques, their pu rp oses , and their app lications
to advan ce d or gift ed re aders is shared on the next page. Teachers are encou rag ed
to select from this li st the types of assessments that match their instructi ona l pri orities
and students' needs.
Uses of Authentic Assessment
/
Assessment Before Instruction
Many ed uca to rs ass ociate assess ing with te sti ng; however, child ren may not
dem onstrate the rang e of the ir talents on a test. Hence, preassessment instead of
pretesting is use d to accent the incorpo ratio n of mu ltiple for mats in addition to tests
in ord er to gai n inform atio n about stud ents. (The Appendix of th is publ ica ti on elabo ­
ra tes the values and process of using assess ment to gui de read ing instruction .)
Resu lts from preassessm ents must be em ployed to gu ide tea chers' use of curri culum
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary R eaders
15
READING ASSESSMENT FOR ADVANCED READERS
T EC HNIQUE
PURPOSE
A DVA NCED READERS
Assessm ent procedures
accompanyin g published
grade-level materials
Varies according to
publisher
Ch ecklists
Guide observations
Identify skill needs & pace
Interest inventories
Determine fiction and
nonfiction reading interests
Plan independent reading,
learning activities/projects
Literature circles
Assess advanced comprehen­
sion, fluency , and level
Prompt depth and complexity
of interpretation
Perform ance Tasks
Integrate multiple skills at
appropriate readiness level
Determine transfer and
independent application
Portfolio
Document advanced
achievement and growth
Prompt advanced-level
responses and products
Process interviews or
conferences
Gain insight into student's
metacognitive processes
Assess independent
strategies and achievement
Records of independe nt
reading and writing
Keep tra ck of quantity and
quality of reading
Assess student's interests,
attitudes, habits , and levels
Responses to literature
Assess comprehension,
level s of reading, and use of
word re cognition strategies
Prompt depth and comp lexity
of interpretation; assess
achievement level
Retelli ngs
Assess comprehension and
interpretations
Prompt depth and complexity
of interpretation
Running records
Assess fluency and transfe r of
decoding strategies
Identify skill needs
Student self-evaluations
Increase student responsibility
for learning ; elicit student's
Enhan ce motivation for
perceptions
fo cusing on a grade
Assess comprehension, word
Compare growth over time ;
insure that beyond grade­
level growth co ntinu es
Teacher-selected reading
samples
16
Often inappropriate;
seldom geared to advanced
readers ' leveis
recognition strategies , fluency ,
and readiness level
excellence rather than only
Authe ntic As sessment
compacting, tiered as signm ents , an d flexible grou ps. Preassessme nt is needed to
accomplish the followin g:
• Determine students ' instructional reading levels and ski ll needs .
• Group students fle xib ly by readiness and sk ills that need to be learned.
• A nalyze students' application of reading strategies .
• Pro vide information for selecting and pa ci ng appropriate instructional materia ls .
TYPES OF ASSESSMENT THAT CAN BE USED AS PREASSESSMENTS
..J
CJ
U
0
/
Che cklists
Interest inventories
Observations
Perform ance tas ks
Process interviews
::J
0
0
0
0
Records of independent reading
Running records
Students ' self-evaluations
Teachers '-selected readi ng samples
Writing samples
Formative and Summative Assessments
Formative assessments should occur throughout a unit of study to guide a
te acher's instructional decis io n-makin g . Checklis ts, participation in literature circl es,
observations, process inte rviews, retellings , and running records are some exa m­
ples that are effective for the feedback a teacher needs to determine the pa ci ng of
reading instruction.
Su mmative asses sme nts document students ' levels of achievement fo llowing
in struction and guide the flexib le regrouping of students for reteach ing or advancing
to the next instructional segment. Performance tas ks, products from stude nts'
responses to literature , reteliin gs, and students' self-evaluations are effective exam­
ples of summative assessments in rea ding .
/
Students' Self-assessments
Students in crease th eir res ponsibility for their ow n le arning by asse ssing
their wo rk befo re it is graded or shared w it h others . One foc us of self-as sessm ent
with pri ma ry-aged chi ldren is the us e of metaco gnitive resp ons es (dev el op ed later
in thi s section ). A secon d focus is the use of ru brics.
Rubrics are gu idelines to qua lity . T he y pro vide a c le arer vi ew of the merits
and deme rits of students' work than grades alone can comm unicate. Rubrics show
Reading Stra tegies for Advance d Prima ry Readers
17
stud ents how the y are responsible for the grades they earn rather than to con tin ue
to view grades as something som eone gives them (Kingore, 2 002) . Picto rial rubrics
are effective for children with limited reading and writing deve lopment. To use th e
exa mple on the next page, a student or teacher fills in the ki nd of product or task
at the top of the rubric . In the blanks at the bottom of the form, teache rs fill in th eir
preferred evaluation scale, such as less than expected, appropriate work, very well
done, and outstanding work. After modeling and su ccessful expe riences wi th mu lti­
ple rubrics, some gifted learners may be able to develop their own ru bri cs and other
methods to assess their independent study projects (Winebrenner, 2001).
The criteria on a rubric should inform students what attributes to incl ude in a
product to demonstrate their understanding of the information they acquire . Criteri a
must accent con te nt rather than just focus on appearance and how to comp lete the
product. Wi th adva nced and gifted learners the emphasis should include depth and
complexity.
Complexity
Too simple or
not appropriate
Simple informa­
tion ; limited
critical thinking
Information shows
critical thinking;
compares and
contrasts
Beyond expected
level, analyzes
from multiple
points of view
Content
depth
Needs more
information or
more accurate
Information
Needs to add
depth or
elaboration
Covers topic well;
develops tnforma­
tion beyond facts
and details
PrecIse; in-depth;
supports content
Adapted from: Rubrics and More! (Kingore, 2002)
/
Determining In terests
Teache rs use ongoing assessment of students' interests and learning profi les
for the purpose of matching ins tructional tasks to students' needs (Toml inson, 1999).
Inte re st inventories , interviews, and conference s pro vide insights into stu den ts '
in terests and passio ns , thu s gu iding opp ortunities for tea cher- s ugge sted and stu­
de nts' self-selected rea ding materia ls . Adva nced and gifted reade rs need time to
pursue the ir in terests throu gh reading. They requi re access to f ictio n materi als and
inform ati on a l te xts seve ral grade leve ls ab ove th e cl ass averag e to co ntinue their
read ing devel op men t.
18
Authentic As sessmen t
~
~
I
I
1.
Complete and deta il ed
2.
Content and informa tion
I wro
3.
Organization
4.
Neat and attractive
I wrote a
little.
I wrote some.
I learned.
I wrote
interesting
information.
I tried to
learn more.
IiIII..
_
Reprinted wi th permission : Kingore, B. (2002) . Rub rics and Morel
~
• •_ _ _ _ _ _ _~
A~us~t~in~~
: Profess
~
i ona l Associates P
::..:~
u b~l
i s~h~
in~
g .:...
. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
Reading S trategies fo r Advanced Primary Readers
19
My goal is _ _ _ _ _ _ _~_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
What I will do to achieve my goal _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
When I want to reach my goal _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
On the back, write what you accomplish.
/
Goal Setting
As active participants in their learning, students are encouraged to review
their work, assess its strengths, and then set goals for growth and development.
Most primary students need modeling and assistance to 'l earn how to set realistic,
appropriate goals and plan specific steps to accomplish their goals. Goal setting is
particularly useful to increase independence when advanced and gifted students
work on rep lacement tasks and independent or guided studies . The contract exam­
ples in Curriculum Compacting serve as effective next steps after goal setting .
II
Student-Managed Portfolios
Farr (1998) describes a portfolio as evidence of the student's progress
as a thinker and language user. Kingore (1999) describes a portfolio as
a systematic collection of student work selected largely by that student
to provide information about the student's attitudes, motivation, levels of
achievements, and growth over time.
Portfolios offer a concrete record of the development of students' talents and
achievements during a year or more. In classrooms where all students develop
po rtfolios, the portfolio process enables each student to be noticed for the level of
products he or she produces. In this manner, portfolios increase inclusion instead
of exclusion by providing multiple opportunities for chi!dren from every population
to demon strate talents and gifted potential. Portfolio assessment allows schools to
honor the diversity of students and discover the strengths of each learner.
20
Authentic Assessment
Examples of Portfolio Products
PRODUCT
EXPLANATION
PURPOSE
Art
Art pieces should include the child 's natural,
creative explorations and interpretations
(rather than crafts).
Art reflects developmental levels, interests ,
graphic talents, abstract thinking, and cre­
ativity.
Audio tapes
The child tapes story retellings, explanations of
advanced concepts, philosophical viewpoints ,
musical creations, problem solutions, and ideas.
Audio tapes verify vocabulary, fluency, cre­
ativity , high-order thinking, and concept
depth .
Computer
products
Document computer skills through applications
of more sophisticated software, word processing
products, and programs created by the child.
Computer-generated products indicate com­
puter literacy, analysis , content-related acade­
mic skills, and applied concepts.
Dictations
Write the child's dictated explanation of a prod­
uct or process . Prompt these dictations with
statements such as: "Tell me about your work, "
or "Tell me how you did that."
Dictations increase adults' understanding of
the why and how of what children do. It may
indicate advanced vocabulary, high-level
thinking, fluency, and content depth.
Graphs or
charts
Some children produce graphs or charts to rep­
resent relationships, formulate problems, illus­
trate math solutions, and demonstrate the
results of independent investigations.
Graphs or charts demonstrate specific skills
or concepts applied in the task , high-level
thinking, data recording strategies, and orga­
nizational skills .
Photographs
Photograph the child 's math patterns, creative
projects, dioramas, SCUlptures, constructions,
experiments , models, or organizational systems.
Photographs represent three-dimensional
products . They provide a record when no
paper product is feasible .
Reading
level
Duplicate one or two examples of text the child
reads independently. Include the child's reflec­
tion of the book to demonstrate analysis skills.
Date the product.
Text samples help document reading level
and the child's sophistication when interpret­
ing advanced-level material.
Research
Gifted students usually have information and
expertise beyond the age-level expectations in
one or more areas . Share examples of the
independent studies pursued by the child.
Research products reveal specific interests ,
synthesis, content depth, and complexity of
the learner's thinking.
Video tape
Video tapes are wonderful ways to document
performing arts, the child's learning process,
and oversized products. Limit tape entries to
three to five minutes to encourage the child to
plan the presentation.
A video presents a significant visual record
and integration of skills and behaviors. When
recording group interactions, a video can
demonstrate interpersonal and leadership
skills.
Written
products
Provide examples of original works written by
the child including stories, reports, scientific
observations, poems , or reflections.
Written products may demonstrate advanced
language , thinking, organization , meaning
construction, concept depth, and complexity .
Adapted from: Kingore, B. (2000) . Parent assessment of giftedness : Using portfolios Tempo , XX (2), 6-8
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
21
Primary-aged children can learn to be responsible for organizing and manag­
ing a portfolio of their work that documents agreed-upon criteria. Child ren learn to file
the ir selected work in the back of their portfolio so it approximates a chronological
order and clarifies growth over time . Increasing emphasis on students' self-reflections
and making judgments about their products is one of the values of portfolios for all
children .
Values of Portfolios for Advanced and Gifted Children
• Products can be assessed for a level of depth and complexity appropriate for
advanced-level products .
• Products can demonstrate all areas of giftedness.
• The portfolio can be shared with parents or other professionals to document the
growth and achievements of gifted students.
• Portfolios pro vide examples of superior work for gifted students to share among
themselves as models to challenge ever-increasing levels of excellence.
However, portfolios will not document advanced and gifted potenti als if t hey
are limited to a collectio n of grade-level tasks. Only to the degree that portfoli os
include children's highest levels of performance on a wide array of challenging tasks
can th e portfolio process substantiate giftedness. With young children, portfolios
must incl ude more th an just paper and pencil products to document their range of
giftedness. Examples of products for a portfolio with an explanation and purpose for
eac h are included in this section .
II
Metacognition
As childre n read in sch oo l, they need to be guided in their dev elopment of
metacognitive or self-monitoring strategies so that these important skills become an
internalized part of their regula r reading behavior (Cecil, 1995). Metacognition is
referred to as thinking about thinking . It invites children to bring their thinking to a
conscious level and provides a wi ndow that increases adults' understanding of stu­
dents' behaviors . A parent reported that her second-grade daughter did not want to
pa rt icipate in a discu ssion about a book she had immensely enjoyed, be ca us e "I
have already discussed it with myself." Since gifted readers are so cons ciously
involved in introspection, teachers should continually analyze students' behavio rs
and talk with them to make sense of what is occurring in learn in g si tuations.
(A bil ock , 1999)
22
Aut hent ic Asse ss men t
Teachers can prom pt metacognitive responses with young children throug h
one or more reflective questions, such as the following . Children can re spo nd orally
to these metacognitive qu estions or write brief responses to explain their th inking.
The last four questions approach a more complex interpretation particularly appro­
priate for advanced and gifted stUdents.
META COGNITIVE QUESTIONS
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
/
Tell me about your w ork.
What did you thi nk was easy to do and hard to do?
What changes would yo u want to make?
What is the most im portant thing you learned from this?
What do you do w hen you are reading and yo u find a word you do not know?
When might it be a goo d idea to reread something?
Why do you th ink that is so?
How did the author caus e you to infer/conclude that?
What evidence can yo u use to support that?
If you did not kn ow, w hat would you do to get the most information?
Think-alouds
Thi nk-al oud is a m eta cognitive strategy th at te achers initially model with stu­
de nts a nd then en courage stUd ents to practice in small groups . In this app roach,
teach ers verbally share with st uden ts the cognitive processes or thinking th at they
go thro ugh as they re ad . Cons ider th e following partial think-aloud a teacher mod els
for lea rn ing to infe r mai n ideas .
As I read through th is paragraph I can immediately tell that the topic of
it is space travel because it mentions outer space, rockets , and planets .
Even though mention is made of early pioneers, I can see that this is
only a point of compa rison. I notice that all of the points compared show
me how early pioneer tra vel and space travel have been similar
(Cooper, 1993, 459).
Th ink-a lou ds must be done within the con text of a specific text to av oid the
activity becoming nothing mo re than modelin g of an iso lated skill (Ro ehler & Duffy,
1991 ). Te achers can use thin k-alouds to model high-level comp reh ens ion pro cess es
with ad van ced pri mary stud ents.
R eadin g Strategies fo r A dva nced Prima ry Readers
23
/
Reading Logs
Reading logs (or journa ls ) are reading records and responses that ch ildren
complete individually. The logs include lists of completed books and interesting
books to read, interpretations and reactions to the materials read, and questions to
pursue through other readings or discussions. Students should write entries several
times a week . If the logs are completed less often, they may be vi ewed by students
as less important and, therefore , deserving of limited effort.
/
Product Captions
Metacognition
intensifies the
assessment value of portfolios for young
children. Children select a product for
their portfolio and staple on a caption (a
brief statement that reflects their thinking
about their work) . The caption can be a
sentence children write on a blank paper
=._L. >.Fe"-,-".~)QliC ,,,,-[ waDted to
_ __
put thi! in my portfolio btcalM:
.li
[am plOUd of mg worl
o
I tooi tiJrwl and thought hard.
~ - ----- -- -------- - -- -------- -- --- ------ - ------------- - --- -- - --- -- ---- --- ----- -------- --
<
NAME _ _ __ __ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
DATE _ _ _ _ __ __ _ __
I wanted to put this in my portfolio because:
o
o
I am proud of my work.
I took time and thought hard.
f-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- j
f--- ----------------------------- -- ------------------------------ ----------------------------j
111_ _ _ _ _­
-------~
Rep rin ted with pe rm ission: Kingo re, B. (1999). As sessment, 2nd ed . Aus ti n Pro fessio na l Asso ci ates Publ is hing.
24
Auth en ti c Assessmen t
or a simple duplicated form children complete . In the example form on the pre vio us
page, children write their name, date , check a criterion statement, and/or write a
response. Some young children like to draw a face to show how they feel abo ut th eir
work .
Captions for portfolio products can also list learning standards that advanced
and gifted students check to substantiate the learning objectives applie d in their
replacement tasks and independent or guided studies. An example of this metacog­
nitive device follows . Captions with standards encourage students to be resp o nsible
for their own learning , think about what they are learning, and conside r wha t they still
want to learn . The captions crystallize the harmony of the concrete product and the
product's abstract quality of more enduring learning, such as frameworks of knowl­
edge, strategi es, attitudes, and self-efficacy (Tomlinson et ai , 2002). As adults review
products , these captions document a student's learning so redundan t activities can
be avoided.
