ATTITUDES TOWARD CHINESE IMMIGRANTS
TO BRITISH COLUMBIA 1858-1885
Gillian Marie
B.A., MacQuarrie University, 1971
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT
OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF
MASTER OF ARTS
in the Department
0f
History
@
Gillian Marie 1976
SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY
October 1976
All rights reserved. This thesis may not be
reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy
or other means, without permission of the author.
APPROVAL
Name:
Degree:
G i l l i a n Marie
Master of A r t s
T i t l e of T h e s i s :
A t t i t u d e s Toward Chinese Immigrants t o B r i t i s h Columbia
1858-1885
Examining Committee:
Chairperson:
C h a r l e s Hamilton
I
\
M a r t i n Kitchen
Senior Supervisor
H e r b e r t Adam
E x t e r n a l Examiner
P r o f e s s o r , Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y
A
I
Date Approved:
PARTIAL COPYRIGHT LICENSE
I hereby g r a n t t o Simon Fraser U n i v e r s i t y t h e r i g h t t o l e n d
my t h e s i s o r d i s s e r t a t i o n ( t h e t i t l e o f which i s shown below) t o users
o f t h e Simon F r a s e r U n i v e r s i t y L i b r a r y , and t o make p a r t i a l o r s i n g l e
c o p i e s o n l y f o r such users o r i n response t o a r e q u e s t from t h e l i b r a r y
o f any o t h e r u n i v e r s i t y , o r o t h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t i t u t i o n , on i t s own
b e h a l f o r f o r one o f i t s u s e r s .
I f u r t h e r agree t h a t permission f o r
mu1 t i p l e copying o f t h i s t h e s i s f o r s c h o l a r l y purposes may be g r a n t e d
by me o r t h e Dean o f Graduate S t u d i e s .
I t i s understood t h a t copying
o r p u b l i c a t i o n of t h i s t h e s i s f o r f i n a n c i a l g a i n s h a l l n o t be a l l o w e d
w i t h o u t my w r i t t e n permission.
T i t l e o f Thesis/Dissertation :
Author :
(signature)
~ I R C Hro.
(date)
I977
ABSTRACT
One of t h e more p e r v a s i v e myths t h a t B r i t i s h Columbians r e t a i n i s t h a t
m i n o r i t y groups were d e a l t w i t h f a i r l y and e q u i t a b l y i n t h e w e s t .
I
A p a r t of
t h e p l u r a l i s t i c image of Canadian s o c i e t y , t h i s comfortable view of B r i t i s h
Columbia's p a s t i s i n need of r e v i s i o n .
The t h e s i s demonstrates t h a t Chinese immigrants were never p e r c e i v e d
o r t r e a t e d a s e q u a l s by t h e w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n ; i n f a c t , t h e y f a c e d oped d i s crimination.
I n t h e e a r l y days t h e " r e s p o n s i b l e " s e c t o r s o f t h e p o p u l a t i o n
d i s c u s s e d r e s t r i c t i o n s on t h e Chinese, w h i l e w h i t e men, remote from o f f i c e r s
of t h e law, p h y s i c a l l y abused o r t h r e a t e n e d t h e Chinese w i t h v i o l e n c e .
During
t h i s f i r s t c o n t a c t p e r i o d w h i t e r a c i s t a t t i t u d e s and a c t i o n s d e f i n e d t h e p o s i t i o n t h e Chinese were t o occupy i n t h e economy of B r i t i s h Columbia.
They
were p l a c e d a t t h e bottom of t h e l a b o u r h i e r a r c h y , performing low s t a t u s , low
paying j o b s c o n s i d e r e d u n d e s i r a b l e by w h i t e men.
f o r t h e Colony's development.
Yet t h e s e j o b s were n e c e s s a r y
Thus t h e Chinese were c o n s c i o u s l y excluded from
t h e p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l mainstream of s o c i e t y .
I t was a l s o made
c l e a r t o t h e Chinese t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e i n t h e colony was o n l y a t t h e f o r bearance of t h e w h i t e s .
The t h e s i s b e g i n s w i t h a r e c o g n i t i o n of t h e r e a l i t y of s o c i a l and
economic r e l a t i o n s between t h e two r a c e s i n e a r l y B r i t i s h Columbia.
The
o r i g i n s of w h i t e p r e j u d i c e d a t t i t u d e s a r e t r a c e d t o t h e n a t u r e of t h e
c o n t a c t between t h e west and t h e Chinese i n China, p r i o r t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t
of B r i t i s h Columbia.
I m p e r i a l i s t n a t i o n s , b o l s t e r e d by n o t i o n s of t h e i r
iii
own s u p e r i o r i t y a s a r a c e , used m i l i t a r y f o r c e t o d i c t a t e p o l i c y t o t h e
Manchu government.
Through t h i s c o n t a c t t h e w e s t e r n world formed a more-or-
l e s s c o n s i s t e n t s t e r e o t y p e of " t h e Chinaman" p r i o r t o h i s a r r i v a l i n B r i t i s h
Columbia.
White men c a r r i e d t h i s c a t e g o r y w i t h them a s p a r t of t h e i r c u l t u r a l
bagge, and t h i s determined t h e a t t i t u d e t a k e n toward an i n d i v i d u a l Chinese.
The r a t i o n a l e used t o e n a c t r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n m u n i c i p a l l y ,
p r o v i n c i a l l y and f e d e r a l l y i s e x p l o r e d .
The e x t e n t t o which t h i s was t h e
r e s u l t of a c l a s h of c u l t u r e s i s d i s c u s s e d b u t f i n a l r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
r a c i s t l e g i s l a t i o n i s p l a c e d on t h e p o l i t i c a l l y and economically dominant
group, w h i t e men, and t h e i r d e s i r e t o b u i l d a w h i t e B r i t i s h Columbia.
Primary s o u r c e s c o n s u l t e d i n s u p p o r t of t h e t h e s i s a r e contemporary
j o u r n a l s and newspapers, p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e mainland B r i t i s h Columbian,
c o l o n i a l o f f i c e correspondence, w h i t e t r a v e l l e r s ' a c c o u n t s , t h e memoirs of
e a r l y w h i t e s e t t l e r s and c o l o n i a l o f f i c i a l s , and f e d e r a l immigration
reports.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The s o u r c e s of a s s i s t a n c e and s c h o l a s t i c c r i t i c i s m I r e c e i v e d o v e r
t h e l a s t f i v e y e a r s a r e t o o many and v a r i e d t o d e t a i l .
Suffice it t o
s a y t h a t I am g r a t e f u l t o t h o s e who c o n s t r u c t i v e l y c r i t i c i s e d t h e
thesis.
I do want t o acknowledge s p e c i f i c a s s i s t a n c e from t h r e e s o u r c e s .
F i r s t l y , t h e women a t I n t e r - L i b r a r y Loans who provided me w i t h v a l u a b l e
source material.
Secondly, my s i s t e r s who gave me s u p p o r t and whose
confidence i n me meant t h e maintenance of my s a n i t y , and t h e completion
of t h e t a s k . And t h i r d l y , Dori R a t z l a f f , f o r t h e form of t h e f i n a l copy
i s due t o h e r e x p e r t i s e a s a t y p i s t and an e d i t o r .
TABLE OF CONTENTS
...
Abstract . . . . .
Acknowledgements .
Introduction . . .
Approvalpage
Chapter I.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
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The B r i t i s h Columbia S e t t i n g :
The I m p e r i a l Connection
iii
v
1
The t r e a t m e n t of Chinese
.....
................
Immigrants by Whites i n t h e Gold Mining P e r i o d
1
.-
ii
6
58
Chapter 111. The R a t i o n a l e f o r t h e R e s t r i c t i o n of t h e Chinese i n
B r i t i s h Columbia.
...................
79
Conclusion
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 2 8
Postscript
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Bibliography
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I 4 0
INTRODUCTION
A p e r s o n d e p r i v e d of o p p o r t u n i t y may be l a z y , d e p r i v e d of s c h o o l s
and t h e d e p r i v i n g
may be i g n o r a n t , d e p r i v e d of hope may b e c a r e l e s s
m a j o r i t y may t h e n a c c u s e him ( s i c ) of t h e v e r y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s t h e y have
brought about. l
--
Recent h i s t o r i a n s '
s t u d i e s of t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n Chinese immigrants made
t o t h e b u i l d i n g of B r i t i s h Columbia and t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t h e y f a c e d u s u a l l y
begin with r a i l r o a d construction.
O r t h e l e g i s l a t i v e attempts a t r e s t r i c t i o n
a r e emphasized i n t h e p e r i o d a f t e r t h e mainland and i s l a n d c o l o n i e s were u n i t e d
and had j o i n e d t h e c o n f e d e r a t e p r o v i n c e s of Canada.
O t h e r s have c o n c e n t r a t e d
on t h e l a t e r p e r i o d of o r g a n i z e d l a b o u r ' s a g i t a t i o n and campaigns t o have
O r i e n t a l s e l i m i n a t e d from t h e p r o v i n c e , emphasizing c l a s s - b a s e d economic competition.
Another h a s d i s c u s s e d t h e O r i e n t a l e x p e r i e n c e on Vancouver I s l a n d ,
p a r t i c u l a r l y V i c t o r i a , w i t h l i t t l e r e f e r e n c e t o t h e mainland colony.
Prior to
t h i s more r e c e n t "discovery" of t h e A s i a t i c m i n o r i t i e s , h i s t o r i a n s dismissed t h e
Chinese i n a few p a g e s , c o n c e n t r a t i n g on t h e p o l i t i c a l and economic c o n t r i b u t i o n s
of t h e c a p i t a l i s t Anglo-Empire b u i l d e r s .
The Chinese e x p e r i e n c e i n B r i t i s h Columbia from t h e e a r l y p e r i o d o f t h e
c o l o n y ' s development t o t h e p a s s a g e of t h e f i r s t f e d e r a l r e s t r i c t i v e l e g i s l a t i o n i n 1885, i s t h e h i s t o r i c a l time p e r i o d covered by t h i s t h e s i s .
The main
f o c u s i s on t h e i n i t i a l p e r i o d of c o n t a c t , t h e f i r s t s t a g e i n t h e development
of s o c i a l , p o l i t i c a l , and economic r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e two r a c e s on t h e
B r i t i s h Columbia mainland.
A t t h i s time economic c o m p e t i t i o n was n o t a major
reason f o r white h o s t i l i t y .
But i t was d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d t h a t t h e Chinese
a s a r a c e were p l a c e d o u t s i d e t h e mainstream of economic, p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l
l i f e , and arguements f o r t h e i r c o n t r o l and e x c l u s i o n were f i r s t advanced.
E x c l u s i o n i s t s i n t h e 1870's and t h e 1880's r e i t e r a t e d and echoed t h e racism
of t h e 1860's.
Thus t h e e v e n t s of t h e 1860's s e t t h e s t a g e f o r l a t e r r a c i a l
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n and e x p l a i n i t s form i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
The t r e a t m e n t of t h e Chinese by w h i t e men d u r i n g t h e gold r u s h e s i s d e t a i l e d
t o demonstrate t h a t p r e j u d i c e e x i s t e d from f i r s t c o n t a c t , and t h a t i t w a s n o t
c l a s s based.
