Key terms of Psychology:
Unit 2
Module 4 - The Need for Psychological Science
 Hindsight
bias - The tendency to believe after an event that you knew the outcome
all along.
 Overconfidence - Being more certain in our knowledge and predictions than is
accurate.
 Perceiving order in random events - Seeing patterns where there are none.
 Biases
illustrate the limitations of common sense and the importance of scientific
research.
Module 5 - The Scientific Method and Description
 Theories
- Explanations for behaviors using an integrated set of principles that
organizes observations and predicts behaviors or events.
 Hypothesis
- A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.
 Operational
definitions - A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures
(operations) used in a research study.
 Replication
- Repeating studies to confirm findings; boosts confidence.
 Case
studies - In-depth study of an individual or small group.
 Naturalistic observation - Recording behavior in natural settings.
 Surveys - Asking people to self-report attitudes, behaviors, opinions.
 Random sampling - Selecting a sample that represents the population.
 Sampling bias - A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative
sample.
 Population
- all those in a group being studied, from which samples may be drawn.
 Descriptions
suggest ideas for further study but do not explain causes.
Module 6 - Correlation and Experimentation
 Correlation
- The extent to which two variables are related, ranging from -1 to +1.
Positive correlations indicate the variables move in the same direction, negative
correlations indicate they move in opposite directions.
 Correlation coefficient - The statistical measure (-1 to +1) that quantifies the
correlation between two variables. Allows determining the strength and direction of
the relationship.
 Scatterplot - A graph showing the correlation between two variables, with each dot
representing one data point. The overall pattern of dots indicates the direction and
strength of the correlation.
 Illusory
correlation - Perceiving a relationship between two variables where none
exists. Can lead to inaccurate conclusions.
 Regression toward the mean - The tendency for extreme scores to fall back
towards the average over time or on retesting. Can be mistaken for effects of an
intervention.
 Experiment
- Research method that manipulates an independent variable to
observe effects on a dependent variable, while controlling other variables through
random assignment. Allows determining cause-and-effect.
 Independent
 Dependent
variable - The factor manipulated by the experimenter. (cause)
variable - The outcome measure affected by changes in the
independent variable.(effect)
 Random assignment - Randomly assigning participants to control for confounding
variables. Crucial for isolating effects of the independent variable.
Module 7 - Research Design and Ethics
 Informed
consent - Providing participants enough information to enable them to
choose whether to participate. Essential ethical standard.
 Debriefing
- Explaining the purpose and any deceptions in a study afterward.
Allows participants to leave with accurate understanding.
 Institutional review board - University committee that reviews research proposals to
ensure ethical treatment of animal and human participants.
Module 8 - Statistical Reasoning
 Descriptive
statistics - Numerical data used to summarize and describe
characteristics of a sample or population. Includes central tendency (mean, median,
mode) and variation (range, standard deviation).
 Mean
- The arithmetic average of a set of scores, calculated by summing them and
dividing by the number of scores. Can be skewed by outliers.
 Median
- The middle score of a distribution when scores are arranged from lowest
to highest. Minimally influenced by outliers.
 Mode
- The most frequently occurring value in a distribution.
 Range
- The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution.
Provides only a crude measure of variability.
 Standard
deviation - A statistic that describes the spread of scores around the
mean. Accounts for each score's distance from the mean. Better indicates variability
than range.
 Normal
distribution - A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution of data. About 68%
of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of the mean. Allows making probability
estimates.
 Inferential statistics - Statistics used to infer from a sample to a population. Help
determine if an observed difference is reliable and statistically significant.
 Statistical
significance - The probability that results are due to chance. By
convention, a 5% or less probability is often considered statistically significant.
 Generalization - Extending research conclusions from a sample to the population.
More justified when based on a representative, randomly selected sample.
Unit 3
Module 9 - Biological Psychology and Neurotransmission
 Neurons - The basic building blocks of the nervous system. Neurons consist of a cell
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body containing the nucleus, dendrites that receive messages, and an axon that
transmits messages.
Dendrites - The bushy, branching extensions of a neuron that receive messages from
other neurons and transmit those messages toward the cell body.
Axon - The long fiber extending from the cell body that transmits messages away from
the neuron cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
Myelin Sheath - The fatty tissue layer that encases the axons of some neurons,
enabling faster transmission of neural impulses by allowing the impulse to "hop" from
node to node.
Glial Cells - Cells that provide support and protection for neurons. They produce
myelin, guide neural connections, provide nutrients, and clean up neurotransmitters.
They also play a role in learning, thinking and memory.
 Action Potential - The brief electrical impulse transmitted down the axon when the
neuron fires. It is generated by sodium ions rushing into the neuron, reversing the
charge inside the axon.
 Threshold - The level of stimulation required to trigger an action potential. Excitatory
signals must exceed inhibitory signals by this minimum amount.
 Synapse - The junction between the axon tip of one neuron and the dendrite or cell
body of the next neuron. Neurotransmitters cross the synaptic gap/cleft to
communicate between neurons.