~ ---------------------- --- - ---------------------------- - -- - - ----- --------------- -- - ----
...
o
ro
cm
\)
NAME _ _ _ __ __ _ _ _ __ _
DATE _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
This work sh ows th at I can
I feel
Demonstrated object ives / skills:
o
o
Cause and effect
o
Surnrnar'j
P oints of view
o
Understanding feeli ngs
of characte rs
Sequential order
Adapted from : Kin go re, B . (1999) .
A s :;!~s s men t ,
R eading Strategie s for A dva nce d Prim ary R eaders
2 nd ed . A ustin: Profess ion al Assoc iate s Pu blis hi ng.
25
ReFerences
Abilock, D. (1999). Librarians and gifted readers. Knowledge Quest,
27, 30-35.
Assouline, S . G. (1997). Assessment of gifted children. In N. Colangelo
& G. Davis, Eds. Handbook of gifted education (89-108).
Boston : Allyn & Bacon .
Cecil , N. (1995) . The art of inquiry : Questioning strategies for K-6 classrooms. Winnipeg, MB,
Canada : Peguin Publishers.
Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) . (2001). Put reading first : The
research building blocks for teaching children to read. Jessup, MD: National Institute for
Literacy at ED Pubs.
Cooper, J. (1993) . Literacy: Helping children construct meaning, 2nd ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin .
Farr, R & Tone , B. (1998). Portfolio and performance assessment: Helping students evaluate their
progress as readers and writers, 2nd ed. Fort Worth : Harcourt Brace College Publishers.
Jackson, N. & Roller, C. (1993) . Reading with young children. Storrs, CT: The National Research
Center on the Gifted and Talented.
Kingore , B. (2002). Rubrics and morel Austin : Professional Associates Publishing.
(1999). Assessment: Time-saving procedures for busy teachers . Austin: Professional
Associates Publishing.
National Reading Panel (NRP) . (2000). Teaching children to read . An evidence-based
assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for
reading instruction. Jessup, MD: National Institute for Literacy at ED Publishers.
Roehler, L. & Duffy, G. (1991) Teacher 's instructional actions. In R Barr, M. Kamil, P. Mosenthal,
& P. Pearson (Eds.) , Handbook of reading research, 2,861-883 . New York Longman .
Tomlinson, C., Kaplan, S ., Renzulli , J " Purcell, J ., Leppien , J., & Burns , D. (2002) . The parallel
curriculum: A design to develop high potential and challenge high-ability learners.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press .
Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners.
Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Winebrenner, S. (2001). Teaching gifted kids in the regular classroom, 2nd ed. Minneapolis:
Free Spirit Publishing .
26
Authentic Assessment
Additional Resources
Coil, C. & Merritt, D. (2001). Solving the assessment puzzle piece by piece. Marion, IL : Pieces
of Learning
Popham, J. (1993). Educational testing in America: What's right and what's wrong? A criterion refer­
enced perspective. Educational Measurement: Is sues and Practice , 12(1),11-14
Webography
Assessment resources and tools. Center for Research on Learning at the
=
University of Kansas. <www.4 teachers .org/ profd/assessment.shtml>
,.
S \
Assessment and technology in early childhood. National Center for Research on Evaluation ,
Standards, and Student Testing (CRESST) . <www.cse.ucla.edu/cresstlfiles/elbserve.ppt>
Authentic assessment reso urce links. Bowling Green State University.
<w ww .bgsu.edu/organizations/ctl/aa.html>
Authentic assessment resources. University of Northern Iowa. <www.un i.edu/profdev/assess .h tml >
Full text internet library of assessment and evaluation. Educational Resource Information
Center (ERIC). <www.ericae.netlftlib.htm>
Texas reading initiative: Early reading assessments. Texas Education Agency (TEA).
<www. tea .s tate.tx .us/reading/interestlearreaass.html>
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
27
28
Authentic As ses sm ent
CU
COM
C
LUM
ACTI
G
Strategy Introduction
..... ........ ..........
.... _----•.. _
...... __ .._........
_" -
_---_
__ __
.....,.........
.
T
Curri cu lum compactin g is an instructional strategy
desig ned to adapt the reg ular curriculum by elimina tin g work
tha t has been mastered and streamlining content to a pace
com mensura te with gifted students' readiness. Advanced
stu dents fami liar with a topic can demonstrate mastery on an
assess ment before the content is Introduced in class . These
students require engageme nt in replacement material
instea d of redundant work in wha t they already know.
Compacting is appropriate for gifted learners because it pro­
vides an ed ucational option tha t ch allenges learners and
affords students who demonstrate high levels of achievement
the tim e to pursue differentiated activities .
The re are several basic principles to consider when
compacting.
• Teachers must be very knowledgeable of the obj ectives
and content of a topic in order to accurately assess what
information is new or redundant for each student.
• Pre-instruction assessment is required to determine areas
of mastery.
• Grades must be based on the curriculum compacted (wha t the student has mas­
tered ), ra ther than the replacement material.
• Students must have vested interest in the replacement task , and the re placement
tasks shou ld involve advanced and accelerated conten t rather than enrichment
only.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
29
Curricul um com pacti ng is a sign ifican t di ffere ntiatio n strateg y for advanced or
gifted learners who typically requi re less repetition . These students learn ski lls and
conce pts more rapidl y in th eir areas of giftedness and the refore need to proceed at
a fa ster pace .
Reading Recommendalions for Advanced Learners
C urricu l um comp acting is applicable to the following reading reco mmendati ons that are li ste d on
pag e three : 1,2, 3,4 , 5, 6 , 7,8, 9 , and 10 .
The Texas State Plan for the Education of GiftedfTalenled Students
Several statements in the Texas State Plan (2000) su pport curriculum co mpacting for gifted stude nts.
Servi ces for gifted/tal ented students are comprehensive, structure d, sequenced , and appropriately
cha lleng ing , inclu di ng opti ons in th e four (4) core academ ic areas .. . (2.1.1 E)
Flexible grou ping patterns and independent inves t igations are em ployed in the four (4) core
academ ic are as . (2 .2R; 3 .3R)
Flexib le paci ng is employed , allowing st ud ents to lea rn at the pace and le vel appropriate for
their abilities an d s kills . (2.4.1 R)
District adm inistrators, counsel ors , and tea ch ers actively faCilitatin g accelerated optio ns. (2.4E)
Opportunities are provided to accelerate in a reas of stu dent strengths. (3.3A; 19 §89.3(3»
S cheduling modificati ons are implem en ted in o rder to meet the needs of individual st udents.
(3.3E)
Overview o£ Research
.......-.........
~
...
-_._-----_ -...- .............................-......................_-_ ...__._-----_...
.•
_
...
Researc hers docume nt th e need for curricu lum co mpacting as a strateg y to
diffe ren tiate instru ctio n for ad vanced and gifted stu dents.
• Gifted and talented elementary school stud en ts will hav e mastered from 35 to
50 perce nt of th e curricu lum to be offered in the five basic subject area s before
they be gin th e school year (Ross, 1993 ).
• As much as 50 perce nt of the current grade-l evel curri culu m could be elim inated
for adva nced and gifted stud ents with out lowering achievement test resu lts
(Reis et aI. , 1992).
• By grade five , 78 to 88 percent of students ca n pass pretes ts on basal co mpre­
hension ski ll s before the ma terial is presented wi th an accuracy of 92 perce nt
for averag e students and 93 percent for above -average studen ts (Taylor & Frye,
1988).
30
C urr iculum Compacting
•
•
•
With min imal train ing, teachers can effectively identify and eliminate already­
mastered material (Reis et aI. , 1992).
Teachers in successful reading programs organize fl exible and purposeful grou ps
ba sed upon ch ildren 's instructional needs and adjust instructional practices
acco rd in g to how well and how quickly the ch ild ren progress (Texas Reading
Initiative, 1997) .
The majority of regular classroom teachers in all reg ions of the co untry make few,
if any, provisions for advanced or gifted learners (Archambault, 1993; Ross, 1993;
Westberg et al. . 1993).
Applications
Curriculum Compacting
Steps in Compacting the Curriculum
1. Identify relevant learning obj ectives .
2. In corpo ra te preassess ment usin g fo rmal and/or in formal pro cedures to identify
students who demonstrate mastery of some or all of the obj ectives .
3. Impl em ent appropria te instruction through the fo llowi ng.
a. El iminate practice an d instructio n in areas in which stU dents have mastered
learnin g objectives .
b. Stream line instruction in the areas in which studen ts have demonstrated
achievement of some of th e lea rning objectives.
c . Customize instruction for studen ts who have not mastered all of the objectives
but who are capa ble of mastering th e objectives at a more accelerated pace
tha n cla ssm ates.
4 Incorporate acceleration or replacement tasks for students who have demon­
strated ma stery of the learning obj ectives.
5 Provide tim e for stUdents to participate in identifi ed acceleration or repla ce ment
task opti ons.
6. Maintain records to document the compacti ng process and the results for involved
stude nts.
Re ading Stra tegie s for Advanced Prima ry Readers
31
A Curriculum Compacting Form
The conce pt of com pacting was originated by Jose ph Renzulli and Li nda Smith
(R enzulli & Smith, 1978 ). T he Cu rriculum Com pacting form located in th is section is
an adaptation that incorpora tes Carol Tom lin son 's (1999) suggestions to include what
th e student already knows, which objectives the student has not mastered, and a plan
for the student's meaningful and ch all enging use of tim e. A co mpl eted example of this
form follows . For additional forms and elaboration , see Reis, Burns, and Renzulli
(1992 ) or W inebrenner (2001).
C urriculum C O lnp actin g
S TU D E tIT
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o She will use the computer to write a book ClboJ,lt o(ecm life .
• She WIll ioin Cln ac-/vcmcea g roup working with the teacher on WOI a stems and reseC'lrth;nq wo,cI~ Of persomll
il1terest
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32
Curri culu m Compa cting
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REPLACEMENT TASKS
WHAT THE STUDENT DOES NOT KNOW
WHAT THE STU DENT KNOWS
DATE ____________________
STUDENT _______________________________
C urricul um Compacting
I
Process Recommendations
Educators new to the process might co nsid er th e following recommen dations
(Reis et aI., 1992; Siegle , 1999; Wineb re nner, 200 1).
• Begin slowly to perfect the process . Implement co mpacting wi th one or two
responsible stud en ts or a small group.
• Focus on curri culum that is most appro priate for compacting . The writi ng
process, for exa mple , should not be com pacted .
• Sel ect content with which teachers and students fe el co mfortable .
• Try a variety of methods to determine th e stu dents' mastery of the material. An
ora l prea sses sment in the fo rm of a conve rsation with a student may be as
effe ctive as a written pretest. Docum ent the con ve rsation with dated notes a nd
exam pl es .
• When nee ded , request help from avai lable sources , su ch as fellow teachers,
parents, and co mmunity membe rs .
• Dev elop si mple forms, such as a compacting form and learn ing con tracts, so
that students ca n maintain records instead of relying on the tea cher's paper
ma nagement.
.
Learning Contracts
Learn ing contracts suppo rt the curriculum com pacti ng pro ce ss by docu­
men ting the customized lea rni ng plan and process . They provi de an opportunity for
stUden ts to wo rk independently with some free dom wh ile maintaining the teacher's
objecti ves. Contracts communicate what is expected an d encourage stud ents to be
more resp onsible for th eir learning . Include working con ditions (W inebren ner, 2001)
to in crease th e likelihood th at a student's beh aviors are appropriate for the learning
environment and the requiremen ts of the learning tasks . Th e Learning Contract form
and Rea ding Contract form located in th is section are included as exampl es to
model possibil ities .
34
Curriculu m Com pacting
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homophone riddles. I wil r write it on t he
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Ki ngore , B., Ed . (2002). Reading Stra tegies for Advanced Primary Readers. Au stin : Texas Educa tion Agency.
36
Curriculum Comp acting
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I will read _ _ _ _ __ _____ ______ ____ ____ __
by _________________________________________
This book has _ __ _ __
chapters or _____ ___ pages.
Thi s is my pace for reading.
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Wednesday Thursday
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Saturday
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This is how I will work.
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Ki ngare, B., Ed. (2002 ). Reading Strategies for Advan ce d Primary Readers. Au stin: Texas Educati on Agency.
Rea ding Strategies fa r Adva nced Prima ry Readers
37
ReFerences
Archambault , F. , Jr., (199 3). Cl assroom pract ices used wi th gifted third
and fourth grad e studen ts. Journal fo r th e Ed uca tion for th e
Gifted, 16(2), 103-119 .
Reis, S ., Burns, D., & Renzulli . J. (1992). Curriculum co mp acting ' The
complete guide to modifying the reg ular curriculum for
high-ability students . Mansfield Cen te r, CT : Creative Learning
Press.
Re is , S ., Westbu rg , K., Ku likowich , J ., Call ia rd , F , Herbert , T., P urcell, J. , Roge rs , J., Smith , J. ,
& Plucker, J. ('19 92 ). An analysis of the impact o f curriculum compacting on cla ssroom
p ra ctices . Tech nical Re port. Storrs , CT : Th e Nati ona l Research Cente r on the Gifted and
Talented.
Re nzulli , J. & Smith, L. (1978 ). The compa ctor. Mansfiel d Center, CT : Crea tive Learning Press .
Ro ss , P. (1993) . Nation al excellence : A case for de veloping America 's talent. Was hington , DC:
US Departm en t of Ed ucatio n.
Sie gle, D. (Fall , 1999). C urriculum compacti ng : A necessity for acad em ic advance me nt. National
Research Center/G T N ewsletter . University of Connecticut.
Taylor, B. & Frye, B. (198 8). Pretesting : Minim ize time spent of sk ill wo rk for intermediate re aders.
The Reading Te ach er, 42 (2), 100-3.
Texas Education Agency, Division of Advanced Academ ic Se rvi ces . (2000). Texas state plan for
th e education of gifted/talented studen ts . Austin: Tex as Edu cation Agency.
Texas Education Agency, Texas Readin g Initiative . (199 7). B eginning reading in struction :
Components and fe atures of a research-ba sed reading program . Austin : Texas Education
Agency.
Westberg, K., Archa mbaul t, F. , Dobyns, S., & Sa lvin , T. (1993). Th e classroom practices study:
Obse rvational findin gs. Storrs, CT: The National Research Cente r on the Gifted and
Talented .
Wineb renner, S . (2001) . Tea ching gifted kids in the regular cla ssroom , 2nd ed . Minn ea poli s: Free
Sp irit Publi shing.
Additional Resources
____ .......M_._ _'M" _...... _._...........
------_
..
_
...................... ..
Doo ley, C . (April, 1993). The chal leng e: Meeting the needs of gifted readers . Th e Rea ding
Tea cher, 46, n 7, 546-51 .
38
Curricul ulTl Compacti ng
Starko, AJ. (1986) . It's about time: Inservice strategies for curriculum compacting. Mansfield
Center, CN : Creative Learning Pre ss, Inc.
Thom linso n, CA. (1999) The diffe rentiated classro om : R esponding to the needs of all learners .
Alexand ria ,VA: Associ ation for Supervision and C urriculu m Development.
Whitlock , M.S . (199 3) . The cla ssroom pra ctice s observati onal study. Journal for the Edu cation of
the Gifted, 16, 120-46.
Webography
............__ -.. ....
_......
, .........
_
._
.....................................................................-_ ................ _..................
................................
National excellen ce: The ca se for developing America's talent--An online
=
copy of the report. US Department of Education .
.
5%\
<www.ed.gov/pubs/DevTalent>
Curriculum com pacti ng: A systematic procedure for mod i fy ing the cu rric ulum for above avera ge
ability students. National Research Center on th e Gi fted and Talented (NRC/ GT ).
<www.sp.uconn .edu/- nrcgt/sem/semart08 .ht ml>
Curriculum comp acting . Meta gifted Educati on Resource Organiz ation .
<www.metagift ed. org /topics/gifted/c urriculum/com pacting >
Curri culum compacting stud y. Na tional Research Ce nter on the Gifted and Ta lented (Javi ts
Center). <www .ed. g ov/offices/OERI/At-Risk/j avs2 .hlml >
Curriculum compacting . US Department of Education .
<www .ed.gov/pubs/Toolsfo rSchools/curc.html>
Differentiation: Comp acti ng curricul um . Technology Le adership Institute at the University of
North Texas . <www.tl i.unt.edu/library/cfb/differentiate/resou rce .html>
G/T curriculum compacti ng . Edu cat ional Resourc es Inform atio n Center (ER IC ).
<www .ericec.org/faq/gt- comp .h tm !>
Reading Strategies for Advan ced Primary Readers
39
40
CurriClJlulll Compacting
TE
ASSIG
Strategy Introduction
.. ......................-..
ED
E
_._
.. ---_....... ............... _._ ........
s
..........