The a t t i t u d e s expressed by w h i t e m i n e r s , t h e w h i t e merchant c l a s s ,
t h e mainland L e g i s l a t i v e Council and t h e B r i t i s h Columbian L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly
s u p p o r t t h i s argument.
It i s predominantly a w h i t e male view because t h e pop-
u l a t i o n contained p r o p o r t i o n a l l y more males t h a n females d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d .
A s t h e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s t o import w h i t e women demonstrate, and t r a v e l l e r s comments reinforce,2women were a r e l a t i v e l y s c a r c e commodity i n t h e mainland colony.
Moreover, s o u r c e m a t e r i a l r e p r e s e n t s b o t h a w h i t e and male viewpoint, except
f o r t h e few a c c o u n t s l e f t by women of wealthy households.
employed Chinese domestics i n t h e i r k i t c h e n s
problem"
--
--
These women who
and who wrote of t h e " s e r v a n t
were a small p e r c e n t a g e of women i n t h e colony, and t h u s t h e i r
a t t i t u d e s cannot b e t a k e n a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e .
A s managers of households t h e y
viewed t h e Chinese men a s a s e r v a n t c l a s s , v a l u a b l e b u t of a lower c l a s s and
r a c i a l l y i n f e r i o r t o themselves.
It does demonstrate t h a t h e i r a r c h i c a l n a t u r e
of upper c l a s s households, a h e i r a r c h y which r e f l e c t e d and r e i n f o r c e d t h e s e x ,
c l a s s and r a c e h e i r a r c h y of t h e l a r g e r s o c i e t y .
These s o u r c e s a r e i n s u f f i c i e n t
t o r a d i c a l l y change t h e g e n e r a l f i n d i n g s .
Of g r e a t e r s i g n i f i c a n c e , however, i s t h e f a c t t h a t w h i t e men comprised t h e
group which h e l d p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l c o n t r o l i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
I n i t i a l l y , t h e Chinese p e o p l e were f o r c e d i n t o a s u b o r d i n a t e p o s i t i o n by
v i o l e n c e o r by t h e t h r e a t of v i o l e n c e from t h e w h i t e s .
Later, with control
of t h e l o c a l l e g i s l a t u r e , w h i t e males used l e g a l means t o keep t h e Chinese i n
t h e i r place.
The s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t O t t o K l i n e b e r g h a s p o i n t e d o u t t h a t i t i s n o t c o n t a c t
between two groups p e r s e , b u t t h e n a t u r e of t h a t c o n t a c t which i s important
i n t h e formation of a t t i t u d e s and r e l a t i o n s .
t h e n such c o n t a c t i s b e n e f i c i a l .
I f each group i s of e q u a l s t a t u s ,
However, i f one group i s dominant t h e n t h e
p r e j u d i c e s a l r e a d y h e l d by t h i s group a r e r e i n f o r c e d by c o n t a c t w i t h t h e inf e r i o r a l l y p e r c e i v e d group.
3
T h i s n e g a t i v e a t t i t u d e d i c t a t e s t h e n a t u r e of
t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s between t h e two groups because t h e dominant group h a s t h e
means t o e n f o r c e i t .
I t i s argued t h a t c o n t a c t between Europeans and Chinese
i n t h e y e a r s p r i o r t o t h e f i r s t B r i t i s h Columbian gold r u s h was of t h i s t y p e .
Mid-nineteenth c e n t u r y w e s t e r n i m p e r i a l i s t n a t i o n s d i c t a t e d t h e terms of t h e i r
r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h China and through a m i s s i o n a r y and m i l i t a r y campaign used
f o r c e a s a means of p e r s u a s i o n .
Notions of w e s t e r n s u p e r i o r i t y j u s t i f i e d t h i s
f o r c e f u l e n t r y i n t o China, and a n e g a t i v e s t e r e o t y p e of t h e Chinese p e o p l e was
formed.
This image was propagated throughout t h e west.
The r o o t s of t h e
r a c i s t t r e a t m e n t of t h e Chinese by B r i t i s h Columbians a r e t h u s l o c a t e d i n
e t h n o c e n t r i c a t t i t u d e s of w h i t e s u p e r i o r i t y .
The r a t i o n a l e by which B r i t i s h Columbians j u s t i f i e d r a c i s t l e g i s l a t i o n i s
examined and i t s development t r a c e d from i n i t i a l p r e j u d i c e d a t t i t u d e s t o
m u n i c i p a l and p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s l a t i o n .
Having s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l c o n t r o l , t h e
w h i t e p o p u l a t i o n made d i s t i n c t i o n s on r a c i a l grounds and because of t h e n a t u r e
o f t h e democratic system had t h e power t o l e g i s l a t e , and t h u s i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e ,
t h e i r own i n t e r e s t s , g r e e d , p r e j u d i c e s and f e a r s a t t h e m i n o r i t y g r o u p ' s expense.
The two c u l t u r e s , w i t h d i f f e r i n g v a l u e s , world views, a t t i t u d e s , h a b i t s ,
social organization and languages, were seen to be in collision.
population, co-existence was out of the question.
To the white
The Chinese were viewed as
a threat to the homogeneity of white British Columbia.
Although the final responsibility for racist immigration legislation
rests with the Federal Government, the Act of 1885 was passed in response to
British Columbians' demands
early colonial days.
-
demands which its white population made from
This act placed restrictions on a minority group on
racial grounds, thus setting a precedent in Canadian immigration legislation.
Only immigrants who would assimilate and bolster the values of the white
society were welcomed.
Such immigration laws emphasized the racial origin of
the immigrant and considered this to be the most important factor in the
process of assimilation.
4
The legacy of such laws remain as assumptions
behind present day legislation, as the Green Paper on Immigration and
Population demonstrates.
Footnotes ( ~ n t r o d u c t i o n l :
1.
G. 2. Simpson and 3. M. Yinger, Racial and Cultural
Minorities, ( ~ e wYork,
Harper and Row, 1965).
2.
"Extracts from t h e Jourllal of t h e Archdeacon of Columbia", September 8,
1861, Victoria, i n Third Report of t h e Columbia Mission, 1861,
ondo don, R. Clay, Son, and Taylor, l 8 6 l ) , pp. 28-29. He s t a t e s :
.
"Here women a r e few indeed.
(sic) "
This is very s t r i k i n g t o a new comer
3 . Otto Klineberg , Tensions Aff e c t ine; International Understanding, ( ~ e wYork,
Social Science Research Council, 1950), pp. 140-157.
4.
C. L. Grant, "Occupational Adjustments of Immigrants", Unpub. Thesis f o r
t h e Master of Social Work degree, University of Toronto, 1955,
Kp.
7-9.
CHAPTER I
THE BRITISH COLUMBIAN SETTING:
THE TREATMENT OF
CHINESE IMMIGRANTS BY WHITES I N THE GOLD M I N I N G PERIOD
The f i r s t Chinese men t o come t o t h e P a c i f i c Northwest were brought by
John Meares i n 1788.
He a r r i v e d a t Nootka Sound w i t h two s h i p s and f i f t y
Chinese c a r p e n t e r s , coopers, armourers and craftsmen on board.
A two-storied
f o r t was b u i l t and a l s o a s a i l i n g v e s s e l which on i t s maiden voyage v i s i t e d
t h e Queen C h a r l o t t e I s l a n d s .
Meares' c o l o n i a l experiment f a i l e d , however.
These s e t t l e r s were c a p t u r e d by t h e Spanish and p u t t o work a t San B l a s ,
Mexico.
They were r e l e a s e d i n 1790.
1
It was n o t u n t i l 1848 t h a t Chinese men a g a i n v i s i t e d t h e West Coast.
They were a t t r a c t e d t o t h e gold mines of C a l i f o r n i a .
Few immigrants would do
t h e low s t a t u s manual l a b o u r and m e n i a l j o b s i n t h e gold mining communities.
According t o Mary Coolidge t h e y were welcomed,
t h e s e r o l e s and t h e i r numbers were s m a l l .
antagonism i n c r e a s e d .
miners.
2
b u t o n l y w h i l e t h e y occupied
A s p r e s s u r e of p o p u l a t i o n grew,
I n 1850, of 57,787 m i n e r s , t h e r e were o n l y 500 Chinese
By 1852 immigration of a l l n a t i o n a l i t i e s had g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d , and
t h e Chinese now numbered 20,000, of which many went t o t h e mines.
White miners
demanded t h e e x c l u s i o n of t h e Chinese from t h e mines w i t h Governor John B i g l e r ' s
support.
miners.
The Foreign Miners' Tax Law of 1852 was aimed c h i e f l y a t t h e Chinese
Of a l l f o r e i g n e r s , t h e y were p a r t i c u l a r l y r e s e n t e d because they were
more o b v i o u s l y a l i e n and k e p t t o themselves.
4
The Chinese m i n e r s began t o l e a v e ,
t a k i n g employment on t h e r a i l r o a d s , i n t h e mines of Idaho, Montana and Oregon,
and embarking f o r B r i t i s h Columbia.
By 1858 t h e y were d e s p i s e d i n C a l i f o r n i a .
C i v i l d i s a b i l i t i e s and s t a t u t o r y r e s t r i c t i o n s were imposed by t h e S t a t e Legisl a t u r e t o check t h e i r immigration.
Occupations c h i e f l y undertaken by t h e
5
Chinese were t a x e d f o r two c o n t r a d i c t o r y motives:
t h e need f o r t a x a t i o n
income t o run t h e s t a t e , and demands t o e x c l u d e Chinese workers.
The
c o l l e c t i o n of l i c e n s e t a x e s from Chinese miners was s o s u c c e s s f u l t h a t i t was
extended i n 1860 t o t h e f i s h i n g i n d u s t r y , a predominantly Chinese occupation.
6
They were denied c i t i z e n s h i p through t h e i r e x c l u s i o n from t h e n a t u r a l i s a t i o n
p r o c e s s , were denied s u f f r a g e and a c c e s s t o p u b l i c s c h o o l s , and were n o t perm i t t e d t o t e s t i f y i n c o u r t f o r o r a g a i n s t w h i t e people a f t e r 1854.
Excluded
from t h e due p r o c e s s of law, t h e y were denied p r o t e c t i o n a g a i n s t w h i t e v i o l e n c e .
I n d i a n s , South Americans, Mexicans and Chinese were t h e t a r g e t s of p h y s i c a l
abuse i n C a l i f o r n i a .
Such e x p e r i e n c e s l e d t h e Chinese i n San F r a n c i s c o t o
send one of t h e i r number t o B r i t i s h Columbia t o i n v e s t i g a t e t h e s i t u a t i o n t h e r e .
He r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e c o u n t r y was r i c h , and t h a t h e had been o f f e r e d twenty
d o l l a r s a day and board a s a cook.
8
The Chinese came t o B r i t i s h Columbia i n t h e hopes of b e t t e r t r e a t m e n t
and j o b s .
They had e x p e r i e n c e d abuse and h o s t i l i t y which had culminated i n a
s e r i e s of d i s c r i m i n a t o r y l a w s .
