LANGUAGE
Q: What is language?
A: Language is a system of communication using sounds or symbols to
express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences.
Q: What is the hierarchical nature of language?
A: The hierarchical nature of language means that it consists of small
components that can be combined to form larger units like words, phrases,
sentences, and stories.
Q: How does the rule-based nature of language affect communication?
A: The rule-based nature of language allows components to be arranged in
certain ways, enabling effective communication. For example, "What is my cat
saying?" is a permissible sentence in English, while "Cat my saying is what?"
is not.
Q: What is the universal need for language?
A: The universal need for language is driven by people's inherent desire to
communicate, even leading to the invention of sign language by deaf children
in environments without established languages.
Q: How many languages are there in the world?
A: There are more than 5,000 different languages spoken across various
cultures.
Q: What is psycholinguistics?
A: Psycholinguistics is the field concerned with the psychological study of
language, aiming to understand how humans acquire and process language.
Q: What are the major concerns of psycholinguistics?
A: The major concerns of psycholinguistics include comprehension,
representation, speech production, and language acquisition.
Q: What is lexical ambiguity?
A: Lexical ambiguity refers to words that have more than one meaning.
Q: Give an example of lexical ambiguity.
A: The word "bug" can refer to an insect, a hidden listening device, or to
annoy someone.
Q: How does context help in disambiguating ambiguous words?
A: Context provides additional information that helps determine the intended
meaning of an ambiguous word.
Q: What is speech segmentation?
A: Speech segmentation is the perception of individual words even without
pauses between them.
Q: How does word frequency affect language processing?
A: High-frequency words are processed more rapidly than low-frequency
words.
Q: What is meant by the term "lexical decision task"?
A: The lexical decision task involves deciding whether a string of letters is a
word or a nonword as quickly as possible.
Q: How do people acquire language?
A: Children generally start babbling at around 7 months, learn meaningful
words by their first birthday, and produce multiword utterances at around age
2.
Q: What is meant by narrative coherence?
A: Narrative coherence refers to the creation of a clear representation of a text
or story in relation to its main topic.
Q: How do people make inferences in understanding a text or story?
A: People make inferences by drawing conclusions or filling in missing
information based on the provided context and their background knowledge.
Q: What is the goal of psycholinguistics?
A: The goal of psycholinguistics is to discover the psychological processes by
which humans acquire and process language.
Q: What is semantics?
A: Semantics is the meaning of language, which is important for
understanding words and their multiple meanings.
Q: What is meant by the term "speech production"?
A: Speech production refers to the physical and mental processes involved in
creating spoken language.
Q: How do people understand written language?
A: People understand written language by processing language sounds,
recognizing words, understanding sentences and stories expressed in writing,
speech, or sign language, and engaging in conversations.
PROBLEM SOLVING
Q: What is a problem according to psychologists?
A: A problem is a situation in which you need to accomplish a goal, but the
solution is not immediately obvious.
Q: What is the main focus of the Gestalt approach to problem solving?
A: The Gestalt approach focuses on how people represent a problem in their
mind and how solving a problem involves a reorganization or restructuring of
this representation.
Q: Define insight in problem solving.
A: Insight refers to any sudden comprehension, realization, or problem
solution that involves a reorganization of a person's mental representation to
yield an interpretation that was not initially obvious.
Q: What is functional fixedness?
A: Functional fixedness refers to a type of fixation where people tend to focus
on familiar functions or uses of an object, which can hinder problem solving.
Q: Give examples of problems that involve functional fixedness.
A: Examples include the Candle Problem, Two-String Problem, and Water
Jug Problem.
Q: How did Newell and Simon describe problem solving?
A: They described problem solving as a search that occurs between the
posing of the problem and its solution, involving a sequence of choices of
steps and the use of operators to move from one state to another.
Q: What is meant by the problem space?
A: The problem space refers to the initial state, goal state, and all the possible
intermediate states that make up a particular problem.