 Neurotransmitters - The chemical messengers (like serotonin, dopamine,
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acetylcholine, endorphins) that cross the synaptic gaps and transmit signals between
neurons by binding to receptor sites.
Serotonin: Regulates mood, appetite, and sleep. Often referred to as the "feel-good"
neurotransmitter, associated with feelings of well-being and happiness. Imbalance is
linked to mood disorders like depression and anxiety.
Dopamine: Influences reward, motivation, and motor control. Associated with pleasure,
reinforcement, and voluntary movement. Imbalance is implicated in conditions like
Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia; linked to addiction and mood disorders.
Acetylcholine: Involved in muscle contraction, learning, and memory. Key for
neuromuscular transmission and cognitive functions. Imbalance is associated with
disorders like Alzheimer's disease; influences attention and arousal.
Endorphins: Act as natural painkillers and mood elevators. Released during stress or
pain to reduce discomfort; contribute to feelings of pleasure. Imbalance is linked to
conditions involving pain perception and mood disorders.
Norepinephrine: Acts as both a hormone and neurotransmitter; involved in the "fight or
flight" response. Increases heart rate, alertness, and energy in response to stress;
regulates mood and attention. Imbalance is linked to mood disorders such as
depression and anxiety; dysregulation can impact stress responses.
 Reuptake - The reabsorption of excess neurotransmitters back into the axon terminals
of the sending neuron after crossing the synapse.
 Agonists - Chemicals that increase neurotransmitter action, either by mimicking them,
stimulating their release, or preventing their reuptake.
 Antagonists - Chemicals that inhibit neurotransmitters, either by blocking their release
from the sending neuron or blocking their effect on the receiving neuron.
Module 10
 Central Nervous System (CNS) - The brain and spinal cord. Makes decisions and
controls behaviors and body functions.
 Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - Nerves connecting the CNS to the rest of the
body. Transmits sensory information to the CNS and motor commands from the CNS.
Divided into somatic and autonomic nervous systems.
 Somatic Nervous System - Controls skeletal muscles. Enables voluntary body
movements.
 Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) - Controls glands, organs, cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle. Divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
 Sympathetic Nervous System - Mobilizes the body's energy in stressful
"fight-or-flight" situations.
 Parasympathetic Nervous System - Conserves the body's energy during restful
"rest-and-digest" functioning.
 Sensory Neurons - Carry incoming information from sense receptors to the CNS.
 Motor Neurons - Carry outgoing information from the CNS to muscles and glands.
 Interneurons - Process information between sensory and motor neurons.
 Endocrine System - Set of glands that secrete hormones into the blood to affect
distant parts of the body. Slower but more enduring effects than the nervous system.
 Pituitary Gland - The "master gland" that secretes hormones regulating growth and
other glands. Controlled by hypothalamus.
 Adrenal Glands - Release epinephrine/norepinephrine hormones that trigger
fight-or-flight response.
 Thyroid - located in the neck, regulates metabolism, influencing energy balance and
calcium levels. Thyroid disorders includes hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism.
Module 11
 Lesion - Tissue destruction that creates a naturally or experimentally caused brain
injury. Early lesion studies helped localize brain functions.
 EEG - Records electrical brain wave activity through electrodes on the scalp.
 PET scan - Uses radioactive glucose to image brain activity during tasks.
 MRI - Scans that use magnetic fields to provide detailed images of brain anatomy.
 fMRI - Compares successive MRI scans to reveal changes in brain activity via blood
flow.
 Brainstem - The base of the brain that controls automatic survival functions like
breathing. Includes the medulla, pons, and reticular formation.
 Medulla - Bottom part of brainstem that controls heartbeat and breathing.
 Thalamus - At top of brainstem, directs sensory messages to proper areas of cortex.
 Reticular Formation - Brainstem network that filters stimuli and controls arousal.
 Cerebellum - At rear of brainstem, coordinates voluntary movement and balance.
 Limbic System - Linked to emotions, drives, memory. Includes amygdala,
hypothalamus, hippocampus.
 Amygdala - Involved in emotional responses like fear and aggression.
 Hypothalamus - Governs body maintenance functions like hunger and directs pituitary
gland. Contains reward centers.
 Hippocampus - Processes explicit memories for long-term storage.
Module 12
 Cerebral Cortex - The outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level functions.
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Divided into left and right hemispheres, each with four lobes.
Frontal Lobes - Front portion of each hemisphere; involved in planning, judgement,
movement. Contains motor cortex.
Parietal Lobes - Top rear portion; processes touch/body position information. Contains
somatosensory cortex.
Occipital Lobes - Rear portion; contains visual cortex to process visual information.
Temporal Lobes - Lower side portion; contains auditory cortex to process sound.
Motor Cortex - Rear portion of frontal lobe that controls voluntary movements.
Somatosensory Cortex - Front portion of parietal lobe that processes touch/body
sensations.