The C a l i f o r n i a n e x p e r i e n c e i s important t o a n
u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e a t t i t u d e o f w h i t e s t o t h e Chinese and t h e i r t r e a t m e n t i n
t h e B r i t i s h Columbian colony.
I n t h e f i r s t F r a s e r River gold r u s h t h e b u l k of
t h e immigrants came from t h e C a l i f o r n i a n gold f i e l d s o r s p e n t time i n San
F r a n c i s c o w i t h i t s s e g r e g a t e d Chinatown.
Many miners w i n t e r e d i n C a l i f o r n i a .
Along w i t h t h e i r mining o u t f i t s t h e w h i t e miners brought t h e i r c u l t u r a l
baggage, which i n c l u d e d a r a c i a l h e i r a r c h y and n o t i o n s of r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y .
With a s t e r e o t y p e d image of " t h e Chinaman" a l r e a d y formed, t h e y looked f o r
i t s confirmation.
7
The f i r s t i n f l u x of miners t o B r i t i s h Columbia came i n t h e s p r i n g of 1858.
Chinese miners a r r i v e d i n t h e summer.
Kinahan C o r n w a l l i s , an e a r l y B r i t i s h
a r r i v a l , p u b l i s h e d The New E l Dorado i n London i n 1858.
He had s p e n t t h e s p r i n g
i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n t h e gold mines and passed through V i c t o r i a on h i s way
back t o England.
He comments on t h e a r r i v a l of t h e Chinese miners on t h e
Republic i n June 1858:
One of t h e many c u r i o u s s i g h t s v i s i b l e i n town a f t e r t h e a r r i v a l was
t h e s p e c t a c l e of t h e Danish Consul a t San F r a n c i s c o marching w e a r i l y up
one of t h e s t r e e t s - Johnson S t r e e t - under t h e b u r t h e n of h i s b l a n k e t s ,
and followed by a b a t c h of Chinese; b u t a s t o whether t h e i r e f f o r t s were
t o b e devoted t o t h e washing of gold o r of s h i r t s , I could n o t a s c e r t a i n . 9
The V i c t o r i a G a z e t t e , t h e f i r s t newspaper p u b l i s h e d on Vancouver I s l a n d , i n i t s
second i s s u e h e a d l i n e d an a r t i c l e on "A P i o n e e r Chinaman":
Doubtless e r e l o n g t h e f a m i l i a r i n t e r r o g a t i o n of "Wantee Washee?"
w i l l be added t o o u r everyday c o n v e r s a t i o n l i b r a r y . 10
Mention was a l s o made a s t o whether t h e Chinese would b e involved i n s e e k i n g
a f t e r gold o r d i r t y laundry.
These f i r s t r e p o r t s o f Chinese p e o p l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia r e v e a l t h e w h i t e
a t t i t u d e of "amused detachment" and "immediate d i s d a i n " .
11
Douglas, t h e
Governor of t h e newly e s t a b l i s h e d colony, had from t h e f i r s t made i t c l e a r t h a t
h i s p o l i c y was f o r a B r i t i s h B r i t i s h Columbia.
H i s f i r s t impulse had been t o
p r o h i b i t immigration of a l l f o r e i g n e r s t o t h e colony
--
p e r s o n s who had n o t embarked d i r e c t l y from England.
He r e c e i v e d a s h a r p
f o r e i g n e r s being a l l
r e p r o o f from S i r Edward Bulwer Lytton:
[ ~ is]
t
no p a r t of t h e i r p o l i c y [ ~ e rM a j e s t y ' s ~overnment] t o exclude
Americans and o t h e r f o r e i g n e r s from t h e gold f i e l d s . 1 2
Thus t h e Chinese, t o o , were t o b e o f f i c i a l l y p e r m i t t e d f r e e e n t r y and i t was
made c l e a r t h a t B r i t i s h Columbia was r e g u l a t e d by t h e p o l i c y of t h e C o l o n i a l
O f f i c e on such i s s u e s a s immigrants.
Bulwar L y t t o n informed Governor James
Douglas i n t h e summer t h a t he approved of t h e l a t t e r ' s t a x a t i o n measures b u t
no d i s t i n c t i o n must be made between f o r e i g n e r s and B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s
a s t o t h e amount p e r head of t h e l i c e n s e f e e r e q u i r e d . 13
I f immigration r e s t r i c t i o n s and s p e c i a l t a x e s on f o r e i g n e r s were implemented
i n B r i t i s h Columbia, t h e y would have gone a g a i n s t I m p e r i a l i n t e r e s t s and
Imperial t r e a t i e s .
Merchants i n V i c t o r i a viewed a l l immigrants a s s o u r c e s of p r o f i t , and l a n d
s p e c u l a t o r s a l s o b e n e f i t t e d from i n i n f l u x of immigrants.
bought p r o p e r t y i n V i c t o r i a a s e a r l y a s J u l y 1858. l 4
e v e r , t h e a t t i t u d e was h o s t i l e .
Chinese merchants
I n t h e gold f i e l d s , how-
The f i r s t r e p o r t e d c l a s h o c c u r r e d over t h e
s a l e of l i q u o r and arms t o l o c a l I n d i a n s by t h e Chinese.
The w h i t e miners had
passed a r e s o l u t i o n f o r b i d d i n g t h i s p r a c t i c e o t h e r t h a n by a u t h o r i z e d p e r s o n ,
t h e punishment b e i n g p u b l i c f l o g g i n g .
16
T h i s was a touchy i s s u e .
15
Governor
Douglas had r e p o r t e d t h a t d u r i n g t h e w i n t e r , ~ u d s o n ' sBay Company men d i g g i n g
f o r gold had been c l o s e l y watched by t h e l o c a l I n d i a n s , who " q u i e t l y h u s t l e d
and crowded" o u t t h e w h i t e men and t o o k o v e r t h e d i g g i n g s .
t r o u b l e when a l a r g e i n f l u x of w h i t e miners a r r i v e d
17
He a n t i c i p a t e d
- and was c o r r e c t .
The
Chinese a c t i o n of s u p p l y i n g t h e I n d i a n s w i t h arms i n a n inflammable s i t u a t i o n even though i t i s d o u b t f u l t h a t t h e y knew of t h e m i n e r s ' law - must have r e i n f o r c e d t h e p o p u l a r n e g a t i v e image:
That f o r ways t h a t a r e d a r k
And f o r t r i c k s t h a t a r e v a i n
18
The h e a t h e n Chinee i s p e c u l i a r .
One of t h e f i r s t a g g r e s s i v e a c t i o n s by w h i t e miners o c c u r r e d a t t h e
beginning of t h e 1858 mining season when a mob from C a l i f o r n i a t r i e d t o
p r e v e n t a steamer c a r r y i n g Chinese miners from l a n d i n g a t Hope.
They t h r e a t -
ened them and t h e Captain w i t h v i o l e n c e , and i t was o n l y by t h e i n t e r v e n t i o n
of t h e ~ u d s o n ' s Bay T r a d e r , Donald McLean, and h i s son, t h a t t h e Chinese were
p e r m i t t e d t o disembark.
The w h i t e miners were reminded t h a t on B r i t i s h s o i l
p e o p l e of whatever n a t i o n a l i t y o r c o l o u r were allowed f r e e a c c e s s . l9 However
v i o l e n c e and t h e t h r e a t of v i o l e n c e ensured t h a t t h e s m a l l number of Chinese
who f i r s t came worked o n l y t h e abandoned claims.
I n 1859 t h e B r i t i s h C o l o n i s t
r e p o r t e d t h a t i n t h e L i t t l e Kanyon, c o n f l i c t s o c c u r r e d between w h i t e and Chinese
miners i n which t h e l a t t e r were o b v i o u s l v i n t i m i d a t e d :
The w h i t e men a v e r t h a t t h e C e l e s t i a l s have pursued a most aggress i v e p o l i c y -- jumping c l a i m s w h i l e t h e owners were i n town buying prov i s i o n s ; p u l l i n g up s t a k e s and t e a r i n g down n o t i c e s ; and behaving i n an
i n s o l e n t manner g e n e r a l l y , t h e r e b y m e r i t i n g a sound t r o u n c i n g . *0
The Chinese a c t i o n s were n o t i l l e g a l u n l e s s t h e s e w h i t e miners had Miners'
Licenses
-
a questionable probability.
The Chief I n s p e c t o r of P o l i c e , C h a r t r e s
Brew, i n h i s l e t t e r s w r o t e of t h e d i f f i c u l t y of c o l l e c t i n g t h e f e e from t h e
miners.
Between Yale and Hope i n March 1859 o n l y e i g h t y d o l l a r s was c o l l e c t e d
from t h e miners.
He w r o t e :
...
On t h e "American Bar"
t h e m i n e r s , except a few Chinamen,
a b s o l u t e l y r e f u s e d t o pay and o n l y laughed a t t h e demand.21
By 1860 p u b l i c s e n t i m e n t was s u f f i c i e n t l y anti-Chinese t h a t a p u b l i c
meeting i n V i c t o r i a passed a r e s o l u t i o n f o r a p o l l t a x on Chinese men.
The
p r o p o s a l was an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e mule t a x , a t a x of one pound s t e r l i n g imposed
on every loaded quadruped l e a v i n g Douglas.
T h i s t a x a f f e c t e d b o t h t h e merchants
and t h e miners on t h e mainland, adding t o t h e a l r e a d y p r o h i b i t i v e c o s t of
p r o v i s i o n s i n t h e gold f i e l d s .
It was imposed t o r a i s e funds f o r an a s y e t
n o n - e x i s t e n t road t o t h e mines.
The a l t e r n a t i v e r e s o l u t i o n proposed t h a t
revenue be o b t a i n e d by a duty on a l l imports i n t o B r i t i s h Columbia, a moderate
land t a x , and a p o l l t a x on a l l Chinese men e n t e r i n g t h e colony.
Although t h e r e was some o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e p o l l t a x , t h e s e n t i m e n t s of t h e
meeting were i n s u p p o r t of t h e r e s o l u t i o n .
"a n u i s a n c e
--
a moral s c o u r g e
d i d n ' t even reproduce h i m s e l f .
--
a curse",
It was s t a t e d t h a t t h e Chinese were
t h a t they "produced n o t h i n g ; he
G r e a t l a u g h t e r and applause]
t o s t r i k e o u t t h e p o l l t a x c l a u s e was l o s t .
22
".
An amendment
F e a r i n g t h e consequences, a
d e l e g a t i o n of t h r e e Chinese r e s i d e n t s met w i t h Governor Douglas a f t e r t h e meeting.
He r e a s s u r e d them t h a t even i f h e wished t o t a x them he was prevented by
law.23
The C o l o n i s t p o i n t e d o u t t h a t , a t t h i s time, such a l a w was opposed t o
t h e i n t e r e s t s of t h e merchants of V i c t o r i a s i n c e t h e Chinese purchased merchand i s e . 24
The B r i t i s h Columbian, however, based on t h e mainland a t New Westminster,
was more sympathetic t o t h i s a n t i - O r i e n t a l a t t i t u d e .