Tiered activities provid e a way for al l stud ents to work
within th e same unit or content are a yet still be challenged at
the different levels they are individ ually capable of wo rkin g.
Tomlinson (1999 ) poses the analogy of a ladder to explai n
tiered assignments. The top ru ng represents students with
very hig h skill and complexity of und ers tand ing . The bottom
ru ng re presents stud ents with fewer skills. As teachers think
about students' readi ness and deci de where that lesson
shoul d be place d on th e ladder, it becomes clear who needs
an other version of the lesson.
Ti ered assignments incorporate appropriately ch allenging
tasks that vary in he content level of informati on, the thinking
pro cesses required , and the complexi ty of produ cts stude nts
must crea te. Th es e diverse assignments provide for varying
learner differe nces by modifyi ng learn ing conditions , providing
leveled activ ities, motivati ng students , an d promoting success.
They allow stu dents to focus on the essentia l skills at diffe rent
levels of compl exity an d abstra ctness . Such activi ti es engage
students beyond what the y fi nd easy or comfortable, providi ng
genui ne challenge and helping them progress .
When differentiating instruction with tiered activities, the te acher uses varied
levels of activities to ens ure that studen ts explore id eas at a level that bu ilds upon
what they already know an d to facilitate their continued progression . Th e use of tiered
Rea ding Strategies for A dvance d Primary Rea ders
41
assi gnments blend s assessment and instruction. Th e teacher assesses what the
child knows and prescribes learning experiences tha t address the subject ma teri al at
the student's readiness level.
Reading Recommendations for Advanced Learners
Tiered activiti es are ap plicable to the following read ing reco mmendati ons that are listed on page
three : 1, 3, 4. 5. 6,7,8 , 9, an d 10 .
The Texas State Plan for the Education of GiftedlTa len ted Studen ts
Several statements in the Texas State Plan (2000) support tiered assignme nts for gifted students.
School districts assure an arra y of learning opportunities that are commensurate with th e abiliti es
of gifted/talented stud ents ... (2 .1 A; 3.1 A; 19 TAC §89. 3)
S ervi ce s f or gifted/talented students are comprehensive, stru ctured, sequenced , and app ro­
pri ately chall en ging ... (2.1 .1E)
Cu rriculum for gifted/talented stu den ts provide s options in intellectual . creative, or artisti c
are as; leadershi p; an d sp ecific field . (3.1 E)
A continuum of learning ex perie nces is provided th at leads to the development of advan ce d­
leve l products and/or performances. (3 .2A ; 19 TAC §89 .3(2))
Students a t all g rade levels are involved In experi en ce s th at re sult in the deve lo pme nt of
soph istf ca te d products an d/or performa nces th at are targeted to an audie nce outs ide th e
cla ssroo m . (3.2 R)
Students who have been served in a gifted progra m for one or more years will develop sophis­
ticated products
nd/o r pe rforma nces ass essed by extern al evaluators who are knowl edg eabl e
in the field that is th e foc us of the product. (3.2E)
Overvievv
o~
Research
-_._
.............
__......................................._-_._-----_ .............................
The need for ti ered assig nments to differentiate in struction is clea rly substan­
tiated by the followin g.
• Observational studies indi ca te that activit ies that are gea red to the entire class
seldom help struggling learners or chall enge above-g rade-Ievel stud ents to
increase th eir think ing and expa nd th eir knowledg e (Westberg et ai, 199 3).
• Nati onal reports docum ent th at most tea chers incorporate al most no variations in
their learning experiences despite the fact that stud en ts exhibit very differen t
readi ness levels (Ross, 1993) .
• There is ample evidence th at students are more su ccessful in school and fi nd it
more satisfying if they are taught in ways that are res ponsive to their readiness
42
Tiered Assignments
•
levels (Vygotsky, 1986), interests (Csikszen tmihalyi, 1997) , an d lea rning profiles
(Sternberg et aI. , 1998) .
Tomlinson (1999) advocates that teachers use tiered activities so all stude nts can
fo cu s on th e sam e essenti al understandings and ski lls at di fferent levels of co m­
plexity, abstra ctness , and open-end edn ess . Tiered assignments are relevant to
advanced learn ers in mixed-ability classrooms when these tasks keep the activity's
obj ecti ve the same but provide ro utes of access at varying deg rees of depth an d
compl exity. Thus, the teacher maximizes th e like lihood th at each stud ent comes
away with pivotal skills an d key understa ndings at an appropriate ch allenge level.
___-_
Applic ations
.._..._....................
..... •.
................ _.............................. _..................
-
...
~
- ...-
...........
_
.-........_._................. ...
Steps in Developing a Tiered Activity
1. Sel ect th e conce pt, skill, or generaliza tion to be add ressed.
2. Determine students' rea din ess and/or interests .
3. Cre ate an activity that ch allenges most students , is interesting, an d promotes
understanding of key concepts.
4. Va ry the acti vity appropriatel y for students with fewer skills.
5. Create additio nal activities tha t require hig h level s of thinkin g , are int eresting ,
and use adva nced resou rces and technology. Determin e the co mplexity of each
activity to document those th at will chall enge above-grad e-Ievel students and
gifted lea rn ers.
6. Ensure that each student is assigned a variation of the activity that corresponds to
th at student's rea diness level.
The com ple xity of tiered acti vities is dete rmi ned by the specific nee ds of the
learners in a clas s. The levels of the activi ties beg in at the re adi ness levels of the
students and co ntinue to stretch the stude nts slightly beyond their comfo rt zones to
promote co ntinua l development. In classes wi th below grad e-level learn ers, the
low es t tier wou ld respond to tha t le vel. In classes in whi ch all stud ents are at or
above grade level, the lowest tier would re spond to grad e-level or even above
grade-level read iness . All tiers req uire teacher mode li ng and support.
There is no absolute numbe r of levels of tiered activi ti es. Someti mes two are
sufficie nt; at other times, th ree to five or more wo rk better to match the wide ran ge
of learners. he following lesson examples are tiered in process and pro duct
acco rding to readiness .
Rea ding Strate gies for Advanced Primary Readers
43
II
Nursery Rhymes and Traditional Literature
Every student in the class listens to nursery rhymes to develop phon emic
awareness. They also read familiar rhym es tog ether and iden tify rhyming words . By
identifying the pro blem s in a rhym e and examining how different characters resolve
them, students gain a greater understanding of cha racter tra its and problem sol ving .
Tier I
• The teach er writes on the board and discusses four words from diffe ren t nursery
rhym es . Students are given a happy-fa ce sticker to place on the tip of one finger.
The y liste n as the teacher reci tes well known rhymes and rai se th eir sticker whe n
the y hear a word tha t rhym es with one on the board .
• The teacher an d stu dents read tog ether another familiar rhyme. They identify the
rhymi ng words , and students name and list addi tional words that rhyme.
• The tea che r presents a list of nursery rh yme characters . Togeth er, th e group
bra instorms and lists a pro bl em experienced by each . Th en , they add a star
beside the name of each chara cter if the problem was sol ved.
• During indepen dent work time, students crea te a web with a problem in the ce nter,
listing the characters who experienced th is problem in the connecting circles .
U lie Boy Blue
Lost
something
Three Blind Mice
UttIe MISS Muffet
Little Bo Peep
Tier II
• Stud ents are given a happy-fa ce sticke r to place on the tip of one fi nger. They
listen as th e teacher reci tes a well known nu rsery rhyme. Th e teach er and stu­
dents then re ad the same rhym e together. They stop at the end of each line , and
stud ents ra ise their sticke r as th ey th ink of an other word th at rhymes with th e
last wo rd. T he teacher and stud ents lis t the rhyming words and then discuss
wh at they observe about the spe ll ing patterns and differences among the
rh yming words.
• After discussing determination as a trait of the ltsy Bitsy Spider, the gro up analyzes
the spider's problem and how the spider used that trait to solve the problem.
Students then work in pairs to decide a trait of another nursery rhyme cha racter
and how that cha racter used tha t trait to solve the problem.
44
Tiered Assignme nts
• Follow ing the tea chers' model, th e students write analog ies comparing two
dive rse characters.
_ _ __ _ is like _ _ __ _ because _ __ __ _ __ _ __
_ _ _ __ is like _ _ __ _ when _ __ _ _ __ __ __
Humpty Dumpty is like Jack and Jill because they all fell down.
The cow who jumpe d over the moon is like Mirette on that high wIre because they
both did something very hard to do.
• During ind epen dent work ti me, students dem onstrate their understa ndi ng of a
cha racter by w riti ng and illustrati ng what th ey think happens next in a nu rsery
rh yme of th eir choice.
As a culminating acti vity for both tiers, gather in a la rge gro up to read and
re ci te favo rite rhymes and discuss what ea ch gro up learne d. Together, construct a
graph to determine which rhym es are th e favorites of the child ren in th e class.
Which nursery rhyme is your favorite?
~?---------------10
---­
-------------­
8
6
4
2
5 --­
------------------­ ------------------­ -------­ ---------­
------------------­ -----­ ------------­ -----------------­
55
---­
7--­
--­
-----------------­
- -­
Novel Study
Another example of a lesson using tie re d activities involves comparison/
contra st and cause/effe ct within a novel or between nove ls. Tier I analyzes
cause/effe ct situa tions an d compare s information within one novel. Tiers II , III, an d
IV anal yze cau se/effe ct and compare/ contra st between two novels . Every student
in the class re ads Chaco/ate Fever. However, Tier II also re ads The Chocolate
Touch, and T iers III and IV also rea d Charlie and the Chocola te Factory. All stu ­
den ts are invol ved in an alyzing text. The tas ks vary in the ki nds of interpretati ons
and sophistication of products they require .
Re ading Stra tegies for Advanced Primary Reade rs
45
Tier I
Chocolate Fever
by Robert Smith
•
The teacher pres en ts a list of five ca uses in the story . Stud ents review the sto ry
to determin e the effect of each. The teacher record s the effects .
1.
CAUSE: Why?
EFFECT: What happened?
Henry's parents let him eat as
He eats chocolate with every
much chocolate as he wants .
meal.
2.
•
•
Select two of the cause/effect situa ti ons to compa re. Discuss which is funni er and
which is more important to the story.
Stude nts work with the teacher and use a Ven n diag ra m (see Visual Tools , page
74) to compare and contrast the main character at the begin ning and at the end of
the book. The n, brainstorm and lis t togethe r th e events that cau sed the chara cter
to change .
T ier II
Chocolate Fever
&
by Robert Smith
•
•
•
The Chocolate Touc h
by Patrick CatUng
Studen ts create a story map (see Vis ual Tools , page 76) for each novel.
Students use the information on their story maps to compare and contrast th e two
stories on a Ve nn dia gra m (pag e 74).
Di scuss what might happ en if Henry an d John becam e friends . Based upon th e
charac te rs' deve lopme nt and the information in both books , list and illu strate th e
varied and un usu al effects that migh t occur.
Tier III
Chocolate Fever
by Robert Smith
•
46
&
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
by Roald Dahl
Ba sed upo n an an alysis of the character, discuss t he poss ibl e effec ts if Henry
fo und himself in Willy Wonka 's factory .
Ti ered Ass ignments
• Stud ents forecast a list of t he many va ri ed and un usu al effects that might occur if
•
Wi lly Wo nka and Sugar Cane were to become partners. Nex t, stu dents work in
small groups using specifi c information from both stories to create a visu al product
that illustrates the results .
Ea ch student writes a letter to Roald Dahl or Robe t Smith explain ing th e simi­
lari ties and differe nces of the othe r author's work .
Tier IV
Chaco/ate Fever
&
Charlie and the Chocolate Factory
by Robert K. Smith
•
by Roald Dahl
Ba sed upon an analysis of bo th books , stu den ts de ba te whe ther or no t either
book will be va lued as a classic by futu re generatio ns. Stud en ts develop criteria
to eva luate the rel evancy of the theme for fu ture youth s, the appro priaten ess of
the characterizations in a globa l SOci ety, and the significance of the issu es pose d
in each book. Each debater represe nts a specific book character or someone with
a relationship to the book, such as the author, publisher, libraria n, literary critic, or
re ader.
Re'erences
.... ..............._...
_
_-----
Catling, P (1 979). The ch ocolate touch. New York: Morrow .
Csi kszentmi ha lyi , M. (1 997) . Creative flow and th e psychology of
disco ve ry an d inve ntion . New York: Harpe r Collin s .
Dahl , R. (1964) . Charlie
nd the chocolate fa c tory. New Yo rk: Knop f.
McC ully, E . (1992 ). Mirette o n the High Wire . New Y ork: Pu tnam.
Ross , P. (1993) . National excellence : A c ase for developing America 's
talent . Wa shi ng to n, DC : US Departme nt of Education .
Smith , R. (1978) . Cho co late fever. New Yo rk: Dell.
Sternberg, R., Torff, & Grigorenko. (1998). Tea ching triarchically improves student achievement.
Jou rn al of Educatio na l Psychology, 90. 374-384 .
Tomlinson , C . ( 1999 ). Th e diffe rentia ted classroom : Resp onding to the needs of all learn e rs .
Ale xa ndria , VA : Associa tio n for Su pervision and Curriculum Development.
Vygotsky, L. (19 86) . Though t and langu a ge. Cambridge : MI T Pres s.
Westberg, K., Arc hambault, F., Dobyns , S., & Salvin, T. (1993). Th e classroo m practices study:
Observa tional findings. Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted an d Talen ted.
Re ading Strategies for Advanced Prim ary Readers
47
Additional Resources
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _.........._n ...... ... _._....." .... _
~
.__ .. ..................._ .._ ......._ _.._....__ ................- .............._-_...­
~
ASC D. (19 94 ). Video : Challenging gifted learn ers in the regular cla ssroom . Al exandria , VA:
Asso ciat ion for Supervision and C urri cu lum Devel op ment.
Smut ny, J ., Walker, S., & Meckstroth, E. (1997) . Te aching young gifted children in the regular
cla ssroom. Minnea poli s: Free Spirit PUb.
Tomli nson, C . (1995) . How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability clas sroo ms . Alexandria .
VA: A ss oc iation for Supervisi o n and Cu rric ulu m Development.
Webography
•· ••• • ••••••••• • ....... _ •••••• _ _ _ _ _ ••• u .............. _ · ...... _ _ .............
~
....... _ _ •.••• _
...................
~_
•••
.
0:=
Tiered curriculum project. US Department of Educati on .
<w ww.doe .state .in .us/gtltiered _curri culum/welcome .html>
48
Tiered Assignm ents
FLEXIBLE
G
au I G
Strategy Introduction
....................................
_--_...
-.~
..
- .......................................... ......--......- ...-..........­
~
Grou ping w ithin the classroom is essential in order to
provid e the optimal learning envi ronmen t for all students.
Fl exible grouping is th e practice of sh ort-term grouping and
regrou ping stude nts in respo nse to th e ins tructional objec­
tives and students ' needs . It co ntrasts with more stagnant
grouping procedures in which stud ents are placed in the
sa me grou p or given whole -group instructi on for all or most
of the school ye ar. Flexible gro ups are fluid . In an y week, a
child may wo rk independently , be in on e gro up fo r a specific
purpose , and then participate in oth er gro ups to accomplish
di fferent objectives. In a differen tia ted class room th at uses
flexible grouping practices. who le-class instructi on can also
be used for in troductory information and group-building
experi en ces.
Flexible grou pi ng seeks to avoid the stig ma of label ing
children by the ir ability levels . and it recogn izes that no si ngle
gro up placem ent matches all of a chi ld's needs. With fl exible
gro uping , stud ents are assigned to groups In varied ways
and for varied purposes . Stu dents ca n be gro uped by skil l,
rea di ness , abili ty , interes t, learning style, or for socialization .
Groupi ng can take place within a classroom, among grade-leve l classrooms , across
grade levels, throughout an entire school, or even between schools .
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
49
Reading Recommendations for Advanced Leamers
Flexible groupi ng is applicable to the following readi ng re commendations that are listed on pa ge
three : 1, 4, 5 ,6 , 8, and 10.
The Texas Sta te Plan for the Education of Giftedffalented Students
Multiple statements in the Texas State Pl an (2000) su pport flexible grouping for gifted students.
Services for gifted/ta len ted students are co mprell ensive , structured , seq uenced, an d app ro­
priately chall eng ing ... (2 .1.1E)
Prog ra m opti on s enabl e gifted/talented students to work tog ether as a group, work with other
stude nts , an d wo rk independe ntl y .. (2.2A; 19 TAC §89 .3(1))
Flex ible grouping pattern s and independent investigations aTe employed ... (2 .2 R; 3.3R )
Fl exibl e pacing is em ployed , allowing stud ents to lea rn at the pace and level app ro pri ate for
thei r abiliti es and skills. (2 .4 .1 R)
Op portunities are prov ided fo r stude nts to pursu e area s of interest in se lected discipli nes
through guid ed and in dependent re se arch . (3. 1.1 R)
Overview of Research
-.-...