Association Areas - Regions not involved in primary sensory/motor functions. Integrate
information for learning, memory, language, thinking.
Plasticity - Ability of the brain to reorganize and form new neural connections and
pathways, especially in childhood. Allows the brain to adapt.
Neurogenesis - Formation of new neurons in certain brain regions like the
hippocampus.
Module 13
Split-Brain - A condition resulting from surgery to sever the corpus callosum fibers
connecting the brain's two hemispheres.
Corpus Callosum - The large band of neural fibers connecting the two hemispheres and
enabling communication between them.
Cognitive Neuroscience - The interdisciplinary study of the brain activity linked with mental
processes like perception, thinking, memory.
Consciousness - Our subjective awareness of ourselves and the environment.
Dual Processing - The principle that information is often processed simultaneously on
separate conscious (high road) and unconscious (low road) tracks.
Parallel Processing - Unconsciously processing many aspects of a problem at once,
used for well-learned information.
Sequential Processing - Consciously focusing on one aspect of a problem at a time,
used for new information.
M14
Chromosomes - Threadlike structures made of DNA that contain the genes.
DNA - Deoxyribonucleic acid, the complex molecule containing genetic information.
Genes - Segments of DNA that can synthesize proteins when expressed/activated.
Dominant Gene: A type of gene that, when present, expresses its trait, masking the effect
of the corresponding recessive gene. Only one copy of the dominant allele is needed for
the trait to be expressed in the phenotype. Often represented by uppercase letters (e.g.,
A).
Recessive Gene: A type of gene that expresses its trait only when two copies
(homozygous) are present. Represented by lowercase letters (e.g., a).
Phenotype: The observable physical or biochemical characteristics of an organism,
resulting from the interaction between its genotype (genetic makeup) and environmental
influences.
Genome - The complete genetic instructions for an organism.
Behavior Genetics - Studies the relative influence of genes and environment on behavior.
Heredity - The genetic transfer of characteristics from parents to offspring.
Environment - All non-genetic influences, from prenatal conditions to social experiences.
Identical Twins - Develop from one fertilized egg, so they are genetically identical.
Fraternal Twins - Develop from separate eggs, so they share 50% of genes like siblings.
Adoption Studies - Compare similarities between adopted children and their biological vs.
adoptive relatives.
Heritability - The proportion of variation among individuals attributable to their genes.
Refers to variation, not how much any one individual's trait is genetic.
Molecular Genetics - Studies the molecular structure and function of genes.
Epigenetics - Studies how gene expression can be influenced by environmental factors
without changes to the DNA sequence itself.
Key relationships:
 Genes and environments interact to influence behavior and development.
 Twin and adoption studies reveal relative effects of genes and environment.
 Heritability refers to group variation, not individuals.
 Molecular genetics identifies specific genes related to traits and disorders.
 Epigenetics shows how environments alter gene activity.
M15
Evolutionary psychology - The study of how natural selection has shaped the
evolution of behavior and the mind. It uses principles of natural selection to explain
various psychological tendencies that facilitated survival and reproduction.
Natural selection - The principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to
survive and reproduce will be more likely to be passed on to succeeding generations.
Those with less advantageous traits will be less likely to survive and reproduce.
Mutation - Random errors in gene replication that can lead to changes in traits. Mutations
provide genetic variation.
Human genome - The full set of human genetic information encoded in DNA. Humans
share over 95% of their genome, which explains our species' commonalities.
Sexuality - Evolutionary psychology explains some male-female differences in sexuality as
arising from different adaptive pressures. For example, men's interest in casual sex with
multiple partners may have enhanced reproductive success. Women's preference for
committed partners willing to invest in offspring enhanced survival.
Mating preferences - The traits people find attractive in potential mates. Evolutionary
psychology proposes we are attracted to features that in ancestral environments were
associated with reproductive and survival success.
Social scripts - Culturally established guidelines for how to behave in certain situations.
Critics of evolutionary psychology argue social scripts better explain gender differences.
Biopsychosocial approach - Views human development as arising from ongoing
interactions of biological, psychological, and socio-cultural influences. Rejects "nature
versus nurture."
Key concepts:
 Behavior tendencies have an evolutionary basis - they enhanced ancestral survival
and reproduction.
 Natural selection favors traits that increase reproductive success. Advantageous
traits become more common.
 Sex differences arise from differing adaptive pressures on males and females.
 Critiques argue evolutionary psychology overlooks social-cultural influences.
 The biopsychosocial model recognizes our biological, psychological, and
socio-cultural influences.
Unit 4 Sensation and
Perception
M16
Sensation - The process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and
represent stimulus energies from our environment.
Perception - The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling
recognition of meaningful events.
Selective attention - The focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus.
We can only consciously attend to one thing at a time.
Inattentional blindness - Failing to see visible objects when attention is directed elsewhere.
We miss things when focused on another task.
Transduction - Converting one form of energy into another that the brain can interpret, like
sound waves into neural signals.