The e d i t o r of t h e B r i t i s h Columbian, John Robson, advocated a s p e c i a l t a x
on Chinese miners i n h i s f i r s t i s s u e . 25
On March 14, 1861, t h e e d i t o r i a l en-
t i t l e d t h e " C e l e s t i a l Tax" compared t h e C a l i f o r n i a n and B r i t i s h Columbian s i t u a t i o n and emphasized t h e " O r i e n t a l menace".
I n C a l i f o r n i a , he s t a t e d , t h e i r
numbers had i n c r e a s e d from 15,000 t o 50,000 i n f i v e y e a r s d e s p i t e "organized
o p p r e s s i o n and p e r s e c u t i o n " .
"What may we r e a s o n a b l y e x p e c t i n B r i t i s h Columbia,"
he s a i d , "where they a r e s u r e of p r o t e c t i o n and t o l e r a t i o n ? 1126 Robson, overwhelmed by y e l l o w - p e r i l - t y p e
f e a r s , expressed h i s b e l i e f t h a t by t h e end of
t h e 1861 season t h e r e would b e 20,000 Chinese i n B r i t i s h Columbia from C a l i f o r n i a
and China d i r e c t .
He p u t forward t h e r a t i o n a l e f o r A u s t r a l i a n and C a l i f o r n i a n
d i s l i k e of t h e Chinese and i n f e r r e d t h a t B r i t i s h Columbian o b j e c t i o n s were
based on t h e same grounds.
I n a l l t h r e e p l a c e s , h e s a i d , Chinese miners
r a p i d l y exhaust t h e s u r f a c e d i g g i n g s ; l i v e on o n l y a l i t t l e r i c e t h u s spending
only h a l f a s much a s Europeans on n e c e s s i t i e s and n o t h i n g on l u x u r i e s ; r e t u r n
t o China t a k i n g t h e i r gold w i t h them; and i n B r i t i s h Columbia t h e y do n o t pay
t h e i r f a i r s h a r e of t h e t a r i f f s , y e t t h e y b e n e f i t e q u a l l y from i t s e x p e n d i t u r e .
C a l i f o r n i a and A u s t r a l i a had imposed a f i f t y d o l l a r t a x , and Robson proposed
a s i m i l a r t a x i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
And can B r i t i s h Columbia a f f o r d t o be more l i b e r a l i n t h i s m a t t e r
t h a n e i t h e r A u s t r a l i a o r C a l i f o r n i a ? O r should we s t a n d and l o o k on w i t h
o u r thumb i n o u r mouth, w h i l e t h e s e people exhaust o u r mines, and, l i k e a
swarm of l o c u s t s , l e a v e t h e c o u n t r y impoverished and d e s o l a t e . 27
Thus t h e example of l e g i s l a t i o n i n C a l i f o r n i a and t h e A u s t r a l a s i a n c o l o n i e s was
used t o b u t t r e s s and r a t i o n a l i z e p r e j u d i c e i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
Chinese miners
wherever t h e y went s u f f e r e d under t h e w h i t e s t e r e o t y p e image of them a s a r a c e .
Robson i n 1861 expressed o b j e c t i o n s t h a t were t o a r i s e c o n s t a n t l y over t h e
n e x t s e v e n t y y e a r s , and h i s e d i t o r i a l c o n t a i n s t h e m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n s and a c t u a l
e r r o r s common t o t h e p r e j u d i c e d a t t i t u d e of w h i t e s .
The number of Chinese
expected t o a r r i v e i n B r i t i s h Columbia was always i n f l a t e d .
The assumption
t h a t t h e y s p e n t l i t t l e f o r food and s e n t l a r g e f o r t u n e s back t o China was
d i s c o u n t e d i n t h e Royal Commission Report on Chinese Immigration i n 1885,
28
b u t u n t i l t h a t time (and a f t e r ) t h i s b e l i e f was maintained and r e i t e r a t e d constantly.
They were n o t wanted a s a permanent p a r t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n y e t t h e y
were abused when t h e y l e f t t h e colony w i t h t h e i r gold.
speaking a s a government o f f i c i a l , s a i d of t h e Chinese:
Governor James Douglas,
They a r e c e r t a i n l y n o t a d e s i r a b l e c l a s s of p e o p l e a s a permanent
p a r t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n b u t , f o r t h e p r e s e n t , a r e u s e f u l a s l a b o u r e r s
and a s consumers of a revenue-paying c h a r a c t e r . 29
While they were of u s e , k e p t t o t h e i r p o s i t i o n s i n j o b s t h a t w h i t e people would
n o t do, k e p t o f f t h e newly d i s c o v e r e d gold f i e l d s and p a i d t a x e s , t h e y were
b a r e l y t o l e r a t e d , b u t c e r t a i n l y n o t welcomed.
The B r i t i s h p o p u l a t i o n viewed t h e Chinese a s a t h r e a t t o t h e c u l t u r a l
d e s t i n y of t h e new colony, and t h i s was a major s o u r c e of i n t e r - r a c i a l
tension.
T h e i r obvious a l i e n n e s s was a t h r e a t t o what was hoped would b e a p u r e o r a t
l e a s t homogeneous p o p u l a t i o n i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
30
The p r e v a i l i n g assumption
among t h e B r i t i s h was t h a t t h e y were o r d a i n e d by God a s t h e r u l i n g r a c e througho u t t h e world and t h a t t h e i r p r e s e n c e brought c i v i l i ~ a t i o n . The
~ ~ m a t e r i a l and
t e c h n o l o g i c a l s o p h i s t i c a t i o n of t h e West was t a k e n a s evidence of a "higher
civilization".
Pseudo-scientific
t h e o r i e s of r a c e , environment, and n a t i o n a l
c h a r a c t e r s t e a d i l y gained i n p o p u l a r i t y d u r i n g mid-century and s u p p o r t e d
n o t i o n s of r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y .
32
The developing s c i e n c e of e t h n o l o g y , based on w h i t e supremacy, provided
some s u p p o r t f o r racism.
A s P h i l i p C u r t i n h a s p o i n t e d o u t i n Imperialism,
i m p e r i a l t h e o r y was n o t confined t o Europe b u t i t s i d e o l o g y was a l s o l o c a t e d
i n European c o l o n i e s .
33
For example, Matthew MacFie, a r e s i d e n t of V i c t o r i a
f o r f i v e y e a r s , argued h i s r a c i s t philosophy by r e f e r r i n g t o t h e twenty-three
d i s t i n c t c r o s s e s t h a t e t h n o l o g i s t s had " s c i e n t i f i c a l l y " l o c a t e d from t h e i n t e r m a r r i a g e of Caucasians, N a t i v e I n d i a n s and Negroes.
H i s q u e s t i o n s assume b o t h
a h i e r a r c h y of r a c e s , w i t h t h e B r i t i s h p o s s e s s i n g t h e most d e s i r e d h e r e d i t a r y
11
d r i v e s " and a t t i t u d e s , and i n c l u d e t h e concept t h a t o t h e r s o - c a l l e d " i n f e r i o r "
r a c e s a r e unclean and t h u s a t h r e a t .
It i s t o b e f e a r e d t h a t t h e s e v a r i e t i e s of humanity do n o t occupy
o u r s o i l and m u l t i p l y t h e i r k i n d , i n e v e r y i n s t a n c e , w i t h o u t d e t r i m e n t
t o t h a t t y p e which we [ ~ n ~ l i s h m e n ]d e s i r e should predominate. What i s
t o be t h e e f f e c t , upon t h a t s e c t i o n of p o s t e r i t y which w i l l , i n f u t r u e
C e n t u r i e s , i n h a b i t t h e B r i t i s h North American s h o r e s o f t h e P a c i f i c , of
t h i s commingling of r a c e s s o d i v e r s e i n p h y s i o l o g i c a l , p s y c h o l o g i c a l ,
Does t h e
i n t e l l e c t u a l , moral, r e l i g i o u s and p o l i t i c a l a s p e c t s ?
p r e s e n c e , s o l a r g e l y of i n f e r i o r r a c e s forbode t h e f a t a l t a i n t i n g of t h e
young n a t i o n ' s blood and s i g n a l i t s premature decay, o r w i l l t h e v i t a l i t y
of t h e governing r a c e triumph over t h e contamination w i t h which more
p r i m i t i v e t y p e s t h r e a t e n t o impregnate i t ? 3 4
...
The new colony of B r i t i s h Columbia was t o b e w h i t e , and B r i t i s h .
s u r e t h i s , e m i g r a t i o n d i r e c t from B r i t a i n was encouraged.
Englishmen f o r c o l o n i a l o f f i c e s
" i n t e g r i t y " . 35
-
To en-
Douglas r e q u e s t e d
Englishmen of " s t e r l i n g u p r i g h t n e s s " and
He s t r e s s e d t h e need of t h e " r e s p e c t a b l e B r i t i s h element 1136
i n t h e p o p u l a t i o n of " b i r d s of passage".37
English t r a v e l l e r s publicized t h e
new E l Dorado i n B r i t a i n , s t r e s s i n g t h e need f o r B r i t i s h s e t t l e r s t o e m i g r a t e
and s e l l i n g a dream t o p r o s p e c t i v e immigrants.
For i n s t a n c e , William H a z l i t t ,
i n The Great Gold F i e l d s of Cariboo, emphasized t h a t a new and b e t t e r l i f e could
be had, q u o t i n g wages, l i v i n g expenses and r e i t e r a t i n g s t o r i e s of s u c c e s s f u l
immigrants.
A l e t t e r p u b l i s h e d i n t h e Times, March 25, 1862, s t r e s s e d t h e
need f o r two c l a s s e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia
t h e i r families.38
tion.
-
c a p i t a l i s t s and l a b o u r e r s and
Kinahan Cornwallis e x p r e s s e d two r e a s o n s f o r B r i t i s h immigra-
F i r s t , t h e B r i t i s h were s u p p o r t e r s of a monarchy and a n a r i s t o c r a c y
which would c o u n t e r Americanism w i t h i t s r e p u b l i c a n i s m and democracy and
t h e r e b y f o r t i f y B r i t i s h i n f l u e n c e and m a i n t a i n t h e B r i t i s h h i e r a r c h i c a l c l a s s
and r a c e s t r u c t u r e i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
(This f e a r of A m e r i c a n i s a t i o n and
d e m o c r a t i s a t i o n of B r i t i s h Columbia and p o s s i b l e a n n e x a t i o n was a concern of
e a r l y B r i t i s h o f f i c i a l s and t r a v e l l e r s t o t h e colony, though i t a b a t e d somewhat
d u r i n g t h e American C i v i l War).
Second, t h e e m i g r a t i o n of educated c l a s s e s from
B r i t a i n would e a s e t h e p r e s s u r e on t h i s s t r a t a of s o c i e t y . 3 9
The Bishop of
Columbia i n 1860, r e f l e c t i n g on t h e f u t u r e of B r i t i s h Columbia considered t h a t
t h e colony only needed p o p u l a t i o n and c a p i t a l .