Q: What is means-end analysis?
A: Means-end analysis is a problem-solving strategy aimed at reducing the
difference between the initial and goal states by creating subgoals that are
closer to the goal.
Q: What is analogical problem solving?
A: Analogical problem solving involves using the solution to a similar problem
to guide the solution of a new problem.
Q: What is analogical transfer?
A: Analogical transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge or problem-solving
strategies from one problem (source problem) to another problem (target
problem) that shares similarities.
Q: What is analogical encoding?
A: Analogical encoding is the process of comparing two problems and
determining the similarities between them.
Q: Give an example of a problem widely used in research on analogical
problem solving.
A: Karl Duncker's radiation problem is a commonly used problem in this area
of research.
Q: How did Newell and Simon view problem solving?
A: They viewed problem solving as a search process in which a person
explores the problem space to find a solution.
Q: What are operators in problem solving?
A: Operators are actions that take the problem from one state to another,
helping to move closer to the goal state.
Q: What is the Tower of Hanoi problem?
A: The Tower of Hanoi is a mathematical puzzle that involves moving a stack
of disks from one peg to another, following specific rules.
Q: How does means-end analysis help in problem solving?
A: Means-end analysis helps in problem solving by breaking down the
problem into smaller subgoals and reducing the difference between the initial
and goal states.
Q: How do experts differ from novices in problem solving?
A: Experts have a deeper understanding of problem domains, possess more
efficient problem-solving strategies, and can quickly recognize patterns and
similarities between problems.
Q: How does analogical problem solving work?
A: Analogical problem solving works by identifying similarities between a
target problem and a source problem that has a known solution, allowing the
transfer of knowledge or strategies.
Q: What is the role of insight in problem solving?
A: Insight plays a crucial role in problem solving as it involves sudden
comprehension or realization that leads to the reorganization of one's mental
representation of the problem.
Q: How can functional fixedness hinder problem solving?
A: Functional fixedness can hinder problem solving by limiting one's
perspective and preventing them from considering alternative uses or
functions of objects.
Q: What are some characteristics of experts in problem solving?
A: Experts in problem solving often possess extensive knowledge, have welldeveloped problem-solving strategies, exhibit flexibility in their thinking, and
can quickly recognize problem patterns.
Q: What is the significance of restructuring in problem solving?
A: Restructuring refers to the reorganization of a person's mental
representation of a problem, and it often leads to sudden insights or solutions
that were not initially obvious.
Q: How do Gestalt psychologists define a problem?
A: According to Gestalt psychologists, a problem arises when there is an
obstacle between a present state and a goal, and the solution is not
immediately apparent.
Q: How do experts approach problem solving differently from novices?
A: Experts approach problem solving with a greater depth of knowledge, use
more efficientproblem-solving strategies, and can quickly recognize patterns
and similarities between problems, while novices may rely more on trial and
error or basic problem-solving methods.
Q: What is the role of creativity in problem solving?
A: Creativity plays a significant role in problem solving by allowing individuals
to think outside the box, generate novel ideas, and explore unconventional
solutions.
Q: How does the brain contribute to creative problem solving?
A: The brain's complex network of neural connections and cognitive
processes contribute to creative problem solving by facilitating flexible thinking,
associative reasoning, and the generation of new and diverse solutions.
Q: Give an example of using analogies to solve problems.
A: An example of using analogies to solve problems is when a person solves
a new math problem by drawing parallels to a previously encountered similar
math problem.
Q: How do Gestalt psychologists view problem solving?
A: Gestalt psychologists focus on how individuals perceive and represent
problems in their minds and how problem-solving involves restructuring or
reorganizing these mental representations.
Q: What is the concept of insight in problem solving?
A: Insight refers to the sudden realization or understanding that leads to a
solution to a problem. It often involves a shift in perspective or a restructuring
of one's mental representation of the problem.
Q: What are some techniques used in creative problem solving?