...... -.- ....
.. -............ -.-- .......................-.,.,." ...... ............ , ........
-
---~
_--_._.__..........._
.. .............................
The case for flexible gro uping of stu dents is strongly supported in ed ucationa l
literature with multiple stud ies detailing its positive effects.
• Th e Texas Rea ding Initiative (1997) noted th at teachers in successfu l readi ng
programs orga nize flexible an d purposeful gro ups based upon child ren's instruc­
tio na l needs and adj ust in stru ction al practices according to how w ell and how
quickly the chil dren progress .
• The Nati on al Reading Panel (2000) reports th at read ing ski ll instructi on is most
effecti ve when teaching children in small groups.
• Kulik (1992 ) detailed the advantages of ability grouping, and found that the
greatest effects were realized when the curri cu lum was adjusted to the aptitude
levels of th e groups.
• Schu ler (1997) surveyed 69 school districts in 29 states using cluster grouping. She
concl ud ed th at gifted students benefit from th is pro gra m approach and noted that
cluster grouping may have a positive effect on the achievement of all students.
• Gentry (1999) docu mented th e posi tive effects of cl uster grouping and re ported
th at flexib le grouping provided numero us benefi ts to all students and teachers .
• Rog ers (1998) repo rted the beneficial effects of ability and cl uster gro uping,
pointing ou t that acceleration opp ortu nities must be used in tan de m with these
grouping strategies for a su bstantia l achieve ment effect. She accented that no
50
Flexible Gro upi ng
•
well -co ntrolled research supports that wh ole group and mixed-abil ity grouping
has an y achievemen t effect wi th highly able or gifted stude nts.
Loveless (1998) stated that within-class and cross-grade abili ty grouping are
both supported by research .
Applications
.__ ......_...
_--_._--
_
•
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . "' . . ... _
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •&&,0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _ • • ~ • • • • • • • _
••
_~
•••• "
_ _ _ _ _. ' • • • I
•••• " ••• _
••• _ .
D
Cluster Groups
Fl exi ble grouping practices are positively impacted by clu ster grouping. Cluster
groupin g is a program model in which at least five advanced or gifted students in a
grade level are place d in one classro om with an otherw ise heterog eneous student
mix. Thi s placement res ponds to the fact that gifte d stu dents ben efit fro m learning
toge ther and need to work with inte llectual peers who have similar areas of stre ngth
(Ku lik, 1992; Rogers , 1998 ). Th is cluster is assign ed a teacher who has special
trainin g in teaching advanced and gifted chil dren to ensure that th e lea rn ing needs
of the se stUd ents are me t w ithin the heterogeneous cl ass .
Clu ster grouping encourage s a variety of fle xible grouping arrang ements . In
res pon se to different instructiona l obj ectives, stud ents work independentl y, in small
groups , in mixed-ability grou ps, or with the entire class . Since several advanced stu­
dents are cl ustered together full-ti me in one room , a teache r can fl exibly place th em
in a homogeneous grou p part of the day for more effective compacti ng and differen­
ti ati on. Cluste r grouping allows advan ced readers to learn togeth er on a daily basis
(because the research supports that they learn better in homogeneou s groups) while
students of all oth er ability levels are grouped heteroge neously (as research indicates
is best for th em ) (Wi nebrenn er & Devlin 2001).
fI
Examples of Flexible Grouping
Teachers in one grade level or across grade levels can util ize th ese flexible­
grouping exam ples . The assistance of a librarian or special popu lations teacher such
as a gifted specialist can be invaluable in helping make this strateg y successfu l.
Reading Strategies for Adva nced Primary Readers
51
y Skill Groups
Skill groups are short-term placements based upon a diag nos ed instruction al
need in grade-level skills or for accel eration in adva nced-level ski lls. Instruction ma y
be in word analysis, com prehension, increasing reading flu ency, or adding depth to a
com positio n. Students are regrouped as they master the skill. Gifted and tal ented stu­
dents may exit the group before other students.
~
Independent or Guided Studies
Usin g an inte rest inventory and an assessment 'of ind ividual student' s con ­
tent readi ness, the teacher groups students for independent or guided stud ies.
Facilitated by a cl assroom tea cher, librarian, spe cial population s teach er, gifted
speciali st , or an adult specialist in that topic, stu dents work ind epen dently or in a
small group to rese arch a topic of person al interest in gre ater depth and complete
a project to share with an au dience . Inde pe ndent or guided proj ects are an effec­
tive repla cem ent task for stu den ts who pretest beyond the planned curri cul um.
Gifted students ha ve the op portunity to develop th e leve l of pro ducts desc ribed in
the state goal for services for gift ed stude nts foun d in The Texa s State Plan for the
Education of Gifted and Talented Students (2000 ).
;/ Reading and/or Writing Workshops
Workshops provide an auth entic purpose for the development of rea ding and
wri ting skills. Students work together to re ad, write, edit, and/or co mm ent on each
other's origi nal work . Schedules are fl exible and incl ude perio ds of time for students'
uninterrupted reading or writing, sharing, debri efing, and conferen cing with the
teacher and/or other stud ents . Teache rs continually assess through observation and
model appropri ate reading and writing behaviors as need ed. Student respon sibiliti es
in clude reading and writing logs, goal setting , self-assessment, an d creating portfo­
lios of prod ucts that reflect th eir level of expertise.
/
Literature Circles and Book Clubs
Literature ci rcles and book cl ubs are informal, interest-based , fl exible groups .
Their purpose is to au gment the regular reading program , build upon students' inter­
ests , and e ncourage a love of read ing. Mul ti ple copi es of severa l books are made
available fo r stud en ts to se lect. The books re present different leve ls of co mp lexity
and appeal to diverse interes ts . A small group is formed by stude nts intere sted in
read ing the same book . Other groups form to read d iffe rent books , boo ks by th e
52
Fl exible Gro upin g
same author, or books around a co mmon theme. The focus is conversa tional as
grou ps discuss story elemen ts, infere nces and opinions. T he teach er fa ci litates the
process, prompts content comparisons, motivates sharing across groups, and
authe ntically assesses stu dents' strengths an d ins tru ction al needs as well as possi­
bilities for futu re book selections .
Th ese fl exible groups change with each book stu dents rea d. Literature ci rcl es
and book cl ubs provid e groups of ad va nce d students opportunities to re ad at their
appropria te pace and level. These groups also encourage advan ced read ers to con­
struct more complex and abstract analyses with others wh o are pre pared to think at
tha t level.
ReFerences
Gentry, M. (1999). Pro moting student achievement and exempla ry
classroom practices through cluster groupin g: A re sea rch -based
alternative to heterog eneous elementary classro oms . Storrs, CT:
The Nation al Researc h Center on the Gifted an d Talen ted.
Ku lik, J . (1992 ). Analysi o f the re search on ability groupin g : Historical
and contempo ra ry p ersp ecti ves . Sto rr s, CT : T he N ational
R esearch Cent er on the Gifted and Talented .
Love less , T. (1998) . Trackin g and ability grouping de b ate. W as hin gton, D.C. : T he Thom as B.
Fordham Founda tion.
Ro gers, K. (19 98). Usin g current re s earch to make "goo d" d ecisions about gro uping. NASS P
Bulletin, 82, 38-46.
Schuler, P. (1997). Cluster groupin g coast to coast. The Na tio na l Res ea rc h Center on th e
Gifted and Talented , Winter Newsletter.
Texas Educatio n Ag ency. (2000). Texas s tate plan for th e educa tion of gifted/ talented students
Au stin : Texas Edu cati on A gen cy.
Wi neb renner, S . & De vlin, B. (2001). Clu ster grouping of gifted stud en ts: How to provide full­
tim e servi ces on a parI-time budget: update 200 1. E RIC Clearinghouse on Disabilitie s
and Gifted Edu ca tion . ER IC EC Di gest #E607.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Re aders
53
Additional Resources
Daniel s, H. (1 994). Literature circles: Voice and choice in the student-centered classroom. York,
MA: Stenhouse Publishers.
Johnson, R. & Johnson , D. (1989). What to say to parents of gifted students about cooperative
learning. The Cooperative Link, 5, 2.
To mlinson , C . (1999) . The differentiated cla ssroom: Re sp onding to th e nee ds of all learners.
Ale xandria , VA : Ass ociation for Supervision and Curriculum Develo pm ent.
W inebrenner, S. (200 1). Te aching gifted kids in the regular classroom, 2nd ed . Minneapolis : Fre e
Spirit Publi shing .
Webography
----.--...-.--...- ..-....... --.-.... ....................._.. _._...,......__._-_._--_..__ .....
~
.
==>
A bility grouping. Na tional Ass ociation of
S C~lOol
Psycllologists.
~\
<www.na sponline.org/information/pospaper_ag. html>
Clus ter grouping coast to coast. National Research Center on th e Gi fted and Talented (NRC/GT).
<www.sp.uconn .edu/- nrcgt/news/winter97/wintr974 .html>
Cluster grouping of gifted students : How to provide full-time se rvice on a pert-time budget: Upd ate
200 1. Educationa l Resou rce Informations Center (ERI C ).
<www.ericec .org/dig ests/e60 7.html>
Grouping practices resources . Educational Resource Inform ation Center (ERI C ).
<www.eri cec.org/faq/gt-group .html>
Total school clu ster grouping: An investigation of ach ievement an d identification of elementary
school students. Nati onal Research Center on the Gifted and Talented (NRC/GT).
<www.sp .uconn .edu/- nrcgt/news/spring96/sprng964 .html >
54
Flexible Grouping
HIG
T
AND
-
EVEL
NK
G
NQUIRV
Strategy Introduction
All students need to be exposed to challe nges and
th inking experiences th at encou rage th em to process in for­
mation at high levels. Many activities shared here can be
used with the entire class. Some are best used with grouping
arrange ments that allow advanced stud ents to work tog ether
and chall en ge each other wh ile oth er stude nts experience a
simpler level of success appropri ate to their need s. This sec­
tion describes techniques that enable teach ers to differen tiate
lessons to promote greater depth , comp lexity , and abstra ct­
th inking opportunities for the gifted learn ers. These advanced
stud ents can also use hi g h~l e vel thinking strategies to invent
their own variations for cha llenge.
Reading Recommendations for Advanced Learners
Inqu iry and high-level th inki ng are app li cable to th e following recomm en ­
dations that are li st ed on pa ge three : 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 , and 11 .
Texas Stale Plan for the Educa tion of Gl ft edlTalented Students
Several sta tements in the Te xas State Plan (2000) suppo rt Incorp orating
inquiry and high-leve l thinki ng experien ces for gifted studen ts.
School distri cts assure an array of learn ing opportuniti es that are commensurate with the abilitie s
of gifted/ta lented stude nts ... (2 .1 A; 3.1A; 19 TAC §89.3 )
Program op tions enabl e gi fted /tal en ted stude nts to work toge the r as a group , work with other
students, and work inde pe ndently .. . (22A; 19 T AC §89. 3( 1))
Rea ding Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
55
Sch oo l districts, when poss ible, shall provide out-of-school options relevant to the student's area
of strength . (2.3A; 19 TAG §89.3(3))
Opportunities are provided for students to purs ue areas of interest In selected discipli nes through
guided an d independent research. (3.1.1R)
A continuum of learning experiences is provided that leads to th e development of advanced-level
products and/or performances. (3 ,2A; 19 TAG §89.3(2))
Overview
0" Research
Differentia tion th rough high-level think ing an d inquiry is sup po rt ed by the
foll owin g.
• The use of inqu iry and high-level thinking is a long-standing instructio nal goal
(Bloom, 1956) and a frequentl y-used method of differenti ati on (Tomlin son , 1995).
• If tea chers pos e sim ple ques tion s, th ey ge t basic respo nses fro m stude nts. If
teachers ask qu estion s th at requi re high-level an alysis , th ey are more likely to
receive high-level res ponse s (Westb erg et al. ,199 3).
• The Classroom Practices Study substantiated that teachers differentiate very little
in question types and levels between th e average and gifted students. In regards
to wait tim e (the length of elapsed sil ent tim e after a questio n), th is study noted
that more wait time was provided to average-ability students than to gifted students.
This practi ce ris ks encouraging advanced students to respo nd more glibly rather
than develop depth and complexity in their responses (Westberg et aI. , 1993).
• A co mmon obj ective for gifted students is to increase their critical and productive
thinki ng capacity (Gallagh er & Gallagher, 1994).
• Attention to high levels of thinking help ensure that activities for advanced students
are not just busy work and time fillers (Davis & Rimm, 1989).
Applications
. . _ • • _ . · . _ . . • _ _ _ _. _. . . . . . M _ . M. . . . •••••• . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . •• . . . . . _
• • • • • • • • _ . _ • • _ _ _ _ _ _ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._
.._
.........
. ._
. . ..
II
A Thinking Skills Checklist
Lessons can be differentia ted throu gh high-level thinking skills that promote
greater depth, complexity, an d abstract thinking opportunities for gifted learners . A
56
High -Level T hinking an d Inquiry
list of criti ca l and creati ve problem-sol vi ng ski lls from The National Research Center
for Gifted and Talented (Kaplan and Cannon, 2000) is ad apte d an d organized here
as an alpha betized checklist.
I
THINKING SKILLS
0
Categorize
0
Identify ambiguity
0
Classify
!:J
Identify characteristics
U
Determi ne cause and effect
Iden tify the pa ttern
.J
Determine relevan cy
0
0
Judge wi th criteria
0
Determi ne stre ngth of argu men t
U
Make analogies
0
Diffe rentiate real and fantasy
0
Di scrim inate similarities and
.J
See relation shi ps
differences
Summarize
Formul ate questions
0
.J
Thi nk deductively
Hypoth esize
U
Th in k inductively
0
Ra nk , prioritize, an d sequence
Use these think ing skills to enha nce a lesson by:
• Checking the ski lls that most apply to the materials being use d and the readiness
of th e students in the cl ass .
• Modeling th ose skills in activities and discussions with a group of advanced
learn ers.
• Providing that gro up a copy of a shorter version of the most appli cable th inking
skills that have been succe ssfully demonstrat ed and experienced.
• Encoura ging stud ents wh o demonstrate co mpeten cy in thi s pro cess to use the
checklist independently to incorporate th eir own varia tions and develop more
challenging lesson s and products .
Exampl es of inco rporatin g some of th ese thinking skills into a readin g lesson
are provided usin g two popular chi ldren's books. In these first and th ird gra de
exampl es, teachers select a small number of thinking skills th at apply to the content
and then gu ide the discuss ion and tasks with a small gro up of advanc ed stud ents
who have alread y rea d and co mprehend ed the stories. Later, teachers instruct some
stu dents to independen tly apply the same thi nking skil ls to another book as the
tea cher works directly with oth er stud ents.
Reading Stra tegies for Advanced Pnmary Readers
57
/
Where the Wild Things Are
THINKING SKILLS
by M aurice Sendak
[.J
o
o
Discrimi nate similarities and differences
Differentiate real and fanta sy
Determine rele van cy
Group discussion and learning tasks
• Complete a Ve nn Diagram that com pa res how Ma x is different before and after
visiting the wild thin gs.
• Fold a pap er in half. On one side, draw th ings in the story that could be rea l. On
the oth er side, draw thing s in the story that co uld only be fanta sy .
• Discuss th e value of imagination for chi ldren an d for adults.
The Mysteries of Harris Burdick
THINKING SKILLS
by Chri s Van Allsburg
o
Identify characteristics
CJ Identify th e pa tte rn
[J Dete rmine cause and effe ct
o Judge with cri teria
Group discussion and learning ta sks
• What attributes do all of th e pi ctu res have in com mon?
• Illustrate or explai n on e pattern you identify in th is book.
• Identify seve ral cause and effect relationships inferred in this book.
• As a group, bra instorm and list criteria for judging a piece of literature as a classic.
Then, individually, write an editorial declaring wheth er or not th is book will be val ­
ued as a cl assic by futu re generations.
Bloom 's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives
Bloom' s Taxonomy is probably the most familiar way to examine th inking. This
ta xo nom y includes six levels fro m th e beg in ning level (knowledg e) to the highest
level (evaluation ). Each student needs to experience the ful l ra nge of Bloom's
58
High-Level Tllin kin g and In quiry
Taxonomy. However, it is app ropri ate for advanced- le ve l students and imperative
for gifted st ud ents to spe nd the majo rity of their ti me experien cing th e ana ly sis,
synthesis, and evaluation levels.