Absolute threshold - Minimum stimulation needed to detect a stimulus 50% of the
time. Varies by sensory abilities. (eg. hear v not hear)
Difference threshold - Minimum difference between two stimuli required for
detection 50% of the time. Follows Weber's law. (eg. notice differences in sound
level)
Sensory adaptation - Diminished sensitivity due to constant stimulation. Allows us to
focus on informative changes. (eg. a smelly sewage, a warm room…)
Bottom-up processing - Sensory analysis that begins at the entry level, with
information flowing from sensory receptors to the brain. In hearing a song, the ears
detect individual notes and words. (eg. mosquito sound)
Top-down processing - Information processing guided by higher-level mental
processes, as when we construct perceptions by filtering information through
experience and expectations. In hearing a song, prior knowledge and memories of
the song influence interpretation. (eg. blurry images)
Echoic memory - Temporarily holds and processes auditory information. It allows a
brief retention of sounds, typically lasting a few seconds, before being transferred to
other memory systems or fading away.
M17
Perceptual Set - A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another.
Influences perception through top-down processing based on expectations. Seeing
young or old woman in ambiguous figure depends on which unambiguous version
seen first.
Context Effects - Immediate surroundings influence interpretations. Being driver
versus pedestrian changes view of crosswalks. Holding gun makes neutral objects
seem gun-like. Hearing words in sentence changes interpretation of ambiguous
word.
Motivation - Desires and goals that energize perception and behavior. Make objects more
desirable (like water when thirsty) seem closer. Influence perceptions of hills, distances
based on fatigue. Enhance perceptions of one's own performance.
Emotion - Feelings that shape perceptions, like hearing sadness in ambiguous phrases
when in a sad mood. When angry, more likely to perceive neutral objects as weapons.
When mildly upset, perceive neutral faces as less attractive.
Extrasensory Perception (ESP) - Controversial claim of perception without sensation.
Includes telepathy (mind-to-mind communication), clairvoyance (perceiving remote events),
and precognition (foreseeing future events).
Parapsychology - Study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
("mind over matter"). Skeptics argue inability to reliably demonstrate ESP under controlled
conditions.
M18
Wavelength - The distance between peaks of a light or sound wave. Determines the
perceived color of light.
Amplitude - Height of a wave from peak to trough. Determines perceived brightness.
Transduction - Conversion of one form of energy into another that the brain can
interpret. Light into neural signals in vision.
Rods - Retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray, and are sensitive to movement
and dim light.
Cones - Retinal receptors concentrated near the fovea that enable color vision and fine
detail perception.
Optic Nerve - Nerve carrying neural impulses from the eye to the brain.
Blind Spot - Spot where optic nerve leaves eye, creating a blind area with no receptors.
Parallel Processing - Processing many aspects of a problem simultaneously. Brain
divides visual scene into components like motion, form, depth, color.
Feature Detectors - Nerve cells that respond to specific stimulus features like edges,
angles, movement. Located in visual cortex.
Young-Helmholtz Trichromatic Theory - Theory that color vision depends on three cone
types sensitive to red, green, or blue light.
Opponent-Process Theory - Theory that color vision depends on cells responding to
paired colors (red-green, yellow-blue). Explains afterimages.
M19
Gestalt - The Gestalt psychologists proposed principles for how we perceive the visual
world as organized wholes rather than just a collection of parts. The whole can exceed the
sum of its parts.
Figure-ground - Our ability to perceive objects (the figure) as distinct from their
surroundings (the ground). Allows us to focus on what is most relevant.
Grouping - We perceptually organize visual elements into groups following principles like
proximity, continuity, and closure. These allow us to impose order and interpret meaning.
Closure - A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization where the brain tends to fill in
missing parts of incomplete visual stimuli, allowing individuals to perceive a complete and
meaningful whole.
Depth perception - Our ability to see the world in 3D and judge distance, thanks to
binocular cues like retinal disparity and monocular cues like interposition and linear
perspective. Indicates the role of both nature and nurture.
Retinal disparity - binocular depth cue that results from the slight difference in the
images projected onto each retina, allowing the brain to perceive depth and create a
three-dimensional visual experience.
Motion perception - We can perceive illusory motion from a series of still images, like in
movies or blinking lights. Assumptions about motion also let us interpret objects as
approaching or retreating.
Perceptual constancy - We perceive familiar objects as having consistent properties like
color, shape, and size, even as sensory input changes. Constancies help us recognize
objects.
Color constancy - An object's color remains constant despite changing illumination and
wavelength reflection. Due to relative comparisons.
Shape constancy - Recognizing a familiar shape despite changing retinal image, like with
an opening door. Links views to objects.
Perceptual adaptation - Adjusting to changes in sensory input, like inverted vision. Allows
coordination in new contexts.
Sensory restriction - Lack of early stimulation disrupts development of perceptual abilities
in critical period. Vision restoration cases also show role of experience.