A: Techniques used in creative problem solving include brainstorming, mind
mapping, reframing, lateral thinking, and analogical reasoning.
Reasoning and Judgement
Reasoning
The ability to analyze and perceive any given information from different
perspectives by breaking it down into manageable components and
structuring the information in a logical order.
Inductive Reasoning: Specific to broad
Inductive reasoning is a form of logical thinking that involves deriving general
principles or conclusions based on specific observations or evidence. It
moves from specific instances to broader generalizations. In inductive
reasoning, the conclusions are considered probable or likely but not
necessarily certain.
Example of Inductive Reasoning:
Every cat I have seen has a tail.
Therefore, I conclude that all cats have tails.
Every time I eat peanuts, I develop an allergic reaction.
Therefore, I conclude that I am allergic to peanuts.
Deductive Reasoning: Broad to specific
Deductive reasoning is a logical process that starts with general principles or
premises and uses them to reach a specific conclusion. It involves applying
general principles to specific situations. In deductive reasoning, if the
premises are true and the logical structure is valid, the conclusion is
considered certain or guaranteed.
Example of Deductive Reasoning:
All mammals are warm-blooded animals.
Dogs are mammals.
Therefore, dogs are warm-blooded animals.
If it is raining, then the ground is wet.
The ground is wet.
Therefore, it is raining.
Illusory correlation
- refers to the perception of a relationship or correlation between two variables
when, in reality, no such relationship exists or is very weak. It is a cognitive
bias where people mistakenly believe that two unrelated events or
characteristics are connected or associated with each other.
Example 1:
Suppose someone believes that whenever they wear a particular shirt, they
have a better day at work. They start associating the shirt with positive
outcomes and believe there is a correlation between wearing the shirt and
having a successful day. However, in reality, the shirt has no influence on
their work performance, and the perceived correlation is illusory.
Example 2:
Imagine a person believes that every time they see a black cat, something
bad happens to them. They start perceiving a correlation between black cats
and negative events, such as accidents or bad luck. However, there is no
inherent connection between black cats and negative outcomes. The
perceived correlation is illusory and based on superstitions or personal beliefs.
Self-serving bias
- is a cognitive bias that involves the tendency for individuals to attribute
positive outcomes or successes to their own internal qualities or abilities,
while attributing negative outcomes or failures to external factors beyond their
control. It is a common tendency for people to protect their self-esteem and
maintain a positive self-image.
Example 1:
Imagine a student who performs well on a test and receives a high grade.
They might attribute their success to their intelligence, hard work, or effective
study strategies. They give credit to their internal qualities for the positive
outcome, reinforcing their belief in their abilities.
Example 2:
Now consider the same student who performs poorly on a test and receives a
low grade. In this case, they might attribute their failure to external factors
such as a difficult exam, unfair grading, or distractions during the test. They
attribute the negative outcome to circumstances beyond their control,
protecting their self-esteem and avoiding feelings of incompetence.
Stereotype
It is an overly broad generalization about a group or class of people that
frequently emphasizes the negative.
Bias
Refers to systematic patterns of deviation from norm or rationality in judgment,
often leading to perceptual distortion, inaccurate interpretation, illogical
interpretation, or what is broadly termed as cognitive distortion.
Confirmation bias
- is when people seek out, interpret, or remember information in a way that
confirms their existing beliefs or ideas, while ignoring or dismissing
information that contradicts them. Here are a couple of simple examples to
illustrate this bias:
Example 1:
Imagine a person who believes that eating organic food improves their health.
Whenever they read articles or hear anecdotes that support the benefits of
organic food, they pay attention to and remember those positive experiences.
However, they ignore or downplay studies or information that suggests there
is no significant difference in health outcomes between organic and nonorganic food. This person is exhibiting confirmation bias by selectively
favoring information that supports their belief in organic food's health benefits.