Judgi ng concepts and ideas by establi shed cri te ria
Arra nging and rearranging information and ideas to
create new elemen ts or an origin al produ ct
Interpretin g who le/part re lations hips; in terrelating
knowledge and concep ts
Il lustrating , constru cting , or applying a princi pal to solve
a wide range of pro blems
Demonstratin g an understan ding of the concept or
principal
Recalling facts, giving defin itions, an d provi ding
descri pti ons
The literary elements of se tting and cha racter effective ly demonstra te an
application of Bloom's Taxonomy to a story. Notice in the exam ples how the
Taxonomy can be used to develop both questions and learning tasks .
Setting
KNOWLEDGE
CO MPREHE NSION
APPLI CATI ON
AN ALYSIS
SYNTH ES IS
EVALUATI ON
Where does the story ta ke pla ce?
Wh at words are used to descri be the setting ?
Illustrate the setti ng as it is described in the
story.
Discuss three wa ys tha t the setting is like or
different from where you li ve.
Crea te a different settin g for this story and
predict how th e story would chan ge .
Establish criteria to evaluate wheth er the orig­
inal or the new setting is mo re compa tible for
the characters .
Reading Strategies for A dvan ced Primary Readers
59
Character
KNOWLEDG E
CO MP REHENS ION
APPLICATION
ANALYSIS
SYNTH ESIS
EVALUATI ON
Who is the main character?
Write two or th ree sentences describing the
character.
Demonstrate how the character uses
in
th e story.
List th ree trai ts, and explain how the main
character exhibits these traits in the sto ry.
Hypoth esize wha t happens to the ch aracter
after the story en ds. Explain your pre diction by
re lating it to the characters' traits an d actions
in the original story.
Evalu ate the main characters , and provide
evidence of who were the cleverest, funniest,
bravest, and most or least likeable characters
in the story.
II
Inquiry
Inqu iry is used in this section to mode l four types of questio ns ap pli ca ble to
primary ch ild ren : quantity questions, co mpare/contrast questions, feelin gs/opinions/
personifica tion questions, an d wh at-if/how-co me questio ns.
;I
Quantity Questions
Quanti ty questions are basically listing questio ns (Joh nson , 1992). Tea chers
ten d to ask reprodu ctive quantity questions more than other types (Westberg et
al. ,1993). Re prod ucti ve questions refer to those questions that only requi re students
to review the story or pass age and th en to rep rod uce the mate ria ls from it. Care
mu st be taken with adv an ced and gifte d re ade rs to ensure tha t questions en gag e
their productive thinking . Productive th inking questions re quire learn ers to interp ret
the ma terial in their read ing to produce more creative res pons es . Th e cha llenge is
to move from re productive questi ons to productive questi ons. Primary teachers like
to refer to th ese as skinny and fa t questions .
60
Hi gh-Level Thin king and In qu iry
Reproductive/Skin ny Questions
I
I
Responses
Simple thinkin g
One or two word answers
Right-and-wro ng-an swer responses
I
Productive/Fat Questions
I
High-level th inki ng
More ela borated answ ers
Open-ended, multiple possibilities
Key words and phrases
List _ __
Name _ _ _
How ma ny _ __?
I
Create _ __
Analyze _ __
What are different ways _ __ ?
I
Examples
What is three plus two?
List all the pa rts of a clock .
I
What are all the ways to make five?
What are all the ways besides clocks
to tell time?
Brainstorming is a technique to en courage quantity questi ons. It provides the
opportun ity to sh are as ma ny ideas and detail s as a pa rticu lar gro up ca n list. On e
pneumonic device for establishing the brainstorming process is BUILD .
B uild on each other's ideas .
U se th e far-out.
nvent, in vent, invent many answers.
ist anything and eve rything .
o a stretch yo ur ideas.
Remember that during brainstorm in g, an swers are not judged, and all ideas are
acce pted . Many tim es, the most original Ideas come after the gro up gets silly or just
as ideas seem to be exhausted .
I'
Compare and Contrast Questions
Com pa re and contrast ques tions ana lyze how two ite ms are ali ke and/or dif­
fere nt. V enn diagrams (se e Visual Tools ) help stud ents vis ual ize and orga ni ze the
similarities and differen ces between items. Challenge adva nced students to complete
Venn diagrams individuall y or in pairs ra th er than only in whole class discussions .
Compare an d con tra st questions are ideal for advanced stu dents when the
questions progress fro m the concrete to the abs tract and gradually evolve to more
Reading S tra tegies fo r A dva nced Prim ary Re aders
61
difficult and comp lex categories req uiring forced ass ociations an d analogies. Forced
associations and analogies are linking-thinking comparisons in volving items that do
not seem to belong togeth er.
• How is a button like a zipper or a sa nd dollar?
• How is the ra in fore st like spri ng or winter or a house?
• How is thin king like a tree or an um brella?
• How is a pen cil like you or your co mmunity or an eagl e?
Th ese forced associations ca n be content rich when students must analyze common
attrib utes of the co mpa red items to comple te the task.
/
Feelings. Opinions, and Personification Questions
Feeling s, opinions . and personifi cation questions are characte rized as view­
point or person al-involvement question s that encourage students to make connections
to the content being studied. These questions prompt multiple pOints of view and invite
person al re sponses. The following guidelines enable teachers to implement feeling,
opin ions, and personificati on questions while promoting a risk-free thin ki ng environ­
ment for chil dren.
• All ow ti me to rea lly listen to students' opinions .
• Discuss why ce rtain ideas are expressed .
• Encourage child ren to elaborate and bui ld upon initial statem ents.
• Help students learn th at it is okay for them to have differe nt opinions and
preferences.
EXAMPLES FOR EACH TYPE OF QUESTION
•
•
•
•
•
•
FEELINGS: If you w ere a bri dge over th e ri ver in ou r sto ry, what would ma ke you
feel happy? Wh at would make you feel tired ? What might make you fee l worried?
FEELIN GS/OPINIONS: How do you think it would it feel to be thi s character?
OPINIONS: Wh ich five words do you think are the mos t im portant word s i the
world? Why do you think so?
OPINI ON: In your opinion, wh at is the most important story we have re ad th is year.
What ma kes you think th at?
PERSONIFICATION : If you were som ething that lives in the ocean, wh at would you
be ? Why would you choose that?
PERSONI FICATION: If you were one of th e characters in this story, whi ch one would
you be? Why do yo u prefer th at character?
Help students develop their own questions such as:
?
• How would it fee l to be a
• What do you think
woul d have done in the same situation?
62
Hi gh- Level Thinking and Inqui ry
•
•
•
•
ql
How wo uld this look if you were a
?
If you were this book we are re ad ing, what woul d you wan t to as k the author?
Wha t might you ask a li brarian?
What might a pencil want to ask a marker? What might a book about animal s ask
an anim al at th e zoo?
How do you fe el abou t _ _ __ ? How might you feel about it if you had lived
150 years ago?
What-If and How-Come Questions
These question s help students lea rn to th ink beyon d facts and details.
Teachers frequently re ly on who, what, wh en, wh ere, why, and sometimes how
questions to prompt stu dents' retelling of th e main points of a story . Enhance those
simple qu estions wi th more produ ctive th inking ch allenges th at encourage high­
level responses.
• What are all the ways
?
• What if
?
7
• Why shou ld n't the cha racter
?
• Who ca nnot
• How would
?
• Who will
?
• How is
different from _ _ ___7
• What mi ght happen next if
?
• When would
?
• Where mig ht
?
II
Question Cubes
Question cubes are a technique to conn ect thi nki ng ski ll s and inqu iry. Using
the cube pattern in th is section, teach ers list on each of the cu be su rface s differe nt
thinking skills, verbs th at corres pond to Bloom's levels of thinking , or pro mpts based
upon th e four types of inquiry questions. A cube is then gently tossed . The prompt that
ends up on the top of the cube determines th e question or learning task for students
to com pl ete .
Teachers can mak e cubes in different colo rs correspond ing to the degree of
difficulty or complexity of the thi nking required by th e prompts. Colored cubes allow
the teacher to group stu dents for tasks appropriate to their level. For example, on
Reading Strategies for A dvanced Prim ary Readers
63
one cu be the describe question coul d ask
students to describe the setting using word s
or pictures. Another cube directs oth er stu­
dents to des cri be the setting usi ng at least
three sen ten ces with two or more adj ectives
in each sente nce.
[\,
/
Ijt­
Describe.
\
i/
Describe
Compare
oj
e
your feelll1gs
about It.
Name the
pans.
Question Cube Activities
• Stud ents work in groups . When it is th eir
~
I
turn, each group toss es a cube that is
~ Tell the good
rJr:r
~ and bad
pre-made by the teach er. Each group
then has two or three minutes to pre pare
\.
/
and share with the class what they think is
/
the best response to the prompt on the
I~!-" Act,t out ;1a
top of th e cube .
• Each group of students is given a different
/
'\
colored cube appropriate to th eir readi­
"­ Tab /
ness level. Ea ch group works together to
pos e one question about th e topic or story
for each sid e of the cub e. Later, grou ps exchang e ques tion s and an swer each
oth er's questions.
• Individuals are give n different-colore d cubes accordin g to thei r read iness . Each
studen t th en responds to th e prompts on the cube using the spe cific content of a
story.
• Ind ividu als or pairs of students are provided a blank copy of the cube pattern . On
each surface of the cube , th ey create and write a question to ask others about
the topi c or story .
.
"
Independent High-Level Thinking and Inquiry Activities
Many advanced and gifted stude nts wou ld benefit from opportun iti es to use
th e th inki ng-ski lls checklist, Bloom 's Taxonomy, and the fo ur type s of inquiry ques­
tion s in small , advanced groups or independentl y. Afte r analyzin g stud en t re adiness
an d the demands of the lea rn ing tas k, teachers select and provid e stud ents with a
list of th ree or more appropriate thi nking prompts that have been mod eled wi th the
childre n. These stU dents then use those prompts to incorporate their own variations
and develop more cha llenging lessons and products.
64
Hi gh-Level Th in king and Inquiry
Question
Cube
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"
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Kingora, 8 ,
~
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~
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d. (2002 ). Reading Stra tegie s for Adva nced Primary Rea ders. Austin : T exas Educa tion Age ncy.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Prim ary Rea ders
65
Independent and Guided Studies .
Students use the pro mpts to plan and organ ize res earch proj ects.
Independ ent and guided studies are richer and result in more sophisti cated prod ucts
when chil dren incorporate high-level thin king prompts and questions. Spe cific ques­
tio ns also guide them toward authentic texts and genres which best serve as
reso urces.
Research Question Models
Chjldren post their resea rch qu estions in the classroom, hall , or library as
models for othe r studen ts. Students can compare ideas for un an swered questions
the y might inco rporate into th eir projects.
~
Discussion Questions
Stud ents develop questions to pose to other advanced class ma tes during
small group discussions of the cu rrent to pic of study. Many stu dents pond er a to pic's
depth of po ssibilities more serio usly when they are preparing questions tha t others
will be challeng ed to answer.
Interviews
Ad vanced and gifted learne rs compose questions wi th which to interview others
w ho have expertise in th e student' s topic of interes t. Inte rviewi ng "experts" (both
ad ults and othe r stud ents ) extends students' learn ing depth and provides new Infor­
mation to ponder. Hig h-level thinking enabl es students to avoid intervi ew questions
that are typically answered with onl y a word or two and inste ad focus on questions
that provoke more insight and information. (Child ren can tape record their interviews
to avoid handwriting limita ti ons.)
ReFerences
------_...........................................................- - .
Bloom. B. (1956). Taxon omy of edu ca tional objectives: The cl assi fi ca tion of
educationa l goal s. Handbook I:
ognitive domain. NY; Longmans.
Davis, G. & Rimm. S. (1989). Education of the gifted and talented.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prenti ce Hall.
66
High-Level Til ink ing and Inqu iry
Gall agher, J. & Gallagher, S . (1994). Teaching the gifted child, 4th ed . Needh am Heights , MA.:
All yn & Bacon .
John son , N. (19 92). Thinking is the key Beavercreek, OH: Creative Learning Consultants, Inc .
Kaplan , S . & Cannon, M. (2000). Curriculum starter cards: Developing differentiated lessons for
gifted students. Au stin: Texas Associ ation for the Gifted an d Talented.
Sendak, M. (1963) . Where th e wild things are. New York: Harper & Row.
Tom lin so n, C. (1 995). How to differentiate in struction in mixe d-ability classro oms . Al exandria.
V irgi nia: A SCD.
Van A ll sbu rg, C. (1984) . Th e mysteries of Ha rris Burdick. Bo ston: Houghton Mifflin .
Westberg , K., Archamba ult, F., Dobyns , S. , & Salvin , T. (1993) . The classroom pra ctices study:
Observational findin gs . Storrs, CT: The National Research Center on the Gifted and
Talented.
Additional Resources
.--......................
.
~--
....- ....................---....... ..........................._.. _...................
_
..
_-
.................... ............ ..
__
._,.......
Beyer, B. (1987) . Practical s tra tegies for the tea ching of thinking . B osto n: Allyn & Bacon.
Cecil, N. (1995) . The art of inquiry: Questioning strategies for K-6 classro oms. Wi nnipeg, MB ,
Canada : Peguis Publishers .
Costa, A. (1 98 5). Developing minds: A resource book fo r teaching thinking. Alexandria , Virg inia:
ASCD.
Halsted, J. (1994) . Some of my best friends are books: Guiding gifted readers from pre-scho ol to
high school. Dayton , OH: Ohio Psychology Press.
Healy, J. (1992) . Ho w to have intelligent and creative conve rsations with your kids . New York:
Doubleday.
Johnson. N. (1990). Questioning makes th e difference. Beavercreek , OH : Creative Lea rn ing
Consultants, Inc.
Kingore , B. (1999). Teaching without nonsense: Activities to encoura ge high-level responses.
Austin , TX: Professiona l Associates Publ ishing.
Petreshe ne, S. (1 985). Mind joggers! 5- to 15-minute activities that make kids think . West Nyack.
NY: The Center fo r Applie d Research in Educatio n, Inc.
Sta ni sh, B . (1981) . Hippogriff feathers encounters with creative thinking. Carthag e, IL: Good
Appl e , Inc.
Reading Strategies for A dvanced Prim ary Rea ders
67
Webography
As king good questions . T eachers Involvement in Profess ional Support at the
=
.
m\
University of Texas. <www .edb.ut exa s.edu/pbl/ti ps/question .html >
Book li st-- Critical thinking. Eau Claire Are a School District (E CASD) Curriculum & Instru cti on .
<www .ecasd .k12.wi. us/departments/ci/critical_ thinking/criticalthinkingbib. htm>
Co mbi ning brain power and the intern et. WebQu es t at San Diego State University.
<http://we bq uest.sdsu .edu/webquest.html >
Ho w to use think ing skills to differentiate curric ula for gifted an d highly creative students.
OC LC. <http://lib snap .dom .edu/R eserv es/ED U5 71Johnson _How .htm>
68
Hig h-Level T hin king and Inqui ry
V
FO
SU~
I
OR.
TOOLS
VI
UALS
OU
S
Strategy Introduction
Vi sua l tool s are symbols graphically linked by
mental asso ciations to create a pattern of in for­
mation and a form of knowledge about an idea.
These lin ear or nonlinear forms are constructed
by individual or collaborative thin ke rs on pa per,
board , or computer scre en (Clarke , 199 1).
Educato rs typically associate visual tools wi th graphic
org an izers . Howe ve r, the conce pt of visual tools extends
beyond just graph ically org ani zing data and en ables learners
to generate , analyze, syn thesize , and evaluate info rmation
(Hyerl e, 2000 , 1996). These dynamic and constructive tools
take multiple forms , such as brain storming webs , thinking­
process maps, semantic maps, co nce pt map s, story maps,
ch arts, time lines , graphs, Venn diagrams and outlines, helping
students pred ict, explore , and expand co ncepts.
Reading Recommendations for Advanced Learners
Vi sua l tool s are applicable to the following recommenda tio ns on page three: 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10.
The T
as Slate Plan for the Education 0 Girted/Talented Stude Is
Severa l statemen ts in the Texas State Plan (20 00) support the use of vi ua l tools for gifted stu dents .
School districts ass ure an
rray of learn ing o pport uni ti es th at are
ommen surate with the
abili ties of gifted/tal en ted stude nts .. . (2.1A; 3.1A )
Reading Strategies for Advan ced Prim ary Reade rs
69
C urriculum for gifted/ta lented students pro vid es opt ions in intellectual, cre ative , or artis tic
area s ... (3. 1E)
Students at all grade level s are involve d .. .in th e devel opm ent of sophistica ted pro ducts and/or
perform an ces that are ta rge ted to an audience outsi de the classroom. (3.2 R)
Overview of Research
_
........