M20
Sound waves - Compressions and rarefactions of air molecules that we perceive as sound.
Vary in amplitude (loudness) and wavelength/frequency (pitch).
Outer ear - Funnels sound waves to eardrum.
Middle ear - Contains hammer, anvil, and stirrup bones that amplify vibrations.
Inner ear - Contains cochlea which transforms vibrations into neural signals.
Eardrum - Vibrates in response to incoming sound waves.
Oval window - Receives vibrations from middle ear bones and passes them to cochlea.
Cochlea - Fluid-filled snail-shaped tube lined with hair cells. Incoming vibrations produce
ripples in cochlear fluid, bending hair cells.
Hair cells - Convert mechanical energy of sound into electrical signals in auditory nerve.
Damage causes sensorineural hearing loss.
Auditory nerve - Carries signals from hair cells to the brain.
Auditory cortex - Recognizes and interprets auditory nerve signals as meaningful sound.
Place theory - High pitches processed by specific places on the basilar membrane.
Frequency theory - Pitch coded by impulse frequency in auditory nerve.
Sound localization - Brain computes location by comparing when sounds reach each ear.
M21
Touch - Our tactile sense, made up of pressure, temperature, and pain sensations.
Pain - Unpleasant sensation signaling potential harm. Has biological, psychological, and
social-cultural influences according to the biopsychosocial perspective.
Gate control theory - Proposes a neurological "gate" in spinal cord that can block pain
signals to brain. Explains effects of massage, placebo, and distraction on pain.
Taste - Chemical sense detecting sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami in taste buds. Interacts
with smell.
Smell - Chemical sense detecting airborne molecules with olfactory receptors. Connects
to emotion and memory areas.
Kinesthesia - Sense of body position and movement thanks to receptors in muscles/joints.
Vestibular sense - Sense of balance and motion from fluid movements in semicircular
canals.
Sensory interaction - Principle that senses influence each other, like smell affecting taste.
Embodied cognition - Bodily sensations affecting cognitive judgments, as in warmth
promoting social warmth.
Unit 5 Consciousness
Consciousness (p. 224):
Consciousness refers to an individual's awareness of thoughts, sensations, feelings, and
the external environment. It is a subjective experience that varies in levels, from full
awareness to altered states such as sleep or hypnosis.
Hypnosis (p. 225):
Hypnosis is a state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and focused attention. It
is often induced by a hypnotist and may involve alterations in perception, memory, and
voluntary control of action.
Dissociation (p. 227):
Dissociation is a psychological process where a person's consciousness becomes
separated from aspects of their thoughts, memories, or identity. It is often associated with
certain mental health conditions and can be a defense mechanism against trauma.
Sleep (p. 231):
Sleep is a natural state of rest characterized by reduced awareness and responsiveness to
the environment. It is a vital biological process that supports various functions, including
physical and mental restoration.
Circadian Rhythm (p. 231):
The circadian rhythm is the internal biological clock that regulates the sleep-wake cycle
and other physiological processes, roughly following a 24-hour cycle.
REM Sleep (p. 232):
REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep is a stage of sleep characterized by rapid eye
movements, vivid dreams, and increased brain activity. It is associated with memory
consolidation and emotional processing.
Alpha Waves (p. 232):
Alpha waves are a type of brainwave associated with a relaxed and awake state, often
observed when an individual is in a calm and resting state.
NREM Sleep (p. 233):
NREM (Non-Rapid Eye Movement) sleep includes different stages of sleep (1, 2, and 3)
characterized by slower brainwaves and physical relaxation.
Hallucinations (p. 233):
Hallucinations are perceptual experiences that occur without external stimuli. They can be
sensory, such as seeing or hearing things that aren't present.
Hypnagogic Sensations (p. 233):
Hypnagogic sensations are sensory experiences that occur as an individual is falling
asleep, including vivid imagery or sensations.
Delta Waves (p. 234):
Delta waves are slow brainwaves associated with deep sleep (NREM stage 3) and are
crucial for physical restoration and growth.
Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) (p. 235):
The suprachiasmatic nucleus is a region in the brain's hypothalamus that plays a key role
in regulating the circadian rhythm and sleep-wake cycles.
Insomnia (p. 244):
Insomnia is a sleep disorder characterized by persistent difficulty falling asleep, staying
asleep, or experiencing restorative sleep.
Narcolepsy (p. 245):
Narcolepsy is a neurological disorder characterized by sudden and uncontrollable
episodes of sleep during waking hours.
Sleep Apnea (p. 245):
Sleep apnea is a sleep disorder in which breathing repeatedly stops and starts during
sleep, leading to disruptions in sleep patterns.
Night Terrors (p. 246):
Night terrors are intense episodes of fear or dread during sleep, often accompanied by
physiological arousal. They usually occur during non-REM sleep.
Dream (p. 247):
A dream is a series of thoughts, images, and emotions experienced during sleep. Dreams
can be vivid and may have different levels of significance.