Example 2:
Consider someone who strongly believes in astrology and thinks that it can
predict future events. They read their horoscope daily and interpret it as
accurate and relevant to their life. When the horoscope seems to align with
their experiences, they see it as proof of astrology's validity. However, they
dismiss or ignore instances when the horoscope is vague or does not match
their actual experiences. This person's confirmation bias leads them to focus
on confirming instances and discount contradictory evidence.
Availability heuristic
- is a mental shortcut or cognitive bias where people judge the likelihood or
frequency of an event based on how easily examples or instances of that
event come to mind. Essentially, the more easily people can recall or retrieve
information about something, the more probable they perceive it to be.
Example 1:
Suppose a person sees news reports of several shark attacks in a particular
coastal region. As a result, they start to believe that shark attacks are a
common occurrence and may be reluctant to swim in any body of water, even
if the actual likelihood of encountering a shark is quite low. The vivid and
easily recalled instances of shark attacks influence their perception of the
frequency of such events.
Example 2:
Consider a student who is asked to estimate the frequency of car accidents in
their city. If the student has recently witnessed or heard about multiple car
accidents, they may overestimate the likelihood of car accidents and perceive
them as more common than they actually are. The memories of those
accidents are easily accessible, leading to an inflated perception of their
frequency.
Anchoring bias
- is a cognitive bias where individuals rely too heavily on an initial piece of
information (the "anchor") when making decisions or judgments, even if that
information may be arbitrary or irrelevant. The initial anchor influences
subsequent thoughts and assessments, often leading to biased or skewed
conclusions.
Example 1:
Imagine you're shopping for a new laptop, and the first laptop you come
across is priced at $2,000. This high price becomes your anchor for
evaluating the value of other laptops. As you continue to compare different
models, you might perceive laptops priced at $1,000 as inexpensive or good
deals, even though they might still be relatively expensive compared to other
options on the market. The initial anchor of $2,000 influences your perception
of what is reasonable or acceptable.
Example 2:
Suppose you're negotiating the price of a used car with a seller. The seller
starts the negotiation by stating a high asking price. This initial anchor can
influence your perception of what constitutes a fair price. Even if you believe
the initial price is too high, you might find it difficult to move away from that
anchor and end up accepting a higher price than you initially intended to pay.
Overconfidence bias
- is a cognitive bias where individuals have an inflated or excessive belief in
their own abilities, knowledge, or judgments. It involves people being more
confident in their own accuracy or predictions than what is objectively
warranted. This bias can lead individuals to overestimate their capabilities and
make overly optimistic judgments or decisions.
Example 1:
Imagine a student who consistently performs well on quizzes and exams
throughout the semester. As a result, they become overly confident in their
knowledge and abilities in a particular subject. When it comes to a final exam,
they may underestimate the amount of preparation needed and believe they
can perform well without studying as much as they actually should. Their
overconfidence can lead to poorer performance on the exam compared to
their initial expectations.
Example 2:
Consider an investor who has experienced a series of successful stock
market trades. They start to believe they have a special ability to consistently
pick winning stocks. As a result, they might become overconfident in their
investment decisions and take on excessive risks without fully considering
potential downsides. This overconfidence can lead to financial losses when
their investments don't perform as expected.
Hindsight bias
- also known as the "I-knew-it-all-along" effect, is a cognitive bias where
people tend to believe that an event was more predictable or foreseeable after
it has occurred than they believed it was before it happened. In other words,
individuals perceive past events as having been more predictable than they
actually were at the time.
Example:
Imagine a person watching a game of football. Prior to the game, they may
have predicted that one team would win based on their analysis of the players,
strategies, and previous performances. However, if the opposing team ends
up winning, the person might say, "Oh, I knew the other team would win, it
was obvious." They retroactively perceive their prediction as being more
accurate than it actually was, influenced by the knowledge of the outcome.
Sunk cost fallacy
- is a cognitive bias that occurs when people continue to invest time, money,
or resources into a decision or project based on the reasoning that they have
already invested so much that they can't afford to abandon it, even if it no
longer makes sense to continue. Essentially, individuals base their decisions
on the past investment rather than considering the current or future prospects.