_._~
••••••• o-. . . . . . . . . . . . . _
••••••••• • •••• _
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._
•••••••••••••••••••••••••
• • • • • • •_ . _ •••• _
•••• • ••••••• • •••••• , •• _ . . . _. . ._ _ ._ . - . . , . _ . _. . . . . . . . . . . . . ._
...... . ............... .
Rese archers document th e benefits of using visual too ls to foster active
learnin g.
• Vis ual tools are especiall y relevan t for ad vanced or gifted learners wh o char­
acteristically th ink in re lationships , prefer to organize informa tion in unique
ways , and often have a depth of unders ta nding beyond that of their age-ma tes
(Kingore , 2001 ).
• Grap hic tools en able gi ft ed vis ual -spatia l learners to sy nthesize and demon ­
stra te their intuitive gras p of com plex systems (Silverman , 2002) .
i
• Young children high in spatial intelligen e th rive on exploring abstract concepts and
problem solving by expressing th emselves visuall y or graphically (Gardner, 1993).
• Read ing comprehe nsion is enhan ced thro ugh the use of gra phi c and semantic
organizers where reade rs make graph ic representation of the written material
(NRP, 2000).
Applications
-_...........__.................................................... _..._._-----_ ... _........................
_
............---.
D
Values of Visual Tools
Visu al tool s are an appropria te strateg y for differentia tion , not from the appli­
cation of th e blank stru ctures th emse lves but from the persp ecti ve of th e complex
conten t an d productive thin ki ng processes th at a gifted studen t ap pli es to co mplete
the structures . As a differentiation strategy, vis ual tools:
• Emphasize advanced , abstract, or complex material rath er than the simple
acquisition of knowledge .
• Pro vide an effective assessment device for preinstruction, formative, and sum­
mative evaluation .
70
Visual Tool s
•
•
•
•
•
Can be used indepe nde ntly by in dividuals or sma ll groups whi le the teacher is
directing instruction with others once students experience modeling and successful
appli cations with a specific tool.
Are pa rti cu larl y applicable for young learners with limited writin g skills (wh ose
hands tire before their heads) be cause extensive an alysis and syn th esis can be
expresse d in pictures, symbols, or a few words .
Can be used repe atedly du ring the school year with different books or top ics of
study.
Requ ire a minimum of preparation time .
Prompt many educators to engage gifted stud ents in constructin g th eir own vis ual
too ls. More adva nced levels of learn ing are demonstrated when children prod uce
origin al graphics an d visua lization s to convey their ideas and rel ationsh ips .
Reading Connections
Vi su al tools have a myriad of applications in a reading prog ram. Visual tools
are effective when:
Story"'" p
• Mapping a book or story.
• Predicting and summarizing .
• Developing indi vidual text interpretations.
Lydia Grace has t o live with
• Ana lyzing cause and effect rel ationships.
her grouchy u"c/t!- Her f amily Is
out of money.
• Webbing ch aracter traits an d actions .
~
' .EVen.
• Developing vocabulary connections and
.Lydia Grace \)
. She takes a t ra in to the
~
city. It is scary. It Is ugly. )
extensions.
Uncle jim
• An alyzing story structure and text patterns .
Q-,
2. Evenl
(
\
'""
She beg'ns to plant
• Org anizing and categorizing .
flowers and help everyone. )
S I
• Syn th esizing se quences.
• Synth es izing main ideas and themes.
a:::::e r oof a
She m
• Comparing and contrasti ng characters ,
secret garden. It makes Uncle
,
jim happy
/
books, or th emes.
.-;~
• Contrasti ng fact and fantasy.
;g~ )
~
Lydia Grace's popo gets a Job.
She gets to go home. She made
Uncle Jim love her becaUSe she
was so laving.
When using visual tools with a small
group of advanced students in a reading pro­
gram , discussion emerges as an integ ral,
contin ual feature of th e learning process . Students discuss thei r ideas , expl ain their
rationales, clarify uncertainties, and enhance their understanding through interaction
with other advanced stUdents and/or by tho ughtful questions posed by the teacher.
Reading Strategies fo r Advan ced Primary Readers
71
II
Assessment and Evaluation Connections
To ensure appropriately-chall enging lea rni ng experie nces and pro ducts for
advan ced learners, con sider the followi ng suggestio ns when th ese students are
using visual tool s independently or with direct teach er instru tion .
1. As studen ts use vis ual tools, challe nge the m to dem ons trate the de pth of their
inform ation about a to pic rather than allow the m to simply list fa cts.
2. Require an oral or written refle otion from each stud ent elabora ting and explai ning
the components on th e graphic.
3. Use pro du cts gen erated from learning exp eri en ces with visual too ls to in clu de
in portfoli os as documenta tions of the stude nt' s mastery of specifi c learning
objecti ves or skill s.
4. Enh an ce ana lysis an d discussi on by provi ding a complete d version of a visual
tool with errors on it. In small groups or as ind ividuals, stud ents correct and
exp lain the errors .
5 Devel op rubri cs to es tabl ish a stand ard that stud ents an d teache rs can use to
eva luate the content an d va lue of co mpleted vis ual tools . In cl ude le vels of profi­
cie ncy for each crite rio n, an d share the compl eted rubric with studen ts before
they begin th e learn ing task to cl early commun icate expectat ions. Th e attributes
that fo llow are su ggestion s for criteria to incorporate in a rubric for vis ual tools
(Kingore, 199 9). To increase the depth of responses rather than foster a fi ll-in­
th e-bl ank attitude, implement these attri bu tes as students construct visu al tools.
Attributes of Effective Graphic Products
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
72
Content relationships are evident.
Idea s are clearly developed and organized .
High-l evel thin king is apparent.
Integrated skills are accurately applied.
The response exceeds typical or simple in formation .
The res ponse in cludes an ap pro pri ate degree of ela boration to
clea rl y inform.
In-depth co ntent is incorpora ted.
Compl ex ideas an d concepts are eviden t.
Vis ual To ol s
Visually Challenging Books
Some books them selves are visual tools to ignite th inking . Visually ch allenging
books rel y on th e read er's sophisticated visual intelligence to be und ers tood or
enjoyed . David Macaul ay 's Black and White intermingles fou r independ ent but
re late d sto ries on each page that require the prim ary reader to recogn ize the trans­
formation as the stories evolve into one anoth er. Da vid Wi esn er 's Sector 7 is a
wordless book that dem ands the reader's interpretati on to deve lop a plot with com­
pl ex chara cte r emoti ons. W iesner's Th e Three Pigs incorporates visual references
to animation and several literary sources to weave a story on multi ple levels of fan ­
ta sy. Many primary-aged re aders do not enjoy these works because "they don 't get
it". Gifted spa tial rea ders fin d th ese boo ks intriguing an d deli ght in analyzing the
visua l anal ogies inco rporated within th e pages .
Examples of Graphics
,;
Venn Diagrams
A Ven n Diag ram compa res how th ings are different and how they are similar.
On the class ic Venn with two overlapping oval s such as the one below , information
is org anized by listing in the oval s th e attri butes of each item; the attributes common
to both items are listed in the overlappi ng area .
Night
Day
12 hours or less
cooler
dark
moon and stars
sometimes scary
time
temperature changes
rotation of earth
objects in space
12 hours or more
warmer
light
sun
reassuring
DIFFERENT
SIMILAR
DIFFERENT
Reading Stra tegies for A dvanced Primary Readers
73
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d
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CJl
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SIMILAR
DIFFERENT
King ore, B. , Ed . (2002 ). Rea ding Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers. Au stin : Texas Education Ag ency.
DIFFERENT
V enn Diagram
Vary th e process for comple tin g a Ve nn diagram. In most primary cla sses,
the teac her co mpletes th e V enn using ideas and sugg esti on s from the stud ents.
After mod el ing , however, have sm all gro ups of stu dents complet e Venn diagra ms
by themselves . A pai r or sm all group of advanced read ers worki ng together can
focus on tex t stru cture as the y re ad or an alyze more co mplex co ncepts and how
they are related. Make th e diagram large enough to accommodate yo ung child re n's
handwriti ng.
Va ryi ng the form of th e Ven n incre ases visual appeal and en ables it to be
used frequently wi thout becomin g mu nda ne. Several varia tions are suggeste d as
possibil iti es (Kin gore, 1999 ).
•
Verti cal Venn
Use the Venn vertically in stead of horizontally to provide a wider area to encou rage
more legible handwritin g from young hands.
•
Three-dimensional Ven n
Large, three -dimensional Ven n diagrams are effecti ve when a small group works
tog eth er. Use co ncrete items to manipulate or provide large index card s for chil ­
dren to write on an d categorize .
•
Ya rn V enn
Use thi ck yarn to fo rm larg e, ov erlap pi ng circ les on carpe t or felt boards . The
yarn adhere s to the carpet or fel t surfaces and all ows the com pa rison of large
mani pulati ves.
•
Hula Ve nn
Two hul a hoops can ov erlap on the floor to form large manipulative areas for
categ orizing and com paring co ncrete items.
Story Map
A story map categorizes th e ke y elem ents of a story. One example is shared
on page 71. A story map has several appli cations with young readers.
• The teach er models co mpl etin g the ma p as ch ildren in a group sug gest content
to inclu de.
• Enlarge the blank tool to poster-size and laminate it so it can be repeatedly used.
• Have a fl exible grou p of advanced and gifted students co mplete a story map
together. Encourage th em to show depth and complexi ty in the ir interpretation of
the story.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
75
Story Map
BOOK ______________________________________________________________
A UTHOR _______________________________________
Problem
1. Event
2. Event
3. Event
So lution
Ki ngore . B., Ed. (2002). Reading Strategies fo r Advanced Primary Re aders. Austin' Texas Education Agency.
76
Vis ual Tools
•
•
Ask individual advanced and gifted stu dents to each com plete a story map . Then ,
grou p those students to compa re and contrast the ir diffe rent interpretati ons.
Cha lle nge gifted students to incorporate symbols on their maps to represent the
li terary elements and the events . Invite th em to explain th eir sym bols .
Concept Map
A concept or semantic map enabl es stu dents to visuall y rep resen t the rela­
tionships within a topic, story, or concept. The co nceptual pattern shared here
begins with a central idea or categ ory and is then surro unde d by rela ted or sup­
porti ng information. Both a more simple an d an ex pand ed form are pro vide d for
stu den ts' respon ses . Teache rs mig ht begin with sim pler forms to model the
process. The simple forms ma y also prove more appropri ate for some young
learn ers. Howev er, many adva nced read ers shou ld w ork wit h expand ed form s to
encourage th em to embell ish their idea s and then move towa rd creating the ir own
vis ual tools.
he examples provided here were completed by first gra de students--one
identified as a regular lea rn er and one identified as a gifted learner in reading .
Notice that both children we re succes sful , but the gifted learner demonstrates depth
of information and rela tionships. She also approaches the more abstract idea of
ethics involved in th e topic.
Readin g Strategies for Advanced Primary Rea ders
77
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(2002) Readmg Slr'8l1?g.oes for Actvan~ Primary Readers. Austin Texas EducalionAgency
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Kingore, B.. Ed , (2002 ) Reading Strategie s for Advance d Primary Readers. Aus tin Texas Edu ca ti on Ag en cy,
Re ading Strategies for Advanced Pn'ma ry Rea ders
79
Kingore, 8 ., Ed (2002 ). Rea ding Stra tegies for Advanced Primary Re aders. Aust in : Texas Educa tion Ag ency.
80
Visua l Tools
ReFerences
Cl arke , J. (1991). Pattern s of thinking . Needham Heig hts , MA: Allyn &
Bacon.
Ga rd ner, H (1993). Multiple intelligences : The th eory in pra ctice. New Yo rk:
Basic Books.
Hyerle, D. (2000). A field gUide to using visual tools . Al exandria, VA: ASCD.
(1996). Visual tools for constructing knowledge. Al exandria , VA: AS CD .
Kingore, B. (2001). The Kingore observation inventory, 2nd ed. Austin: Professional Associates
Publishing .
(1999) . Integrating thinkin g: Pra ctical strategies & activities to encourage high-level
responses. Au stin : Professional Associates Publi shing.
Macaulay, D. (1990). Black and white. Boston : Houghton Mifflin.
National Reading Panel (NRP). (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment
of the scientific research literature on reading and its implication for rea ding instruction .
Jessup , MD : Nationa l institute for L teracy at ED Pubs.
Silverman, L. (2002). Effective techniques fo r teaching highly gifte d visual-spatial learne rs.
<www.gifteddevelopmen t.com >.
Stewart, S. (1997). Th e gardener. New York: Farrar Stra us Giroux .
Weisner, D. (1999) . Se ctor 7. New York : Clarion Books.
Weisner, D. (2001). The three pigs. New York: Clarion Books.
Additional Resources
_ _ _ _ _ _" " " " _ _ _ • •
•
• • ••••••••••• M
•••••••••••••••••••••• _
••
Bromley, K. & Irwin-DeVitis , L. ("1995). Visual strategies for active learning. New York: Scholastic
Professional Bo oks.
Texas Education Agency. (2000) . Promoting vocabulary de velop men t. Texas Reading Initiative.
Austin : TEA Pu blishing Divisi on.
Sof ware
Insp ira tion. (200 2). In spirati on Software , Inc.
Reso urce s for Stra tegIc Th inking. (2001 ). New York: Macmillan/McG raw-HilI.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Prima ry Readers
81
Webography
---~-
..-_.._...... _........_............. ......_----_ ...-_......_.......
........." - "
,
_-_
....__.. _.....__...•­
Graphic organize rs . ESD 105 Reading Ca dre .
=
'­
.
<www.es d 105 .w ednet. edu/ReadingCadre /BeforeO rganize rs .html>
Visua l lea rn ing and graphi c organi zers suggested reading . Strategic Tran sition s.
<www.strategictran sitions .com/sugge stedreadin g. htm >
Visual thin ki ng tool s. En cyclo ped ia of Educational Technology.
< http ://coe .sdsu .ed u/eet/Articl eslVisThinkToo ls/sta rt .htm>
Vi sua l tool s for constructing knowledge . As sociation fo r Supervi sion and Curricul um
D evelopment. <www .a s cd .org/reading room/books/hyerle96book .htm l>
82
Visu al Tools
vee
A
D
au
VVeR
ARV
PLAY
Strategy Introduction
Vocabula ry is important because read ers must know
what most of th e word s mean before they can understand
what they are reading . In order to help advanced and gifted
rea ders understand more sophi sti cated information an d con­
cepts , these students need to expand their repertories of
faci lel y read and understood words.
Advanced and gifted chil dren learn at a much faster
pace tha n their age-level peers. As a result, vocabulary
study mus t be differentiated for these students. Following
appropriate preassessments to determine a student's
instructional level, the teacher plans developmentally appro­
priate vocab ulary activities to challenge the gifted learner.
These read ers should be provided multiple avenues to
demonstrate their vocabulary co mpre hension through verbal
explanations, written responses, graphi cs and illustrations,
an d other ope n-en ded products . In stru ctiona l strategies for
both in direct lea rnin g and direct teaching of vocabulary a re
presen ted in th is section in order for teachers to guide stu­
dents' enlargement of their reading vocabularies and expand
th ei r re ad ing proficiency.
ReadIng Recommendations for Advanced Learners
Voca bulary an d word p lay are app li ca ble to the foll ow ing re ading recom mendati on s all page
three: 3, 4, 6, 7 , 9
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
83
Texas State Plan for the Education of GiftedfTalented Students
Sev eral statem ents in the Texas State Plan (2000) sup po rt incorp orating vocabulary development
and word play for gifted stud ents .
Scho o l distri cts ass ure an arra y of learning opp o rtu nit ies that are commensurate with the
ab iliti es of gi fte d/tale nted stude nts ... (2. 1A; 3. 1A; 19 TAG §89 .3 )
Se rvi ces for gifted/talented students are compreh ens ive , s tru ctured, sequenced, and app ro­
priately challenging, inc luding options in the four (4) core aca demic areas .. . (2.1 .1 E)
Progra m o ptions enable gifted/talented students to work together as a group , work with other
stud ents , and work independently ... (2 .2A; 19 TAG §8 9 .3(1))
O pportu nitie s are provided for students to pu rsue a reas of interes t in sele cte d disc ipline s
th rough guided and inde pendent research. (3.1 . 1R)
Opportunities are provi ded to acc elerate in areas of student strengths. (3. 3A; 19 TAG §89 .3(4 ))
Overvie\N of Research
_ _ _ _ ..
~
. . . . . . . ._ _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . u
• • • • • _ •• ~ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._
•••••••••••••••• _ _ ........... . .......... __ •
_ _ . _• •
_0
.
......... .......... .......... _ . _
The re search on vocabulary instruction reveals several fa ctors to guide
vocabu lary development for advanced and gifted readers.