Manifest Content (p. 248):
Manifest content refers to the surface-level content of a dream—the events, characters,
and situations as they are experienced.
Latent Content (p. 248):
Latent content refers to the hidden or symbolic meaning of a dream, often representing
unconscious desires or conflicts.
REM Rebound (p. 251):
REM rebound is an increase in the amount and intensity of REM sleep that occurs after
periods of sleep deprivation.
Psychoactive Drug (p. 253):
Psychoactive drugs are substances that affect mood, perception, or consciousness. They
can alter brain function and may lead to changes in behavior.
Substance Use Disorder (p. 253):
Substance use disorder is a condition characterized by the harmful or hazardous use of
substances, leading to addiction or dependence.
Tolerance (p. 255):
Tolerance is the reduced effectiveness of a drug with continued use, leading to the need
for higher doses to achieve the same effects.
Withdrawal (p. 255):
Withdrawal refers to the symptoms that occur when a person reduces or stops using a
substance to which they are addicted.
Depressants (p. 255):
Depressants are drugs that reduce neural activity and overall functioning. Examples
include alcohol and sedative-hypnotic drugs.
Alcohol Use Disorder (p. 255):
Alcohol use disorder is a problematic pattern of alcohol use that leads to impairment in
daily life.
Barbiturates (p. 257):
Barbiturates are a class of depressant drugs that act as central nervous system
depressants. They have a sedative effect and are sometimes used as sleep aids.
Opiates (p. 257):
Opiates are drugs derived from the opium poppy, such as morphine and heroin, that act
on the central nervous system to relieve pain and induce euphoria.
Stimulants (p. 257):
Stimulants are drugs that increase neural activity and arousal. Examples include caffeine,
nicotine, and amphetamines.
Nicotine (p. 258):
Nicotine is a stimulant found in tobacco products that can lead to addiction and has both
stimulating and relaxing effects.
Cocaine (p. 259):
Cocaine is a powerful stimulant drug that increases dopamine levels in the brain, leading to
euphoria and increased energy.
Amphetamines (p. 260):
Amphetamines are stimulant drugs that affect the central nervous system, increasing
alertness and reducing fatigue.
Methamphetamine (p. 260):
Methamphetamine is a highly addictive stimulant drug that has powerful and long-lasting
effects on the central nervous system.
Ecstasy (MDMA) (p. 261):
Ecstasy, or MDMA, is a synthetic drug that combines stimulant and hallucinogenic
properties, often used recreationally in social settings.
Hallucinogens (p. 261):
Hallucinogens are drugs that alter perception, mood, and various cognitive processes.
Examples include LSD and psilocybin mushrooms.
Near-Death Experience (p. 262):
A near-death experience is a profound psychological event that may occur during a
life-threatening situation, often involving a sense of leaving the body or having a spiritual
encounter.
LSD (p. 262):
LSD (Lysergic acid diethylamide) is a powerful hallucinogenic drug that can induce altered
perceptions, hallucinations, and changes in thought processes.
THC (p. 262):
THC (Tetrahydrocannabinol) is the psychoactive compound in cannabis that produces the
"high" sensation and various cognitive and mood effects.
Unit 6 Learning
U29-30
Classical conditioning - Associating a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally
produces a response, like a school bell (neutral stimulus) triggering anticipation of lunch
(natural response).
Operant conditioning - Learning associations between behaviors and consequences, like a
student raising their hand in class and being called on by the teacher (positive
reinforcement).
Observational learning - Learning by observing others, like students picking up slang terms
and gestures from peers. Enabled by mirror neurons.
Prosocial modeling - Imitating positive behaviors, like a new student making friends by
copying the inclusive actions of a kind peer.
Antisocial modeling - Imitating negative behaviors, like bullies spreading mean behaviors.
Shaping - Reinforcing successive steps to learn a complex behavior, like a coach praising
a basketball player for each step mastered from dribbling to scoring.
Schedules of reinforcement - Patterns of reward, like teachers using variable-ratio
reinforcement by pop quizzing students on random days.
Discrimination - Responding differently to similar stimuli, like distinguishing an A from a B
grade.
Extinction - Gradual weakening of a conditioned response by withholding reinforcement,
like students eventually stopping hand-raising when a teacher stops calling on them.
Insight - Sudden realization of how to solve a problem, like figuring out how to complete a
challenging math proof.
Self-control - Resisting impulses for greater rewards later, like saving up to buy something
instead of spending money immediately. Can be depleted with use.
Unit 7 Cognition
Modules 31 and 32: memory
Encoding - Process of getting information into memory system through effortful/conscious
processing or automatic processing. Forms associations.
Storage - Retaining encoded information over time through changes at the synapse level
like long-term potentiation (LTP).
Retrieval - Getting information back out of storage using cues that trigger associated
pathways.
Sensory memory - Very brief iconic (visual) or echoic (auditory) memory.
Working memory - Active processing of incoming info, limited capacity.
Long-term memory - Unlimited capacity storehouse for knowledge and experiences.