H i s v i s i o n was of B r i t i s h
Columbia b e i n g p o p u l a t e d w i t h people from England s o t h a t t h e colony would be
a f l o u r i s h i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of Great B r i t a i n on t h e P a c i f i c Coast
Englishmen
t o e s t a b l i s h t h e c o n s t i t u t i o n of England i n a l l
its security
f a i r d e a l i n g and p u r i t y , as w e l l a s f r e e d ~ m . ~ O
...
-
...
C l i v e P h i l l i p s Wolley, a d v i s i n g on e m i g r a t i o n , s t a t e d t h a t i t was
b e t t e r t o guide o u r strong-limbed t r u e - h e a r t e d wanderers t o l a n d s i n
which t h e y may b e g e t a r a c e of thoroughbred B r i t i s h e r s , who
may
b e o u r s t r o n g e s t weapon f o r d e f e n s e o r o f f e n c e i n a f e d e r a t i o n of B r i t a i n
and h e r c o l o n i e s which s h a l l c o n t a i n w i t h i n i t s domains a l l t h e p r o d u c t s
of e a r t h o r s e a t h a t man can need, and b e s t r o n g enough t o keep t h e peace
of a w 0 r l d . 4 ~
...
An o u t p o s t of t h e B r i t i s h Empire, B r i t i s h Columbia should be i n h a b i t e d by
"full-blooded
Englishmen".
Caucasian blood.
R a c i a l thought emphasized t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of
Contamination by "foreign" blood was s e e n a s a t h r e a t t o
t h e tenuous s u p e r i o r i t y of Caucasians.
were s t r e s s e d
42
The d e l e t e r i o u s r e s u l t s of i n t e r m a r r i a g e
and p a r t i c u l a r l y t h e c r e a t i o n of "debased hybrids". 4 3
The
i n t e r m i n g l i n g of s o - c a l l e d i n f e r i o r r a c e s w i t h t h e w h i t e r a c e was c o n s i d e r e d t o
have an i l l - e f f e c t on t h e m o r a l i t y of t h e w h i t e r a c e .
The b e s t way t o p r o t e c t
t h e l a t t e r was t o e n s u r e t h a t i t d i d n o t come i n t o c l o s e c o n t a c t w i t h " i n f e r i o r
races".
It was t o t h i s c l a s s t h a t t h e Chinese p e o p l e a s a r a c e were a s s i g n e d .
Although MacFie d i d n o t recommend t h e e x c l u s i o n of Chinese men from t h e colony
because of t h e i r v a l u e a s l a b o u r e r s , h i s a t t i t u d e of E n g l i s h s u p e r i o r i t y and
C h r i s t i a n p a t e r n a l i s m provided a r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n f o r t h e i r e x p l o i t a t i o n .
He wrote:
Let t h e [ ~ n ~ l i s h ] c o l o n i s t s show t h e f r u i t s of a s u p e r i o r c i v i l i s a t i o n and r e l i g i o n , n o t i n r i d i c u l i n g and d e s p i s i n g t h e s e pagan s t r a n g e r s
[the ChineseJ b u t i n t r e a t i n g them w i t h t h e g e n t l e f o r b e a r a n c e due t o a
l e s s favoured p o r t i o n of t h e family of mankind, and t h e y w i l l c o n t i n u e
t o b e u s e f u l and i n o f f e n s i v e members of s o c i e t y . 4 4
While i t s u i t e d t h e c a p i t a l i s t c l a s s and e s p e c i a l l y i n times of l a b o u r
s h o r t a g e when t h e i r l a b o u r was needed, Chinese men were "useful".
I n times
of economic s t a g n a t i o n when t h e colony s u f f e r e d from a l a c k of consumers due
t o a d e c l i n e i n w h i t e immigration, merchants d i d n o t c o n s i d e r i t t o b e econo m i c a l l y v i a b l e t o d i s p e n s e w i t h Chinese immigration.
Amor d e Cosmos, speaking
f o r t h e merchant c l a s s i n V i c t o r i a , voiced t h i s a t t i t u d e i n t h e s p r i n g of 1860,
when F r a s e r River mining s u f f e r e d i t s f i r s t d e c l i n e :
What t h e t r a d e now s u f f e r s from i s t h e l a c k of consumers, t h e supply
They fihineseJ
may be i n f e r i o r t o
b e i n g g r e a t e r t h a n t h e demand
Europeans and Americans i n energy and a b i l i t y ; h o s t i l e t o u s i n r a c e ,
language, and h a b i t s , and may remain among u s a P a r i a h r a c e ; s t i l l t h e y
a r e p a t i e n t , e a s i l y governed, and i n v a r i a b l y i n d u s t r i o u s , and t h e i r pres e n c e a t t h i s j u n c t u r e would b e n e f i t t r a d e everywhere i n t h e two c o l o n i e s .
We a r e d i s p o s e d t o a c c e p t them a s a c h o i c e between two e v i l s - no w h i t e
H e r e a f t e r , when t h e time
immigration o r a Chinese immigration
a r r i v e s t h a t we can d i s p e n s e w i t h them, we w i l l h e a r t i l y second a check t o
t h e i r immigration - t r e a t y s t i p u l a t i o n s t o t h e c o n t r a r y . 4 5
...
...
The present-mindedness and s e l f - i n t e r e s t of t h e merchants and government
o f f i c i a l s on Vancouver I s l a n d and t h e C h r i s t i a n p a t e r n a l i s m of MacFie was n o t
t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e mainland merchants and gold m i n e r s , who had d i f f e r e n t
L.
i n t e r e s t s and aims and methods of t h e i r own f o r o b t a i n i n g them.
Coming from
C a l i f o r n i a , t h e miners experienced mining-town
Methods of
self-government.
community c o n t r o l could n o t b e e n t i r e l y t r a n s f e r r e d t o B r i t i s h Columbia because
B r i t i s h law and o r d e r were e s t a b l i s h e d i n t h e colony from i t s i n c e p t i o n .
C a l i f o r n i a , an appointed mining camp committee s e t up t h e r u l e s f o r c l a i m s
In
and e s t a b l i s h e d a rudimentary code of c r i m i n a l law and procedure.
The most
p r e v a l e n t c a t e g o r i e s of o f f e n s e were t h e f t and murder, t h e p e n a l t i e s b e i n g
banishment from t h e camp and hanging.
opinion.
46
A u t h o r i t y was s a n c t i o n e d by p u b l i c
There were i n s t a n c e s of s e l f - r u l e a t t i m e s i n t h e B r i t i s h Columbia
mining camps. 47
The p r e s e n c e of t h e Chinese men i n t h e g o l d f i e l d s was a n i s s u e
t o w h i t e gold-miners.
A s a v i s i b l e m i n o r i t y , t h e Chinese miners were t h e t a r -
g e t of w h i t e democratic community law enforcement.
A company of Chinese men
were f r i v e n o f f t h e new f i e l d a t Similkameen i n August, 1860, by t h e w h i t e
miners a l r e a d y working t h e a r e a .
W.T. B a l l o u , of t h e B a l l o u Express Company,
r e p o r t e d t o t h e C o l o n i s t t h a t government o f f i c i a l s would " f a r e roughly" i n t h e
w h i t e miners1 hands.
48
The Cariboo w h i t e m i n e r s , i n 1861, passed a l o c a l law
p r o h i b i t i n g Chinese miners from e n t e r i n g t h e f i e l d , r e a s o n i n g t h a t w h i t e men
had p r o s p e c t e d and opened up t h e a r e a and "it would be u n f a i r t o a l l o w ' J o h n l
w i t h h i s bag of r i c e , t o s t e p i n and r e a p t h a t which a n o t h e r h a t h sowed".
49
An " i n d i g n a t i o n meeting" took p l a c e i n a B a r k e r v i l l e s a l o o n i n January 1865,
a f t e r a d i s p u t e over wood o c c u r r e d between a w h i t e man named Moresby and a
Chinese man.
The meeting of w h i t e miners empowered a committee t o r e q u e s t t h e
Chinese a s a c l a s s t o l e a v e t h e creek.50
A t t h e h e i g h t of t h e g o l d mining
season i n t h e same y e a r , w h i t e miners on L i g h t n i n g Creek drove t h e Chinese
miners o f f t h e s h a l l o w d i g g i n g s .
tension increased.
52
51
A s more Chinese e n t e r e d t h e f i e l d s i n 1865,
The B r i t i s h Columbian r e p o r t e d t h a t twelve L i l l o o e t r e s i -
d e n t s jumped t h e c l a i m s of Chinese miners on Bridge River and " a r e doing well".
A l e t t e r w r i t t e n by t h e former owner of t h e Cariboo S e n t i n e l , Alexander A l l a n ,
e x p r e s s e s t h e w h i t e miners' h o s t i l i t y toward Chinese m i n e r s , c o n s i d e r i n g them
I1
a c u r s e t o any c o u n t r y t h e y i n h a b i t " .
The Chinese miners p r e p a r e d t o proceed
t o t h e Peace R i v e r g o l d mines i n t h e s p r i n g of 1870, b u t A l l a n prophesied t h a t
53
t h e y would b e back q u i c k e r t h a n t h e y went.
It i s a f i e r c e d e t e r m i n a t i o n among miners t o d r i v e them o u t and
keep them o u t of t h a t c o u n t r y a t a l l h a z a r d s . 5 4
Antagonism a l s o took t h e form of i n d i v i d u a l p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s .
I n August
1858, a nameless Chinese man w a s s h o t w i t h f i v e b u l l e t s and no a t t e m p t was
made t o s o l v e t h e crime.55
Two Chinese men were murdered i n t h e i r t e n t a t
Big Bar i n e a r l y A p r i l , 1860; t h e deed was considered t o have been t h e work of
w h i t e men.
56
I n a claim d i s p u t e i n t h e Cayoosh r e g i o n , two Chinese men were
s h o t by two w h i t e miners, i n May, 1 8 6 0 . ~ A~ Chinese miner was murdered n o r t h
of Boston Bar i n J u l y , 1860, and a n o t h e r Chinese miner was murdered n e a r Lytton
i n June, 1862.
The c a s e was never s o l v e d . 58
A Chinese man was found drowned
n e a r L i l l o o e t , t h e circumstances of h i s d e a t h unknown. 59
Such c a s e s o c c u r r e d
f r e q u e n t l y enough t h a t one wonders i f i n f a c t t h e y were " a c c i d e n t s " .
a Chinese man was hanged, t h e r e a s o n g i v e n
murderer was r e l e a s e d . 60
-
"I d i d n ' t l i k e h i s face".
I n 1863
The
I n A p r i l , 1865, a w h i t e man by t h e name of Copeland
c u t o f f a Chinese man's queue and d i s c h a r g e d h i s r e v o l v e r i n t o a group of
Chinese men on board t h e steamer Hope.
He was a r r e s t e d b u t r e l e a s e d on b a i l .
Copeland l e f t f o r V i c t o r i a , and t h e c a s e was n e v e r t r i e d .
The Attorney-General's
61
r e c o r d s of i n q u e s t s i n t o d e a t h s which o c c u r r e d i n
B r i t i s h Columbia a r e incomplete and f o r some of t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e mainl a n d colony, n o n - e x i s t e n t .