• Intense and effective vocab ulary study must be a daily component of an effective
literacy program (Adams, 1990; Clay, 1993) .
• A child's mastery of oral la nguage is on e of the most critica l factors in a child 's
success in rea di ng . Wide-ranging knowledge of the world and the ability to
express th at knowledge throug h language become s critical in ad va nced reading
developme nt (Jackson & Roll er, 1993).
• Although most vocabulary is lea rned indirectl y, some vocabula ry must be taug ht
directl y. Studen ts learn vo cabul ary directly when they are expli ci tly taught
words an d word-learning strategies. Direct vocabulary instruction aid s read ing
co mpre hension (CIERA, 20 01).
• Indirect learn ing of vocab ulary is en co uraged in two ways: first, by readi ng al oud
to students an d discussing the se lection together, and secondly, by inviting stu­
dents to rea d extensively on their own (C IERA. 2001 ).
• One element of curric ula depth and compl exity is a stron g underpinning in the
language of the discipli ne (Kaplan & Cannon, 2000).
• The difficulty level of vocabulary is much greater in the rea ding te xts of the past.
Current texts use simple vocabula ry tha t pro vides little or no challenge for
advanced readers (Chall & Conard, 1991).
• Gifted children need to encoun ter and use increasingly difficult vocabu lary and
concepts (Clark , 2002) .
84
Vocabulary and Word Play
•
Verba l talent develops as a result of challenge , wh ich is an en counter with
something beyond on e's cap ability (Thompson , (200 1).
Applications
II
Word Analysis Chart
A word analysis chart is a graphic organizer ad apted from the linguistic study of
semantic featu res anal ysis (Pittelman ,1991). Its purpose Is to encourage stud en ts to
an alyze and com pare the significant characteristics of several words. It als o serves
as an effective vehicle to revi si t word anal ysis ski lls and check for und ersta nding .
After modeling and successful learning experiences working with th e graphic in small
gro ups of advanced learn ers, some gifted readers are able to com plete th e analysis
chart independently.
• Allow stud ents to pl ace a qu estion mark in an y box for wh ich they are uncertain .
• Discuss the similarities , differences, and question marks recorded on comple ted
graphics.
• Challenge stud ents to expan d the graphic with different characte ristics by wh ich
to compare word s .
• Encourage individuals or pa irs of readers to select interesting words to an alyze
fro m the book they are re ad ing.
A na lysIs Word C ha rt
SO uR CE OrT HE"i QRDS
Moyse and th e Motor cycle
Beverly Cleary
AuTH OR
C H ARAC TE RIS TI
S
Synonym
Number of
syllables
Long
vowels
Suffix
noun
?
3
0
?
remorseful
adjective
sorry
3
e
ful
muttered
verb
mumbl ed
2
none
ed
astounded
verb
amazed
3
none
ed
incredulous
adjective
disbel iev ing
4
u
ous
WO R D S
Part of
speech
momentum
r----­
t--
Reprlnled wllh perml sion Kin gore, B . (2002). Just What I Need Auslin Professional Associdl es Publishing
Reading Strategies for Advance d Primary Re aders
85
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Rep rinted wi th permission : Kin gore, B. (2002). Jus t What I Need. Austin : Professional Associates Publishing
.
I
I
I
I
AUTHO R _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
CH A RACTERISTICS
SOURCE OF TH E WORD S _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __
A nalysis VVord Chart
Word Sorts
Word so rts is an activity where students group words by categori es . Al though
all stu dents sh ould do word so rt s , advanced and gi fted stu de nts should co mpl ete
more advance d exa mples, such as the following .
•
•
Prefix/Suffix
Stud ents sort a va riety of words by affixes (prefixes and suffi xes ), such as pre­
dictable, preempt, an d prefa ce. In addition, students use the affixes to create and
defi ne new words, such as pre-eat (wh en you have to have a snack before dinner) .
Homophones
Students sort words by homophones , such as bear/bare , sea/se e/si, and there/
their/they 're. Invite them to wri te and illustra te sentences using homophone pairs
or trios.
Palindromes
Stud ents identify palind rom es and wo rd s that are not palin dromes. Pa lindromes
are words or ph rases spelled the same forwa rd and backwa rd, such as dad,
mom, and Madam, I'm Adam . Encourage children to consult books and we b sites
to develop a collection of palindromes.
Euphemisms
As a fun comprehension task, students sort euphemisms into matched pairs.
Euphem isms are more gentl e way s of saying th ings, such as Th ey let him go
inste ad of He was fired.
Vocabulary Notebooks
Word stu dy notebooks are usually orga nized around ort hographi c fe atures,
such as simp le spelling patterns. Advan ced an d gifted stud ents should study more
adva nced orth og raphic features, such as word stems . Stud en ts may use the ir
notebooks to record word sorts, in teres ti ng new words to add to thei r voca bulary,
and origins of wo rd s. In add ition , th ey use vocabulary notebooks to record and
question the co nnotative and denotative meaning of words encountere d in the current
text they are reading . For example, a stud en t mig ht write: "Innuendo " has negative
connotations.
Reading Strategies fo r Advanced Primary Rea ders
87
Study of Word Stems
Although learni ng words in con text is an importa nt practi ce, gift ed stud ents
also need more academic voca bulary study targeted toward th e Lati n-b ased lan­
guage that pervad es profession al life (Thompson (2001 ). About 60 % of all En glish
words ha ve Greek and Latin stems (C IERA, 2001 ). Thus, lea rn ing word stems is
more powerful than lea rn ing on e word at a time. When ch ildren learn bio, they have
learn ed a mea ningful connection to biographer, biologist, biofeedback , biosphere
an d dozens of oth er words that invol ve life or living organisms. Many gifted readers
could begin to study applicable word stems in first or second grade.
Whereas thou sand s of English words are actually two or three stems in a row,
learning stem s means that gifted learners can automatically spell th ousands of
wo ds. Con sider, for exam ple, how perfectly these words break into stem s: bi-cycle,
th ermo- meter, geo-graphy, and auto-graph. Furthe rmore , when spell ing by stems,
each stem ha s meaning , so spelli ng makes more sense to gifted mi nds.
Th e study of word stems could be completed in centers, in pairs, or ind epen­
dently in voca bulary notebooks . Visua l students enjoy organizing their stud ies of
word stems on Word Trees .
Word Trees
~i9 ratOry
igrati ng fm;9ratian
~
mlgrantr
.
,
~
emigrate
~
emigr ant
.
~ratio n
~
ImmIgrate
-c::::::::=-
immigrant
Word Trees can be used with yo ung advanced
and gifted read ers to stimulate vo ca bulary develop­
ment. Usi ng an overhead pen and a laminated poster
boa rd of a tree with branches, studen ts write a base
word at the bottom of the tree . Ne xt, they bra instorm
and resea rch as many words as poss ible that contain
the base word . After completi ng the word tree , stu dents
ca n ill ustrate some words an d/or cre ate a story using
many of the words fro m the word tree .
migrate
88
Vo cabul ary and Word Play
Micropoems
Thompson (2001 ) wants to excite gifted readers with the micro poetry of
words. Ordi nary dictionary definitions are onl y the su rfa ce of words. Interpretin g the
stems tha t compose the word enables the reader to see that some of huma nity 's
best insights are capture d in the words we use.
An example is th e word re spect, whi ch is an ordinary wo rd that most
elem entary students could defi ne, but when we look at the stems in the
word, we see re and speet. Suddenly, we re alize the micropoetry of the
word; at the mom ent that w e come to res pect someone , we find our­
selve s looking at him or her aga in, in a new way (Thompson , 2001, 9) .
II
Word Map
A word map is ideal for
gifted reade rs to organize their
in-depth study of words . Word
maps help th ese students defin e
and refine their understanding of
the multiple applications of a
word. Word maps can be com ­
pleted individually, but it is an
effective activity to work on in
pairs to encourage extensive
conversations about the word.
FRO
Word
Map
::c-­
•• •- • • -
--'
WHAT IS IT'?
=,'
,,~.,:~
•••• _....~
S'fNONYMS
co mmotion
/ '--------.-;­..
.'
••• '
1. a noun
2. a tumultuo us activity
3. a disturbance
..
..... "' .......­ •••••••• .... 01 ' ~
....
...
;
f uss, turmoil , disorder
'~iIIo.
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t
• •••••••
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.\
...•
..
.. ",
.:
..
:
AIITQrm.l5
preci sion, har mo ny ,
order
L ­ _ __ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ _
~
~/~
•
AIlAWGY
Commotion is to a
so ccer game as peace
is to a library.
"""ITEA GA6AT SENTE /lC E,
The squirrel caused a t er rible commotion
when he got into t he school cafeteria.
Reading Strategies for Advanced Primary Readers
89
Word
Map
•
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ANTONYMS
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WRI TE A GREAT SENTENCE!
Repri nted with permission : Ki ngore , B. (2002). Just What I Need. Austin ; Professiona l Associates Publishing.
90
Vocabu lary and Word Play
Figurative Language
Co ncise figurative la ngu ag e is the ideal playground for th e impressive array
of vocabulary and syntax strategi es exhi bited by yo ung gifted rea ders (Abilock,
1999 ). Poetry an d books rich in figura tive language challenge gifted readers to elicit
definitions from context and by analogy to other root words. Figurative language also
sharpens advanced learners' ability to deduce meaning from word order.
Young ch ildren need tim e to explore relationships-when devel oping fi gurative
languag e skills . Providing an alogy formats and a li st of wo rd s, ask stud ents to
develop a rela tionship betwee n two of th e wo rds , and explain their thi nki ng.
Consid er the foll owing list of word s as a begin ning example.
words , sign, cloud, pencil, bolt, toe , TV, potato, barn, bird, carrot, tree, house,
car, chalk. book. doll, truck, rock. fish, love, joy, kindn ess, smile. bottle, light
I
~_
isto _ _ as _ _ is to _
_
A bird is to a birdhouse as a car is to a garage.
A bolt is to a TVa s words are to a book.
is like
because _ _ _ __
A doll is like a fish beca use they both need
someone to ta ke care of and lo ve th em .
Love is to hate as a smile is to a frown.
A carrot is like a book because they both
help you grow in healthy ways.
Materials
Certai n classroom resources support voca bulary stu dy and facilita te
advance d and gifted studen ts working with the teacher or wi th less teacher direction
in small gro ups or independently.
• Pocket cha rts and sentence strips
• Wide va riety of texts and nonfiction books above grade level
• Individua l magnetic boards, write on/wipe off boards, and cha lk boards for letter,
word, and vocabu lary work
• A set of four to eight thesauru ses so se ve ral children or small groups can simul­
taneously engage in voca bulary studies
• Dicti onaries and glossaries appropriate for young children yet wi th sufficiently
rich word power to engage gifted rea ders . (Some beginning dictionaries are too
simple to allow gifted children to encounter and use increasingly difficult vocabulary.)
Readmg Strategies for Advanced Primary Rea ders
91
References
_
_ _-. _..-.............--.....,,---,......---.-,......--........................--......
.... _..............................._.. .....
~
Abiloc k, D. (1999). Librarian s and gifted reade rs . Knowledge Quest, 2 7 ,
30- 35.
Adam s, M .J . (1990) . Beginning to read: Thinking
nd learning about print .
Cambridge ,MA: MIT Press .
Center for the Imp rovement of Early Reading Achievement (CIERA) .
(200 1). Put reading first : The research building blocks for teaching children to read.
Jessup, MD : National Institute for Literacy at ED Pubs . •
Chall. J . & Cona rd , W. (1991) . Sh ould textbooks challe nge stud ents? The case for eas ier or
harder textbooks . New York : Teach ers College Press .
Clark, B. (2002) . Growing up gifted, 6th ed . Upp er Sad dle River, NJ: Prenti ce Hall.
Clay, M.M . (1993) . An observation of ea rly literacy achievement . Auckland : Hei nemann.
Cleary, B . (1965). The mouse and the motorcycle . New York: Dell Pub l.
Ja ckson , N.E. & Roller, C . (1993). Reading with young children . Storrs, CT : The National
Re search Cen ter on the Gifted and Talented .
Kaplan , S. & Cann on , M. (2000) . Curriculum starter cards: Developing differentiated le ssons for
gifted s tudents . Austin : Texas Association for the Gi fte d and Tale nted .
Na tional Reading Panel (N RP ). (2000) . Teaching children to read: An evidence-b ased
ass es sment of the s cientific research litera ture on re ading and its implications for reading
instruction . Jessup , MD : Nation al Institute for Li te racy at ED Pubs.
Pitte lman , S., Heimlich, J ., Berglund, R. & French , M. (199 1) Semantic feature analysis . New ark.
DE: International Reading Association.
Texas Ed ucation Agency. (2000). Prom oting vocabulary development: Components of effective
vo cabula ry instruction. Austin : TEA Publishing Division.
Thompso n. M . (200 1). Th e Verbal Option : How ca n we challenge gi fted students wi th class ical
literature , enri ched vocabulary, and the study of grammar? Unde rs tanding Our Gifted, 14,
7 - 10 .
Additional Resources
---,_ .....................................................................
_
__--------_... _._........._...................................­
.......... ..
)
..
Bear, D., Invern izz i, M. , Templeton , S ., & Johnston , F. (199 6). Work their way. Upper Sa dd le River,
NJ: Merrill.
Ganske , K. (20 00). Word journ eys.' A ssessment-g uided phonics, spelling , and vocabulary
instruction. New York : Guilford Pres s.
Vygotsky, L.S. (1962). Thought and la nguage . Ca mbridge , MA: MIT Press .
92
Vocabulary and Word Pla y
Webology
-_.__ ......,"'...................._............_-----_ ..._...... _................................................ _---­
Gramma r hotline . Grammar La dy. <www.grammarlady .co m/hotli ne.html>
Pu n of tile Day, funny joke of the day , free archiv e o f fun ny on e liners , and
fu n ny pe op le. Pun of th e Day. <www .p unoftheday.com>
Vocabul ary drill for kids. CAN ITech . <www.edu4kids .com/l an g>
Voc abula ry, free word puzzles, and a ctivities. Vocabula ry University. <www.vocabul ary.co m>
The wordp la y web site. Fun- wi th-Words . <www. fun-wi th -words .com>
Reading Strategie s for Advanced Primary Re aders
93
94
Vo cabulary and Wo rd Play
FIt.
Be
F
EC
ONS
not:: a,.raid o f going slollVly;
be a,.raid only
0'
sf::andln!:1 sf:lll.
Th e co llectio n of strategies and activities in thi s publi­
cation is a wo rk in progress. Teach ers are encouraged to use
th ese idea s to prompt add itio na l applications to differentia te
rea ding instructi on for ad van ced rea de rs . When yo u find an
effective differentiation strategy or activity, share it with two or
three oth er te achers . Let's network successes.
Expand your understanding of advanced and gifted
readers . Challenge yourself to co ntin ue co nsulting articles,
books , and web sites to remain current in the research and
best practices for instructing highly-able learners. Several
web sites at th e end of this section provide valuable updates
that are more current than some publications.
Discuss differentiation issues with your colleag ues.
Support staff development opportuniti es th at enable your
facu lty to become more confi dent in adapting curricu lu m an d
instru ction to be res ponsive to all stu dents' needs--in cludl ng
advanced and gifted learners .
Help parents understan d the use of differentiation
strategies for their gifted chi ld . Parents need information . Your insi ghts are invalu­
able to them and ensure them of your concern for their child's optimum learning and
development. Consider placing a few brief articles about gi fte d child re n and th eir
learning needs in a folder th at you can share with parents seeking inform ation .
Well-informed parents are in a much be tter pOSition to support your instructional
plan for their child .
Rea ding Strategie s fo r Advanced Primary Rea ders
95
Providing an Appropriately Challenging
Reading Instruction
•
All ch ildre n need a teacher's instruction and in teractio n. With out teach er
feedback and guidance , rea ding is less effective (National Reading Pa nel,
2000 ).
•
To grow in reading proficiency, child ren require small-group instruction at
their ability/readiness level (National Reading Pa nel, 200 0).
•
Ch ildren co ntinue to learn and grow towa rd their potentials when en co ura ged
to stretch thro ugh tasks that are just a litt le too hard for them.
•
Exempt gifted children from work they already know , and guide th eir continued
prog ress wi th alternatives that promote hig h levels of com plexity .
• Prompt more advanced reading and re search investigations by supplying
com plex, in-depth information th rou gh multiple texts , supplementary materials,
and tech nology.
•
Use inquiry that req uires children to incorporate high-level thinking at a
greater level of com plexity .
•
Encou rage stu dents' development of expertise by inviting their in-depth pursuit
of topics of personal interest.
•
Motivate children to establish persona l goals and criteria for success in th eir
work.