Explicit memory - Conscious recall of facts (semantic memory) and events (episodic
memory), formed in hippocampus/frontal lobes.
Implicit memory - Unconscious memory for skills and associations, in cerebellum and
basal ganglia.
Flashbulb memory - Vivid emotional memory of an event, strengthened by stress
hormones and amygdala activation.
Levels of processing - Deep semantic encoding yields better retention than shallow
encoding of surface details.
Context effects - State or setting where learning occurred aids later retrieval. Mood
congruence also cues recall.
Priming - Unconscious activation of associated memories that influence later
behavior/judgments.
Serial position effect - Better recall of early and recent items on a list.
Heuristics - Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb.
Phonology - study of the sound patterns in a language.
Semantics - study of meaning in language, encompassing the interpretation of words,
phrases, and sentences.
Syntax - the grammar and rules governing the structure and arrangement of words to form
grammatically correct sentences.
Pragmatics - the study of how context influences the use of language, including the social
aspects of communication.
Unit 8 Motivation
M37-44
motivation (p. 402): A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior. Example: Feeling
hungry motivates you to get food.
instinct (p. 402): An inborn, complex behavior pattern characteristic of a species. (species
wide fixed pattern and unlearned). Example: Baby sea turtles instinctively move toward the
ocean after hatching.
physiological need (p. 403): A basic bodily requirement like food, water, rest. Example:
When you are thirsty, your physiological need for water motivates you to drink.
drive-reduction theory (p. 403): The idea that a physiological need creates psychological
tension that motivates behavior to reduce the need. Example: Your hunger drive motivates
you to eat.
homeostasis (p. 403): The body's tendency to maintain a constant internal state. Example:
When your body temperature drops, you shiver to maintain homeostasis.
incentive (p. 403): Something that motivates behavior. Example: The smell of cinnamon
rolls is an incentive that motivates you to eat.
Yerkes-Dodson law (p. 404): Performance increases with arousal but only to a point.
Example: Test performance peaks at moderate test anxiety levels.
hierarchy of needs (p. 405): Maslow's hierarchy ranks human needs from basic
physiological to self-actualization. Example: Once fed, people work to achieve higher
psychological needs.
glucose (p. 409): Sugar that provides the body energy; hunger increases when glucose is
low.
set point (p. 411): Weight that your body attempts to maintain. Example: Repeatedly losing
and regaining 50 pounds may indicate your set point is higher.
basal metabolic rate (p. 411): Your resting energy expenditure rate. Example: Thyroid
problems can increase/decrease basal metabolic rate.
obesity (p. 414): Body mass index over 30, indicating excess weight.
asexual (p. 418): Having no sexual attraction to others.
testosterone (p. 418): Key male sex hormone.
estrogens (p. 418): Key female sex hormones. Example: Estrogen peaks during ovulation.
sexual response cycle (p. 419): Masters and Johnson's four stages of sexual response:
excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
refractory period (p. 420): After orgasm, a period when one cannot achieve another
orgasm.
affiliation need (p. 423): The need to build relationships and feel part of a group. Example:
Lonely people join clubs to satisfy affiliation.
ostracism (p. 425): Deliberate social exclusion of individuals/groups. Example: Not
responding to someone's messages is a form of ostracism.
narcissism (p. 427): Excessive self-love and self-absorption.
achievement motivation (p. 428): The desire for significant accomplishments and mastery.
Example: Striving to get straight A's demonstrates achievement motivation.
grit (p. 429): Passion and perseverance pursuing long-term goals. Example: Grit explains
how child prodigies become elite performers through disciplined practice.
emotion (p. 433): Response of the whole organism involving arousal, behavior, and
conscious thoughts/feelings. Example: Fear involves increased heart rate, fight or flight
response, and feeling afraid consciously.
James-Lange theory (p. 433): Our experience of emotion is awareness of our physiological
arousal to emotion-arousing stimuli. Example: We feel afraid after noticing our racing
heartbeat.
Cannon-Bard theory (p. 433): Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger
physiological responses and subjective emotion experience. Example: Our heart races as
we feel afraid.
two-factor theory (p. 434): Emotions have two ingredients - physical arousal and a
cognitive label we put on that arousal. Example: We feel nervous butterflies on a
rollercoaster and label it as "fear."
polygraph (p. 439): A machine used to detect lies by tracking physiological arousal related
to emotion.
facial feedback effect (p. 447): Facial expressions trigger corresponding feelings, like
frowning makes us feel unhappy.
behavior feedback effect (p. 448): Our behavior influences our own and others' thoughts,
feelings and actions. Example: Walking quickly with your head high makes you feel more
energetic.
stress (p. 450): The process of perceiving and responding to threatening or challenging
events. Example: Giving speeches often triggers the body's stress response.
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) (p. 454): Selye's three phases of stress response alarm, resistance, exhaustion. Example: Repeatedly facing stress without relief can lead to
exhaustion.
tend-and-befriend response (p. 455): Under stress, providing and seeking social support.