Thus e s t i m a t e s of t h e number of Chinese people
murdered o r p h y s i c a l l y a t t a c k e d i n B r i t i s h Columbia a r e n o t a v a i l a b l e .
The
Colony, u n l i k e C a l i f o r n i a , d i d n o t s e t up a s p e c i a l committee t o i n v e s t i g a t e
i n t e r - r a c i a l violence.
However, Judge Matthew Begbie, of "hanging judge"
n o t o r i e t y , s t a t e d t a h t t h e Chinese would n o t have been s a f e i n Williams Lake
i n t h e e a r l y 186Ors, because of anti-Chinese a c t i o n s .
I n t h e gold mining
a r e a s g e n e r a l l y , Begbie c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e p o l i c e could n o t have guaranteed
their safety.
62
The neighborhood of L y t t o n h a s been t h e s c e n e of t e r r i b l e o u t r a g e s
a g a i n s t Chinamen, i n a l l of which t h e p e r p e t r a t o r s have escaped s c o t
t h e a l l e g e d r i n g l e a d e r s , though
f r e e . One c a s e i n p a r t i c u l a r
f u l l y i d e n t i f i e d by f o u r of t h e s u r v i v i n g v i c t i m s , were a c q u i t t e d by
t h e j u r y upon e v i d e n c e of a n a l i b i which t h e p r o s e c u t o r s might w e l l
deem p e r j u r e d . 63
...
Begbie a l s o c o n s i d e r e d t h a t t h e r i s e i n crimes of v i o l e n c e among t h e Chinese
i n t h e 1880's was
due t o t h e demonstrated impotence of o u r c r i m i n a l law t o p r o t e c t
Chinamen from t h e most enormous o u t r a g e s , a s w e l l a s from p e t t y
annoyances. 64
The p r e j u d i c e d b e l i e f t h a t t h e Chinese a s a r a c e were d i s h o n e s t and t h e r e f o r e
t h e i r word could n o t b e t r u s t e d meant t h a t t h e w h i t e c o n t r o l l e d c o u r t system
worked a g a i n s t them.
I n t h e e x p e r i e n c e of Attorney General A.E.B.
b a r r i s t e r i n t h e p r o v i n c e s i n c e 1862:
Davie, a
"White p e o p l e , t o my knowledge, have
escaped owing t o j u r i e s d i s t r u s t i n g t h e Chinese. 1165
A f a v o u r i t e s p o r t among w h i t e s was c u t t i n g o f f queues
--
an e x p e r i e n c e
causing n o t o n l y g r e a t shame t o a Chinese man, b u t a l s o problems f o r him when
he r e t u r n e d t o China where h e was r e q u i r e d t o wear a queue by law.
Because
t h e l i f e of a "Chinaman" was n o t c o n s i d e r e d by t h e m a j o r i t y of w h i t e s t o b e
of any g r e a t v a l u e , i t i s p r o b a b l e t h a t o n l y a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of a t t a c k s
were r e p o r t e d .
Also, i n t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d , s e t t l e m e n t i n t h e g o l d mining a r e a s
was n o t e s t a b l i s h e d and communications w i t h V i c t o r i a o r New Westminster d i d
n o t occur on such a r e g u l a r b a s i s t h a t a l l e v e n t s would have been brought t o
t h e newspapers a t t e n t i o n s .
F a i r and e q u i t a b l e treatment i n B r i t i s h Columbia
i s a myth.
The antagonism and v i o l e n t treatment of Chinese miners by whites was
acknowledged by Indians who accepted t h e white man's racism.
was recognized by white contemporaries.
This situation
The Eishop of Columbia wrote i~ 1860
t h a t t h e Indians south of Lytton looked upon Chinese men with "an evident sense
of t h e i r own s u p e r i o r i t y " , holding t h e Chinese i n g r e a t contempt.
Q.
Commander
C. Kayne spent f o u r y e a r s i n B r i t i s h Columbia from 1858 and i n h i s experi-
ence t h e Indians refused t o regard both blacks and Chinese with "any of t h e
r e s p e c t claimed by and shown t o whites".
He recounts an i n c i d e n t when a l o c a l
Indian asked him about t h e Chinese and when t o l d they were "carqua Kin5 George
men ( i . e., t h e same a s ~ n g l i s h m e n",
) t h e Indian r e p l i e d "Wake, wakel (NO,
no!
)"t6The l o c a l Indian population faced d i s l o c a t i o n as a r e s u l t of t h e arri-
v a l of gold miners and s e t t l e r s 6, 7and t h e y d i r e c t e d t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n a t t h e
Chinese.
I n t h e s p r i n g of 1859, Indians a t t a c k e d Chinese miners a t Bridge R i -
v e r on t h e F r a s e r t O A f i g h t broke out between t h e Indian and Chinese populat i o n s i n *Jew Westminster i n b y 186069
"JOM~"
of Yale warned of t r o u b l e be-
tween Indians and Chinese on t h e bars i n t h e v i c i n f t y of Yale i n t h e summer of
186o7'and
on August 10, t h e Shuswap Indians a t t a c k e d a Chinese camp a t Cayoosh,
demanding provisions.
Returning l a t e r t o procure
t h e Chinese miners' blankets,
t h e Indians found t h e Chinese had armed themselves i n preparation.
In the
"war" t h 2 t broke o u t , two Chinese men, two Indian women, and two Indian men
were shot.
Most of t h e Chinese were s u f f i c i e n t l y intimidated t o l e a v e t h e a r e a
f o r diggings on t h e lower b a s e r ? '
men who a r r i v e d by junk.
r e l e a s e t h e i r captives. 72
Indians on t h e c o a s t held c a p t i v e Chinese
Douglas dispatched s o l d i e r s t o f o r c e t h e Indians t o
I n d i v i d u a l I n d i a n s , aware of t h e w h i t e man's l a c k of concern f o r Chinese
people a l s o a t t a c k e d and plundered Chinese miners.
One such r e p o r t e d i n s t a n c e
concerns an I n d i a n , Tachnack, who was found w i t h gold and t h e p e r s o n a l e f f e c t s
( i n c l u d i n g b o o t s ) of a Chinese miner, P u l i n g o .
Tachnack had been h i r e d by
Pulingo t o t a k e him by canoe from H a r r i s o n River t o a p o i n t e i g h t m i l e s above
Hope.
Pulingo was never s e e n a g i n and Tachnack was t r i e d f o r t h e f t , r e c e i v i n g
one y e a r ' s j a i l w i t h h a r d l a b o u r .
~ u l i n g o ' sbody was n e v e r l o c a t e d . 7 3
The c h a r g e of murder was n o t l a i d because
It would appear t h a t t h e r a c i a l h i e r a r c h y
and power s t r u c t u r e of w h i t e s o c i e t y was v i s i b l e t o t h e l o c a l I n d i a n p o p u l a t i o n .
F u r t h e r evidence of t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , abuse and p h y s i c a l a t t a c k s t h a t
t h e Chinese f a c e d can b e found i n t h e f o r m a t i o n of Freemason S o c i e t i e s througho u t B r i t i s h Columbia, o r g a n i z e d f o r mutual a s s i s t a n c e and p r o t e c t i o n . 7 4
The
f i r s t of t h e s e lodges w a s e s t a b l i s h e d i n B a r k e r v i l l e i n March 1 8 6 3 . ~ ~
Through
t h e Chinese merchants i n V i c t o r i a , t h e s e a s s o c i a t i o n s became province-wide.
To p r e v e n t d i s u n i t y among t h e Chinese men t h e y were d i s c o u r a g e d from u s i n g t h e
w h i t e l e g a l system.
The a s s o c i a t i o n s e t t l e d d i s p u t e s between i t s members, and
t h u s t h e w h i t e l e g a l system was l a r g e l y i g n o r e d . 76
The concern of Chinese men
r e g a r d i n g t h e i r t r e a t m e n t a t t h e hands of w h i t e men was e s p r e s s e d o f f i c i a l l y
i n a n a d d r e s s t o Governor Kennedy on h i s a r r i v a l i n V i c t o r i a i n 1864.
Presented
by t h e Chinese merchants on b e h a l f of a l l Chinese i n t h e colony, i t c o n t a i n e d
i n part:
Chinese seem much devoted t o V i c t o r i a Queen f o r p r o t e c t i o n and
d i s t r i b u t i v e r u l e of him Excellencey o l d Governor S i r James Douglas,
s o r e v e r s e C a l i f o r n i a r u l i n g when a p p l i e d t o u s Chinese countrymen
I n ending, u s c o n f i d e i n g r a c i o u s hope i n t h e e , f i r s t d e g r e e s ,
and f i r s t r a n k and f i r s t l i n k s , and t r u s t o u r C a l i f o r n i a neighbours
may n o t e x e r c i s e p r e j u d i c e t o o u r g r i e f . 77
...
During t h e 18601s, w h i t e miners t r i e d o t h e r methods of e x c l u d i n g t h e
Chinese miners from t h e g o l d f i e l d s .
Appeals were made t o Governors Douglas
and Kennedy i n t h e form of p e t i t i o n s and a f t e r t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Council of t h e
colony of B r i t i s h Columbia was e s t a b l i s h e d i n 1864, t h e i r i n t e r e s t s were pres e n t e d by t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s .
Miners' c a n d i d a t e s a t t e m p t e d l e g i s l a t i v e l y
t o exclude t h e Chinese, b u t d i d n o t have a d e q u a t e s u p p o r t i n t h e Council f o r
t h e s e measures.
Most members saw t h e i s s u e t o b e one of t a x i n g t h e Chinese
p r e s e n t i n t h e colony.
The f i r s t major i s s u e t o merchants i n t h e colony of B r i t i s h Columbia concerned import t a r i f f s and t h e Chinese were a g a i n t r e a t e d a s s c a p e g o a t s .
The
mainland was s t i l l governed from V i c t o r i a , which was s t i l l a f r e e p o r t w h i l e
New Westminster merchants had t o pay a t e n p e r c e n t t a x on imported goods.
Robson argued i n e d i t o r i a l s a g a i n s t V i c t o r i a ' s favoured t r a d e p o s i t i o n , v o i c i n g
t h e a t t i t u d e s and o p i n i o n s of t h e New Westminster merchants.
p o r t of a r r i v a l f o r most gold miners
-
whatever t h e i r o r i g i n
V i c t o r i a was t h e
-
and t h e y bought
t h e i r mining equipment and p r o v i s i o n s t h e r e r a t h e r t h a n paying t h e i n c r e a s e d
mainland p r i c e s a t New Westminster.
But Robson, i n an e d i t o r i a l i n t h e Spring
of 1861, s i n g l e d o u t t h e h i g h l y v i s i b l e Chinese m i n e r s , implying t h a t only
they bought t h e i r o u t f i t s i n V i c t o r i a and t h e r e b y avoided paying duty.
Because t h e Chinese d i d n o t pay t h e i r f a i r s h a r e of t h e colony's revenues,
Robson argued, t h e burden of t a x a t i o n f e l l on t h e merchant c l a s s .
78
He a l s o
complained t h a t t h e Chinese miners d i d n o t buy t h e taxed goods i n any q u a n t i t y
because of t h e i r s i m p l e l i f e s t y l e and l a c k of l u x u r i e s .