•
Guide students to develop res ponsibility and independence by means of self­
assessing and maintaining records of their own progress rath er than only
com paring their work with less-ad vanced peers .
A parting tho ugh t. ..
Only when studen ts work at appropriate challenge levels do they
develop th e essential habits of persistence, curio sity, and willingness
to take inte llectual risks . To ask less of advanced learners is to predi ct
less prod uctive an d engaged ad ult lives (Tomlin son, 2001 , 5) .
96
R eflections
Re-Ferences
..es:::
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . H ••M M _ . M••• _ . M _ . M . . . . . . ····.·.MMM•• M . . . . _ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ._ . _ _ . . . . . .... . M . . . . . . . . _ _. . . . . . . .
National Re ading Panel (NRP). (2000) . Teaching children to read: An evi ­
dence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on
rea ding and its implications for reading instruction . Jessup, MD :
Nati ona l institute for Lite racy at ED Pubs.
Tomlinso n, C. (2001). Diffe rentiated instruction in the re gular classroom : What do es it mean?
How doe s it look? Understanding Our Gifted, 14, 3-6 .
Webography
Am eri can Li brary Associati on . <w ww.ala .org>
ERI C Reading , English , and Commu nication . Education Reso urce
Information C enter (E RI C ). <www. indiana .e du/-eric_rec>
International Readi ng Ass oc iation-- Gifted Divi si on. <www.rea ding .org>
Internet Public Lib rary--Youth Division. <wwwipl. org/you t h>
Ll BSN AP. <http://libsnap .dom.e du>
Nation al Association fo r Gifted Children (NAGC ). <www .na gc. org>
Na tional In stitute fo r Lit eracy . <www.ni fl .gov>
National Research Center on the Gifted and Ta lented (N RC/ GT). <www.gifted.uconn .edu/nrcgt.h tml >
Texa s Ass ociation for th e Gifted and Talented (TA GT) <www .txgifted .org>
Texa s Edu ca ti on A gency (TEA) . <www.tea. sta te.tx .us>
US Departm ent of Edu cati on . <www.ed .gov>
Rea ding Strategies for A dvanced Primary Readers
97
98
Reflecti ons
~pp
[:) 1:X
learners (Assou line , 1997) . Information from the
preassessment prevents teachers f rom teaching
gifted students what they already know and from
assuming students ha ve all prerequisite skill s
(Win ebre nn er, 2001) . For examp le , a student
may read above gra de level but lack knowledge
of som e letter-sound co rresp on dences su ch as
lau/ . The teach er may temporarily group this
stud ent with others learn ing laul as a word
analysis strategy. Students who com plete the
pretest successfully require no more work in that
area .
In additi on to being administered at the
begi nning of the school year, preassessments
sh ould be administered th roughout instruction .
They must ineiude an analysis of strategi es and
skill levels in word recognition , fluen cy, and com­
preh ension. Preassessments can take the form of
Dr. Shirley V. Dickson
checkl ists , oral reading fluen cy measures, criterion­
referenced measures , and diag nostic activities.
To ill ustrate the use of pretests , imagine
Reading instruction for advanced learners
ba la n ces
students '
stre ngths
and
an adv anced reader in gra de one . T he stud ent
need s ,
read s at a gra de-seven level. However, th e stu­
breadth and depth of content, and pace of
dent does not un derstand the vocabulary or full y
in struction. To avoid haphazard instruction for
comprehend th e text. Whe n reading grade-fou r
ad vanced learners, ass essm ent before , durin g ,
text, the student unders ta nds the voca bul ary
and following instruction is critical . Assessment
an d reca ll s and su mm arizes but doe s not infer.
provides students an opp ortu nity to demonstrate
Based on this information fro m the pretests, th e
what they know and guide s teachers ' decisions
teach er m ay decide to us e grade four readi ng
regarding what to teach , what to reView , and the
m aterial s (e .g. , literature , expository te xt) for
most appropriate pace of in struction.
instructi on and incl ude in structi on in vocabu lary
developm ent andlor co mpre hensi on strategi es
(Asso uli ne, 1997).
Overview of Research
Just as preassessment guides in stru c­
ti on , so too does progress monitorin g or on going
Preass es sing studen t knowledge guides
as sessm ent. On goin g assessment me asures a
app ro priate in structional decisions for adva nced
stu dent's in cre mental progress . In fo rmation
Reading Stra tegie s for Advanced Prim ary Rea de rs
99
from ongoing assessm ent help s teac hers to
should co ver a broad range of skills within the
dete rm ine the pace of in struction for ad vanced
foll owing area s:
learn ers and maintai n in struction in appropria te
•
Phonemic awareness and phonics,
content (S mutny, 2000). For example, advanced
•
Fluency,
learners usually require less practice in new
•
Comp rehension,
knowledge
•
•
Vocabulary, and
than
typical
learners.
Thro ugh
progress monitoring, the teacher can j udge
Spelling.
when th e advanced learner no longer needs to
be part of an instructional group based on need­
Teachers may find appropriate, ready­
ed skills or no longer require s practice in a ski ll
made , sample assessments in advanced-level
such as summari zing or drawing con clusions.
cla ssroom basals . Informal reading inventories
O ngoing ass essments include portfolios , class
that extend through high -school levels may be
assignments, observation s, informal interviews,
th e most appropriate for use with primary gifted
and checklists.
studen ts. Ganske (20 00) and Johns (1997) are
Iwo so urces of reading asses sments . Teachers
Finally, assessm ents at the end of a unit
of advanced
primary readers can devel op
of study provide an opp ortunity for learners to
assess ments ba sed on their cla ssroom reading
demonstrate
curriculu m.
what
they
have
learned .
If teachers develop
their own
Additionally, unit assessments may reveal a
assessme nts , they should have a speciali st in
need of the advanced learn er for greater differ­
gifted educa tion , another teach er with training in
en tiation of instruction , higher level work, and/or
gifted edu ca ti on , or a reading specialist with a
more comprehensive planning for future instruc­
background in gifted education critique the
ti on (Howley , Howley, & Pendarvis , 1986) . The
measure before administering it to primary gifte d
assessment needs to all ow for the differences of
students.
the
advanced
learne rs
in
understanding,
a
achievement , and crea tivity (Sm utny , 2000). If
the advanced learner scor es at Ihe top of th e
Phonemic Awareness and Phonics
scale on the measure , the teacher gains little
information about the learning of the advanced
The Na tional Reading Panel (20 00)
learner, especially if the student also scored al
concl uded th at phonemic awareness and phon­
the top of the scale on the pretest (VanTa ssel­
ics instruction produce significant benefits for
Baska, 1992).
primary students . However, they cautioned that
phonics teaching is a means to an end. Children
appropriately applyi ng phonics skills in the
Applications
_._._
..........................•..._.................
_._----­
read ing pro cess do not require the same level
and intensity of phonics instruction provided to
mos t ch ildren . "In light of this, teachers ne ed to
Teachers of advanced learn ers need
be flexible in th eir phoniCS Instruction in order to
multiple app roach es to assessment before, du r­
adapt it to individual stud ents ' needs" (N RP ,
ing , and foll owing instruction. Assessm ents
2000 , 11).
100
Ap pe ndix
Teachers need to assess comprehension
Fluency
carefully. Advanoed learners with well-developed
verbal and memory skills can hide a lack of under­
Fl uent readers read ora lly with sp ee d,
standing with a barrage of words relating closely to
ac curacy, and appro priate exp res sion. Ora l
the questions asked (Barbe & Milone, 1985).
reading flu ency is sensitive to student growth
Teachers sh ould maintain a checklist of comprehen­
and correlates strongly with reading compreh en ­
sion skills and be sure to teach those skills/strategies
sion (NRP, 20 00). Direction s for creating and
that students lack (Barbe & Milone, 1985).
administering oral reading fl uen cy meaSUres are
in the Fi rst, Sec ond, a nd Third Grade Teacher
1'1
Re ading Academy notebooks . Monitoring stu­
Vocabulary Assessment
dent progress in fl ue ncy is useful in evaluating
instructional need s and setting instructional
goals (C IE RA, 2001) .
Vocabulary Is critica lly imp ortant in
com prehe nsi on . T he larger the read er's vo cab­
ulary, the easi er it is to comp re hend text (NRP,
Advan ced rea ders as well as those
2000) . Teachers can orally assess students
experiencing reading diffi culties require guid­
understan ing of words pri or to reading new
ance from teachers (NRP, 200 0). Independent
materia l. The teach er should pre-read th e mate­
sil en t reading is not effective when used as th e
ri al, sel ect words key to understanding the con ­
only type of reading instruction to develop fluen­
tent or story (Tex as Education Agency, 2000) ,
cy (NRP, 2000) . Hence , abl e read ers nee d ti me
and ch eck stud en ts' unde rs tanding of the
wit h the te ac her in guided oral reading proce­
wo rd s. Teachers shou ld elicit stud ent-provided
du res at their instructional level.
mea nings that go beyond using the word "thi ng"
or tha t merely state the class th e word belongs
II
to , e g., a desk is a piece of furn iture (Ganske ,
Comprehension
2000). The teacher can monitor the student' s
vocabulary knowledge by analyzing a student' s
Harris' and Hodges' (1995 ) defi nition of
written work for appro priate usage of new
comprehens ion as "instructio nal thinking during
vocabulary word s. These readers shou ld be
w hi ch meaning is con stru cted " fits advanced
provided multiple avenues to demonstrate the ir
re aders who engage in active, problem-solv ing,
voca bulary comp reh ension, such as ve rbal
thinking proces se s as they const ru ct meaning
ex plan ation s, wri ting , drawi ng, and other open ­
from text. With advance d primary students ,
en ded strategi es .
assessmen t of compre hensi on should include
criti cal reading sk il ls such as an alysi s, synt hesis,
in tegration , appli ca ti on , an d extens ion of ideas .
Spelling Assessments
Gifted students can demonstrate com preh ension
through oral summaries, small grou p discussions,
A developmental spel li ng measure can
ta pe recordings, written responses , an d other
be used to determi ne stude nts' spellin g strengths
open-ended option s.
an d instru ction al needs. Asamp le developme ntal
Reading Strategie s for Adva nced Primary Readers
10 1
spelling screening and in ventory asses sment
res earch literature on reading and its
can be found in Gan ke (20 00). The measure
implications for reading instruction .
in cludes an inventory to identify a student's
Jessup, MD : National institute for
spelling stag e and a lon ger spe lling assessment
with words represe ntative of various spelling fea­
tures or pattern s within that stage. Tea chers can
al so assess spelling strengths and instructiona l
needs by analyzing studen ts' writing.
Literacy at E D Pub s.
Smutny, J. (2000) . Teaching young gifted chil­
dren in the regular cl as sroom. ERIC
Digest, E595 EDO-ED-OO-4 The
Cou ncil fo r Exceptional Chi ldren.
Texas Education Agency. (2000) . Promoting
vocabulary development: Components
of effective vocabulary instruction .
References
Austin: TEA Publi shing Division.
Tindal , G. & Ma rston, D. (1990) , Classroom­
based assessment: Evaluating
Assoulin e, S . (1997) . Assessment of
gifted children . In N.
Colangelo & G. Davis, Eds.
Handbook of gifted education
(89-108) . Boston : Allyn & Bacon.
Barbe, W ., & Milone , M. (1985 ). Reading and
instructional outcome s. Columbu s, OH :
Merrill.
Van Tassel- Ba ska, J . (1992) . Planning effective
curriculum for gifted learn ers. Denver:
Love Publ ishing Co.
Winebrenner, S. (2001) , Teaching gifted kids in
writing . In R. H. Swassing, Ed . Teaching
the regular classroom , 2 nd ed .
gifted children and adolescents.
Min neapoli s: Free Spirit Publish ing .
Colu mb us , OH: Bell & Howell.
Center for the Improvement of Early Rea ding
Achievement (C IE RA). (2001). Put
Additional Resources
re ading first : The research building
----_............................. ........
........-.-..... .....-....-
Feldhu se n , J. & Va nTas sel-B
ka, J . (1989).
blocks for teaching children to read .
Jessup, MD : Nation al In stitute for
Literacy at ED Pu bs.
Ganske, K. (2000). Word journ eys:
gifte d. In J. F. Feldhusen, J. Van
Assessment-guided phonics, spelling,
Tassel-Baska, & K. Seeley , K. , Eds.
and vocabulary in struction . New York :
Excellence in educating the gifted.
Guilford Pres s.
Howley, A t Howley, C., & Pen darvis , E. (1986) .
Denve r: Love Publishing Co.
Fuchs , L., Fuchs , D., Hamlett, C ., Wal z , L. &
Teaching gifted children: Principles and
Germann , G. (1993). Formative
strategies. Boston : Li ttle , Brown &
eval uation of academic prog ress: How
Com pany.
mu ch growth can we expect? School
Johns , J., & Len ski, S. (1997) Improving
reading: A handbook of strategies .
Dubuque , IA: Kenda l/ Hun t.
Nationa l Readi ng Panel (NRP). (2000) .
102
Socia l stUdies and language arts for the
Psychology Review, 22, 27-48 .
Tan gel, D., & Blachman, B. (1992). Effect of
ph onemi c awareness instru ction on
ki nd erga rten children 's invented
Tea ching children to re ad: A n evidence­
spelling. Journal of Reading Behavior,
based assessment of th e scientific
24, 233-26 1.
Ap pendi x
G
I
Gifted readers, 5-1 1
Chara cteristi cs , 6-8
Negatively perce ived, 8
Positive , 6-7
Read ing preferences, 9
Go I setting, 20
A
Authentic assessm ent, 13-27
Applications, 15-25
H
Hi gh-level thinking and inquiry , 55 -68
Research , 14- 15
Applicati on s, 56-66
Visual tools connectio ns, 72
Bloom's Taxonomy, 58-60
Res earch, 56
B
Thin king skills ch ecklist, 57
Bloom's Taxonomy, 58-60
C
Independent high-level thinking , 64 , 66
Capti on stri ps , 20 , 24 , 25
Independent or gu ided studies , 52, 66
Cluster groups, 51
Inquiry, 60-63
Compare and contrast question s, 61-62
Interviews , 66
Co ncept map , 77-80
Forms, 78-80
L
Curriculum compacting, 29-39
Applications , 31-37
Learning contracts, 34-37
Form s, 35-37
Form , 32-33
Literatu re circ les and book clubs , 52-53
Learning contracts, 34-37
Process re co mme ndati ons , 34
Research , 30
M
Metacognition , 22-25
Step s, 31
Metacognit ive ques tions , 23
Product captions. 24-2 5
D
Rea ding logs , 24
Discu ssion questions , 66
Th ink-alouds. 23
Mi cropoems, 89
F
p
Feeling s, opinio ns, and personification, 62-63
Figurative langua ge , 91
Flexibl e grouping , 49-54
Portfo lios
Product exa mples, 21 -25
App lications, 51 -53
Student managed, 20-22
Examp les, 51 -53
Values, 22
Resear h, 50
Formative an d sum m ti ve assessmen ts, 17
Reading Strategies for Advance d Primary Re aders
Position statement, 2
Preassessment , 15. 17
103
Q
Forms, 73-80
Quantity qu estions , 60- 61
Reading con nections , 71
Question cubes, 63-65
Rese arch , 70
Form, 65
Valu es , 70-71
Visually chall en ging books, 73
R
Voca bu lary, 83- 93
Rea ding assessm ent for adva nced readers, 16
Ap plicati ons, 85-91
Reading recommendations for advanced
Materials , 91
learners, 3
Research , 84-85
Reading and/or writing works hops , 52
Vocab ulary notebooks, 87
References, 4, 10,26, 38, 47 , 53,6 6,81 , 92 , 97
Reflection s, 95-96
W
Research question models, 66
Webograp hy, 11 , 27, 39, 48, 54, 68 , 82, 93 , 97
R es o u ~ es ,
Wh at-if and how- om e questions , 63
10, 2 7, 38, 48 , 54 , 67 , 81 , 92
Rubric criteria, 18
Word an alysi s chart, 85-86
Primary picture rubric, 19
Form , 86
Word map, 89-9 0
5
Skill groups , 52
Form, 90
Word play, 83-93
Self-assessm ent, 17-19
Application s, 85-91
Story map , 75-77
Materi al s, 91
Form, 76
Research, 84-85
Word sorts, 87
T
Tiered assignments, 4 1-48
Word stem studies, 88
Word trees, 88
Application s, 43
Example lessons, 44-47
Research, 42
Steps , 43
Th in king skills , 57
U
Unders tandin g advanced and gifted readers, 5-11
v
Ven n dia grams , 73-75
Form, 74
Vi sua l too ls, 69-82
Applications, 70-80
Assessm ent and evalu ation co nnections , 72
104
Ind ex