Example: After a breakup, calling friends for comfort demonstrates tend-and-befriend.
health psychology (p. 456): Psychology's contribution to behavioral medicine, studying
psychological influences on illness and health promotion.
psychoneuroimmunology (p. 456): Studies interactions between psychological,
neurological, and immune processes and their effect on health.
coronary heart disease (p. 459): Clogging of vessels supplying blood to the heart muscle.
Type A (p. 459): Competitive, time-urgent personality. Example: Type A people are often
impatient and easily angered.
Type B (p. 459): More relaxed, easygoing personality.
catharsis (p. 460): "Releasing" aggressive energy relieves those urges. Example: Punching
a pillow to vent anger is an attempt at catharsis.
aerobic exercise (p. 467): Sustained physical activity strengthening heart/lungs. Example:
Jogging, biking, and swimming are aerobic exercise.
mindfulness meditation (p. 470): Attending nonjudgmentally to one's present experiences.
Example: Noticing feelings and physical sensations during meditation practice
demonstrates mindfulness.
feel-good, do-good phenomenon (p. 473): People help others more when happy. Example:
After winning the lottery, donating large sums to charity illustrates this phenomenon.
positive psychology (p. 473): Scientific study of strengths, virtues and well-being enabling
individuals and communities to thrive. Example: Research on happiness, resilience and
flourishing exemplify positive psychology.
subjective well-being (p. 473): Self-perceived happiness/life satisfaction. Example:
Regularly rating your current life satisfaction on a 10-point scale measures subjective
well-being.
adaptation-level phenomenon (p. 476): Judging stimuli relative to neutral level defined by
our prior experience. Example: Luxury cars seem ordinary to children of the super rich.
relative deprivation (p. 476): Perceiving yourself as worse off relative to those you compare
with. Example: Envy over a peer's expensive purchases reflects relative deprivation.
Unit 9 developmental psychology
Prenatal Development
* Zygote: A fertilized egg.
* Germinal stage: The first two weeks after conception, when the zygote divides rapidly.
* Embryonic stage: From the third to the eighth week after conception, when the organs
begin to form.
* Fetal stage: From the ninth week after conception to birth, when the organs mature and
the fetus grows.
* Teratogens: Agents that can harm the developing embryo or fetus.
* Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): A condition caused by a pregnant woman's heavy
drinking, and can lead to physical and cognitive abnormalities.
Newborns
* Sensory abilities: Newborns have a number of sensory abilities, including the ability to
see, hear, and smell.
* Learning and memory: Newborns are also able to learn and remember.
* Methods for studying infants' mental abilities: Researchers use a variety of methods to
study infants' mental abilities, including habituation, preferential looking, and operant
conditioning.
* Maturation: Maturation refers to the biological growth and development that unfold
naturally with age.
* Reflexes: Involuntary, automatic responses to stimuli, often present from birth.
Cognitive Development
*
Piaget's theory: Describes four stages of cognitive development: sensorimotor,
preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational.
* Sensorimotor stage: Infants learn through sensory experiences and motor actions.
* Preoperational stage: Children develop symbolic thinking and language, but lack logical
reasoning and conservation.
* Concrete operational stage: Children master conservation and develop logical reasoning
abilities, but are limited to concrete experiences.
* Formal operational stage: Adolescents and adults can think abstractly and hypothetically.
* Vygotsky's sociocultural theory: Emphasizes the role of social interaction and culture in
cognitive development.
* Object Permanence: The understanding that objects continue to exist even when they
are no longer visible.
* Conservation: The recognition that quantity remains the same despite changes in
physical appearance.
* Formal Operational Thought: Piaget's stage of cognitive development where abstract and
complex thinking emerges.
Social and Emotional Development
* Attachment: The emotional bond between a child and a caregiver.
* Erikson's stages of psychosocial development: Focus on social and emotional
development throughout life.
* Critical periods: Sensitive periods for certain types of learning and development.
* Imprinting: A rapid form of learning that occurs in some species in early life.
* Self-concept: A person's understanding of themselves as an individual.
* Gender development: The process of acquiring a gender identity and gender roles.
* Adolescence: A period of transition from childhood to adulthood, marked by
physical, cognitive, and social changes.
* Puberty: The biological changes that lead to sexual maturity.
* Identity formation: The process of developing a sense of self and one's place in the
world.
Later Adulthood and Aging
* Physical and cognitive changes: Declines in physical abilities and cognitive functions are
common, but vary greatly from person to person.
* Social and emotional changes: Retirement, changes in relationships, and coping with
loss are significant challenges.
* Erikson's stages of psychosocial development: Focus on the challenges and
opportunities of later adulthood.
Longitudinal research: same individuals or group are studied repeatedly over an extended
period, allowing researchers to observe and analyze changes and development over time.
Cross-sectional research: studying different groups of individuals at the same point in time,
providing insights into age-related differences without the need for long-term observation.