79
The Chineses t h u s s u f f e r e d from t h e i r h i g h v i s i b i l i t y .
non-Caucasian physiognomy, d r e s s (queue, pajama-type
Conspicuous due t o
clothing), eating habits,
philosophy, v a l u e s and way of l i f e , t h e y could b e e a s i l y l o c a t e d i n t h e com-
munity and t a x e s could be imposed upon t h e i r food and o c c u p a t i o n s .
Legislation
d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e Chinese p e o p l e was i n i t i a t e d i n t h e f i r s t Legisl a t i v e Assembly of t h e B r i t i s h Columbia colony when i t was n e c e s s a r y t o d e f r a y
t h e h i g h c o s t of road b u i l d i n g and t h e running of t h e colony.
I n t h e s p r i n g of 1865 t h e Customs Amendment Ordinance passed i t s t h i r d
r e a d i n g , and a r e l a t i v e l y h i g h e r t a x on goods used by Chinese miners was
imposed.
This was t h e f i r s t d i s c r i m i n a t o r y t a x .
Items
I
Tax
Dried Goods
Flour
Groceries
Dried F i s h
Rice
Vegetables ( p r e s e r v e d
Opium
A s a r e s u l t of i t s i n t r o d u c t i o n Chinese men were s e e n a s p o t e n t i a l smugglers of
opium.
On A p r i l 2 2 , a Chinese man was caught w i t h twenty-two pounds of opium
and j a i l e d , b u t t h e a r r e s t i n g o f f i c e r had jumped t h e gun.
There was i n s u f f i c i e n t
evidence t o prove t h e Chinese man's i n t e n t i o n of evading t h e custom laws.
81
This c a s e d i d n o t h i n g t o improve t h e image of t h e Chinese a s a r a c e .
It would seem almost n e c e s s a r y t h a t e v e r y Chinaman s h o u l d be
thoroughly s e a r c h e d on a r r i v i n g i n t h e colony, a s we understand
t h e y have a l r e a d y had r e c o u r s e t o t h e a r t i f i c e of s e c r e t i n g opium
beneath t h e l i n i n g of t h e i r j a c k e t s . 82
When i t was suggested by a r e a d e r t h a t i f such a p o l i c y of s e a r c h i n g was t o be
i n i t i a t e d then a l l persons
It
w i t h o u t r e s p e c t t o p o s i t i o n o r gender" should b e
s e a r c h e d , Robson advocated t h e a b o l i t i o n of t h e d u t y i f such an " o f f e n s i v e
p r e c a u t i o n " was r e q u i r e d .
I t might b e n e c e s s a r y t o apply a "more s t r i n g e n t
r u l e t o John Chinaman" t o p r e v e n t opium smuggling b u t i t was " u n c a l l e d f o r "
and " i m p o l i t i c " ,
and "obnoxious system" t o propose s e a r c h i n g a l l w h i t e people
docking a t New Westminster.
83
I n t h e same s e s s i o n , t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e f o r t h e mining a r e a of DouglasL i l l o o e t , Holbrook, moved an amendment t o c l a u s e twenty-five of t h e Gold F i e l d s
Amendment B i l l , proposing a m i n e r ' s l i c e n s e f o r Chinese miners.
I n the debate
t h a t followed h e argued t h a t l a r g e numbers of Chinese were expected i n t h e
mining a r e a , and i t w a s u n j u s t t o w h i t e men i f Chinese miners s h o u l d e s c a p e from
payment.
The Honourable M r . Henry Maynard B a l l p o i n t e d o u t t h a t from h i s
e x p e r i e n c e a s Gold Commissioner on t h e F r a s e r and Thompson R i v e r s , a compulsory
l i c e n s e t a x was i n a d v i s a b l e .
The m i n e r s ' l i c e n s e t a x w a s unpopular w i t h a l l
miners, i t was d i f f i c u l t and expensive t o c o l l e c t , and, a t t h i s p o i n t , t h e r e were
i n s u f f i c i e n t m a g i s t r a t e s t o e n s u r e t h a t a compulsory t a x would b e e n f o r c e d .
Chinese miners wre s u b j e c t t o t h e same p e n a l t y a s w h i t e miners who d i d n o t
take out a license
-
t h e i r c l a i m s could be jumped.
He argued f u r t h e r , and was
supported by E l l i o t t , t h a t t h e Chinese miners were t o o poor t o pay any t a x e s ,
and i f i t was imposed t h e j a i l s would b e f u l l of Chinese men, a n added expense
t o t h e colony.
M r . J.A.R.
Homer, r e p r e s e n t i n g New Westminster, countered t h a t
a l a r g e number of Chinese men worked f o r one m a s t e r who could a f f o r d t o pay
the license.
The Attorney General p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d i s c u s s i o n was o u t of
o r d e r , t h a t i f any t a x was t o b e imposed i t ought t o be g e n e r a l and n o t d i r e c t e d
a t Chinese miners s p e c i f i c a l l y .
t o p i c was n o t dropped.
84
The motion t o amend t h e b i l l was l o s t , b u t t h e
White miners a t L y t t o n p e t i t i o n e d t h e Governor a r g u i n g t h a t t h e y , a s f r e e
miners, p a i d a mining l i c e n s e of one pound a y e a r , and s o should t h e Chinese
miners, who enjoyed t h e p r i v i l e g e s of f r e e m i n e r s , t a x f r e e .
Their f a i l u r e
t o pay t h e l i c e n s e , t h e w h i t e miners argued, was n o t o n l y u n f a i r b u t meant a
l o s s of p u b l i c revenues.
The e i g h t y - s i x miners who s i g n e d t h e p e t i t i o n demanded
t h a t a l l Chinese miners working t h e b a r s be r e q u i r e d t o pay t h e t a x .
t h e y were demanding a compulsory t a x s p e c i a l l y f o r Chines miners.
I n essence,
85
This was t h e f i r s t of many a t t e m p t s t o p l a c e a s p e c i f i c t a x on Chinese
miners
-
a t t e m p t s made f i r s t by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e of t h e colony, and a f t e r 1871,
by t h e B r i t i s h Columbia L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly i n V i c t o r i a .
they s u c c e s s f u l .
I n n e i t h e r c a s e were
I n 1886 t h e F e d e r a l Government of Canada f i n a l l y acquiesced
t o t h e demands of t h e p r o v i n c e .
The Cavernor i n h i s r e p l y t o t h e w h i t e miners'
Chinese Tax P e t i t i o n i n 1865 gave t h e r e a s o n s f o r t h e r e f u s a l t o a l l o w such
d i s c r i m i n a t o r y laws :
Her M a j e s t y ' s i n s t r u c t i o n s e x p r e s s l y p r o h i b i t t h e Governor from
a s s e n t i n g t o any o r d i n a n c e whereby p e r s o n s of A f r i c a n , A s i a t i c o r I n d i a n
b i r t h may b e s u b j e c t e d o r made l i a b l e t o any d i s a b i l i t i e s o r r e s t r i c t i o n s
t o which p e r s o n s of European b i r t h o r d e s c e n t a r e n o t a l s o s u b j e c t e d o r
made l i a b l e . I f t h e r e f o r e t h e Chinese b e compelled t o t a k e o u t l i c e n c e s ,
t h e compulsion must b e made u n i v e r s a l . 86
The Governor concurred w i t h t h e miners' a t t i t u d e t h a t " t h e Chinese a r e n o t t h e
most d e s i r a b l e c o l o n i s t s whom o u r gold mines a t t r a c t " , and hence h e allowed t h e
new t a r i f f " t o p r e s s w i t h some s e v e r i t y on a r t i c l e s mainly consumed by them".
The d e s i r e t o t a x Chinese miners was n o t u n i v e r s a l w i t h i n t h e colony,
however.
I n a l e t t e r t o t h e e d i t o r of t h e B r i t i s h Columbian, " J u s t i c i a " con-
87
s i d e r e d t h e t a x on Chinese goods t o be d i s c r i m i n a t o r y .
The Chinese miners
mainly worked t h e d i g g i n g s abandoned by w h i t e m i n e r s , i t was argued, and
these diggings
b a r e l y a f f o r d them s u p p o r t , and t h a t p l a c i n g an undue t a x on t h e i r
v e r y n e c e s s i t i e s of l i f e i s simply p u t t i n g i t o u t of t h e i r power t o r e n d e r
p r o d u c t i v e what can n e v e r be made s o by any o t h e r d e s c r i p t i o n of l a b o u r . 8 8
The e d i t o r , Robson, got t h e l a s t word i n :
t h e r e i s a g r e a t w a s t e of sympathy upon t h e Chinese miners of t h i s
colony, and t h a t t h e c r y of "oppression" sought t o be r a i s e d upon t h e
new t a r i f f i s n o t j u s t i f i e d i n f a c t
[they a r e 2 t h e most w o r t h l e s s
c l a s s of o u r m i n e r s , who n e v e r become c o l o n i s t s , who n e v e r p r o s p e c t t h e
, who amass l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s of g o l d , a l l of which goes t o
country
e n r i c h a c o u n t r y which i s c l o s e d a g a i n s t c i v i l i z a t i o n , and which shows
p r e c i o u s l i t t l e c o n s i d e r a t i o n f o r B r i t i s h s u b j e c t s i n i t s l e g i s l a t i o n . 89
...
..
This was t h e s t a n d t h a t Robson t o o k throughout t h i s s e a s o n .
The newspaper
used a l o t of p r i n t t o prove t h a t t h e Chinese miners were p r o f i t i n g from t h e i r
panning of abandoned c l a i m s , c o u n t e r i n g t h e argument t h a t Chinese miners were
t o o poor t o pay t h e mining l i c e n s e .
During t h e 1865 s e a s o n , r e p o r t s from t h e
mining a r e a s , and from L y t t o n i n p a r t i c u l a r , s t r e s s e d t h e " r i c h h a r v e s t ,190
t h a t t h e Chinese miners were r e a p i n g .
A t Yale and L y t t o n , Chinese miners wing-
dammed t h e r i v e r and were r e p o r t e d as making from $20.00 t o S40.00 a day.
91
A Chinese man was r e p o r t e d t o have mined 126 ounces of gold from t h e F r a s e r
River, q u i t e a f o r t u n e wahen g o l d s o l d f o r f 1 6 an ounce.
92
A l e t t e r was p r i n t e d
from "Aegathalian" of L y t t o n who c o n s i d e r e d t a h t a s a c l a s s , t h e Chinese
a r e doing b e t t e r t h a n t h e w h i t e s , and t h a t t h e touching
commiseration of t h e i r c o n d i t i o n by c e r t a i n honourable members
of t h e l e g i s l a t u r e was a r i d i c u l o u s f a r c e . 93
p u b l i c o p i n i o n was pushing f o r a t a x of some form on Chinese miners.
In the
e d i t o r i a l of t h e f i r s t i s s u e of t h e Cariboo S e n t i n e l , t h e e d i t o r s t a t e d he was
disposed t o a t a x on Chinese miners.