Example:
Imagine a person starts a business and invests a significant amount of money
into it. As time goes on, they realize that the business is not performing well
and is unlikely to be successful in the future. However, instead of cutting their
losses and moving on, they continue to pour more money into the business,
thinking that they need to recoup their initial investment. They fall into the
sunk cost fallacy by focusing on what they have already invested, rather than
objectively assessing the future viability of the business.
Another example could be a person attending a movie that they find boring or
unenjoyable. Despite their dissatisfaction, they may choose to stay until the
end simply because they have already paid for the ticket. Their decision to
remain is driven by the belief that they should "get their money's worth," even
if the experience is not enjoyable.
Representativeness heuristic
- is a cognitive bias where individuals make judgments or decisions based on
how well an event or situation resembles a typical or representative prototype.
In other words, people rely on their perception of similarity or resemblance to
make assessments about the likelihood or category membership of an object
or event.
Example:
Suppose you meet someone who is wearing a lab coat and carrying a
stethoscope. Based on these cues, you may assume that the person is a
doctor. This judgment is based on the representativeness heuristic, as you
are using the person's resemblance to the prototypical image of a doctor to
make an assumption about their profession. However, this assumption may
not always be accurate, as the person could be a medical student, a lab
technician, or someone who simply enjoys wearing a lab coat as a fashion
choice.
Halo effect
- is a cognitive bias where our overall impression of a person influences our
judgments or perceptions of their specific traits or characteristics. It occurs
when we make assumptions about someone's positive qualities based on a
single positive trait or characteristic they possess.
Example:
Let's say you meet someone who is physically attractive. Due to the halo
effect, you might automatically assume that this person is also intelligent, kind,
and confident, even though you have no direct evidence or information about
these specific qualities. The positive overall impression created by their
physical attractiveness influences your perception of other unrelated traits.
Mental Model
It is a mental representation of a specific situation that can be used to help
determine the validity of syllogisms in deductive reasoning.
Syllogism
It is a form of deductive reasoning, introduced by Aristotle. is a form of
deductive argument where the conclusion follows from the truth of two (or
more) premises.
Incidental emotions
Are the emotions we carry with us to the decision that have nothing to do with
the decision.
Framing effect
- is a cognitive bias that shows how the way information is presented, or
"framed," can influence our decisions or judgments. It demonstrates that
people can react differently to the same information depending on how it is
framed or described.
Example: Health-related example:Imagine a health campaign presents a
medication as having a 90% success rate. This positive frame emphasizes
the effectiveness of the medication, leading people to perceive it more
favorably. However, if the same medication is framed as having a 10% failure
rate, it may be perceived less positively, focusing on the negative aspect
instead.
Fundamental attribution error
- is a cognitive bias that refers to our tendency to attribute people's behaviors
or actions to internal characteristics or dispositions, while underestimating the
influence of situational factors.
In simpler terms, it means that we often attribute someone's behavior to their
personality, traits, or intentions rather than considering external circumstances
that may have influenced their actions.
Example: Let's say you see a coworker arriving late to work. If you
immediately assume that they are lazy or irresponsible, without considering
the possibility that there might have been traffic or a family emergency that
caused the delay, you are committing the fundamental attribution error.
Instead of considering external factors that could have influenced their
lateness, you attribute it solely to their character or work ethic.
Dunning-Kruger Effect
Cognitive bias where people believe they are better, more competent, or more
moral than others. What is the Dunning-Kruger effect?
The Dunning-Kruger effect occurs when a person's lack of knowledge and
skill in a certain area causes them to overestimate their own competence.
Prospect theory
Is a psychology theory that describes how people make decisions when
presented with alternatives that involve risk, probability, and uncertainty.
Bounded rationality
Is a human decision-making process in which we attempt to satisfice, rather
than optimize.
Making decisions based on limited information and cognitive resources.