94
Holbrook, i n a meeting of h i s Douglas-
L i l l o o e t c o n s t i t u e n t s i n J u n e , r e p o r t e d h i s a t t e m p t s t o b r i n g i n a measure t o
t a x Chinese miners.
Defeated because o n l y a few e l e c t e d members supported
him, h e s a i d :
a s I have t h e v o i c e of t h e people w i t h me, I w i l l b r i n g i t i n
a g a i n n e x t s e s s i o n . 95
The p r o p o r t i o n of Chinese p e o p l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia had i n c r e a s e d s i n c e
they f i r s t a r r i v e d i n 1858, a l t h o u g h i t i s extrememly d i f f i c u l t t o reckon t h e i r
a c t u a l numbers.
Holbrook s t a t e d i n June 1865 t h a t t h e r e were 3,000 i n t h e
colony, and 2,000 more were a r r i v i n g o r expected t o a r r i v e i n t h e 1865 season.
It was r e p o r t e d i n t h e B r i t i s h Columbian t h a t "probably" 70 p e r c e n t of t h e
t o t a l of 487 people who a r r i v e d i n t h e colony i n t h e l a s t week of May, 1865,
were ~ h i n e s e97
.
Throughout t h e summer, a c c o u n t s from t h e i n t e r i o r , a l t h o u g h
i n f l a t e d , t e n d t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e i r numbers had g r e a t l y i n c r e a s e d .
Previous
r e p o r t i n g of t h e movement of Chinese miners from one a r e a t o a n o t h e r spoke of
It
s e v e r a l Chinamen".
Now, i n t h e 1865 s e a s o n , i t was "hordes of Chinamen"
98
and i n August, 1865, i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t 1,500 Chinese men were mining on t h e
Columbia ~ i v e r . "
I t would appear t h a t t h e antagonism became more v o c a l a s
t h e numbers of Chinese i n c r e a s e d .
It o c c u r r e d a t a time when
L e g i s l a t i v e Assembly of t h e colony
-
existing prejudice.
through t h e
laws could b e passed which r e i n f o r c e d t h e
Racism became i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d .
goods was t h e f i r s t s t e p .
-
The d u t y on Chinese
The second s t e p was t h e compulsory miners' l i c e n s e .
96
Another f a c t o r c o n t r i b u t i n g t o t h e p r e j u d i c e was t h a t t h e "Chinese
p i c k i n g s " now appeared p r o f i t a b l e t o w h i t e miners.
The mining a r e a s of t h e
Cariboo, t h e Kootenays and t h e Columbia River were n o t e a s y o r cheap t o work.
W.
Champness had been l u r e d t o t h e Cariboo from B r i t a i n i n J u n e , 1862.
He s p e n t
two weeks a t A n t l e r Creek and r e t u r n e d t o V i c t o r i a , d i s p i r i t e d , d i s i l l u s i o n e d ,
broke, and b i t t e r a t t h e g r o s s m i s r e p r e s e n t a t i o n .
To mine t h e a r e a a l a r g e c a p i t a l o u t l a y was r e q u i r e d .
They were n o t s u r -
f a c e d i g g i n g s , f o r deep e x p l o r a t i o n was n e c e s s a r y a t enormous expense.
s i n g l e miner would have l i t t l e s u c c e s s .
*
100
H i s was n o t a unique e x p e r i e n c e .
On
h i s way up t o A n t l e r Creek, Champness met hundreds of d i s g r u n t l e d miners
r e t u r n i n g from t h e Cariboo.
Most, because t h e y were i n e x p e r i e n c e d m i n e r s ,
101
could n o t even g e t work w i t h a mining company. lo2 I n t h e l a t e summer of 1863,
miners l e f t t h e Cariboo because t h e y could n o t g e t employment.
New d i s c o v e r i e s
i n t h e North I s l a n d of New Zealand began a r u s h t h e r e and Cariboo miners l e f t
t o t r y t h e i r l u c k i n t h e South P a c i f i c . l o 3
Companies worked t h e Cariboo.
One company, t h e Cameron Company, p a i d i t s employees between $75.00 and $100.00
a month, which i n d i c a t e s t h e high investment (and p r o f i t s ) made i n mining.
104
The c o s t of p r o v i s i o n s i n t h e Cariboo, e s t i m a t e d by t h e Gold Commissioner,
P e t e r O 1 ~ e i l l y ,t o be 350 p e r c e n t h i g h e r t h a n i n New Westminster, a l s o added
t o t h e c o s t of mining. lo5 It was n o t u n t i l r o a d s t o t h e r e g i o n were improved
t h a t t h e p r i c e s of p r o v i s i o n s decreased. lo6 A p a r t y of w h i t e miners r e t u r n e d
from t h e Columbia a r e a i n March 1865, d e c l a r i n g t h o s e d i g g i n g s a "humbug".
107
I n t h e same summer w h i t e miners drove Chinese miners o f f t h e s u r f a c e d i g g i n g s
on t h e lower Lightning Creek, and found t h a t t h e y could make from $20.00 t o
$30.00 a day.
108
Because t h e new d i g g i n g s r e q u i r e d such a l a r g e c a p i t a l i n v e s t -
ment, w h i t e miners t o o k a second look a t what t h e y had p r e v i o u s l y dismissed a s
II
poor man's p i c k i n g s " y i e l d i n g "Chinaman's wages".
I n t h e 1865 s e s s i o n , t h e B r i t i s h Columbia c o l o n i a l L e g i s l a t u r e passed t h e
Gold Export Ordinance which imposed a t a x of two s h i l l i n g s a n ounce on gold
exported.
This was i n i t i a t e d a s an a l t e r n a t i v e t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of a
compulsory miners' l i c e n s e ,
109
which was unpopular among w h i t e miners and was
only c o l l e c t e d w i t h a l o t of grumbling and d i f f i c u l t y .
The Gold Export
Ordinance a l s o proved unpopular and d i f f i c u l t t o e n f o r c e .
I n the Fall election
i n Cariboo West, t h e s u c c e s s f u l c a n d i d a t e Rabert Smith c a l l e d f o r t h e a b o l i t i o n
of road t a x e s , t h e e x p o r t d u t y on g o l d , t h e d u t y on s p i r i t s , and m o d i f i c a t i o n s
t o t h e customs t a r i f f 11'
a t Big Bend, R.T.
-
a l l miners' demands.
The Acting Gold Commissioner
Smith, e s t i m a t e d t h a t f i g u r e s f o r o n l y h a l f of t h e gold
t a k e n from t h a t a r e a were known, t h e r e s t b e i n g smuggled s o u t h o v e r t h e b o r d e r
t o avoid t h e t a x . 11* The Gold Export Ordinance was a b o l i s h e d i n t h e 1866
session.
A new s o u r c e of revenue t o r e p l a c e i t had t o be found113 and t h e
means t o t a x t h e Chinese miners w i t h i n t h e laws of t h e I m p e r i a l Government.
A.W.S.
Black, t h e Cariboo West r e p r e s e n t a t i v e , i n t h e 1864
-
65 s e s s i o n
expressed t h e hope t h a t t h e Governor, on h i s r e t u r n t o B r i t i s h Columbia, would
have been empowered by t h e I m p e r i a l Government t o permit t h e L e g i s l a t i v e Council
t o p l a c e a head t a x on Chinese people.
I f t h i s d i d n o t happen, Black advocated
a compulsory mining l i c e n s e a s t h e o n l y means a l l o w a b l e t o c o l l e c t revenue
from " t h e s e f o r e i g n e r s " .
The e d i t o r of t h e B r i t i s h Columbian
reckoned t h a t t h e p r o p o r t i o n t h e I n d i a n s and Chinese b o r e t o w h i t e s f o r r e -
venue purposes was 10:3:1.
L e g i s l a t u r e made i t c l e a r
~ s i a t i c s '16
.
115
-
The speech from t h e t h r o n e a t t h e opening of t h e
again
-
t h a t a s p e c i a l t a x could n o t be p l a c e d on
The o n l y way open was a compulsory m i n e r s 1 l i c e n c e on a l l
employed i n mining p u r s u i t s .
The A d m i n i s t r a t o r of t h e Government, A r t h u r N.
Birch, s t a t e d :
I t i s t h e r e f o r e o n l y by t h i s measure t h a t o u r l a r g e Chinese p o p u l a t i o n
can b e made t o c o n t r i b u t e t o t h e Revenue i n e q u a l p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e w h i t e
r a c e . Few Chinamen now t a k e o u t a Mining Licence, whereas, on t h e o t h e r
hand, few w h i t e miners a r e t o b e found w i t h o u t one. 117
The e s t i m a t e d revenue from t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e F r e e Miners1 C e r t i f i c a t e s f o r
-
--
1886 was $26,750.00,
a s compared w i t h $17,169.00 f o r 1864.
118
Another t a x w a s i n t r o d u c e d i n t h i s s e s s i o n which was d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y
a t a predominantly Chinese occupation.
T h i s was t h e ground r e n t and t r a d i n g
l i c e n c e f o r growing and s e l l i n g v e g e t a b l e s .
The f i r s t mention i n t h e B r i t i s h
Columbian of Chinese involvement i n a g r i c u l t u r e i s i n J u l y , 1861, a t L i l l o o e t ,
where t h e y grew p o t a t o e s f o r t h e mining p o p u l a t i o n .
A s many miners were l e a v i n g
t h e Cariboo due t o l a c k of p r o v i s i o n s , Chinese s m a l l - s c a l e farming was extremely
beneficial.
I n t h e w i n t e r of 1861, p o t a t o e s s o l d a t L i l l o o e t f o r t h r e e c e n t s
a pound, a s compared w i t h twenty-five c e n t s a t ~ u e s n e l '19
,
and up t o f i f t y
c e n t s a pound i n t h e Cariboo. 120
I n t h e autumn of 1865, t h e Chinese pop-
u l a t i o n a t Quesnelmouth and K e i t h l e y ' s Creek was s u p p l y i n g miners f o r t h e
f i r s t time w i t h p o t a t o e s .
P r e v i o u s l y they had never s o l d f o r l e s s t h a n t h i r t y
c e n t s a pound, b u t t h a t y e a r t h e y were down t o twelve and one-half
Pound. l2'
cents a
I n t h e s p r i n g of 1866 "Interrorem" of L i l l o o e t w r o t e t o t h e B r i t i s h
Columbian a s k i n g why every Chinese man had t o pay f i f t y d o l l a r s a y e a r " f o r
t h e p r i v i l e g e of w e l l i n g t h e product of t h e l i t t l e p a t c h of ground he c u l t i v a t e s by h i s own labor".
122
The w r i t e r s u g g e s t e d t h a t i f t h i s was t h e law,
then i t should be changed " t h e sooner
...
the better".
However, i n t h e
Trades Licences Ordinance which passed i t s t h i r d r e a d i n g i n t h e L e g i s l a t u r e
on February 2 3 , 1866, Chinese g a r d e n e r s had t o t a k e o u t a l i c e n c e of $2.50
f o r every month t h a t t h e y used crown l a n d , and a l i c e n c e of $7.50 f o r every
t h r e e months t h a t t h e y were occupied i n r e t a i l t r a d e . 123
A predominantly
Chinese o c c u p a t i o n had been h e a v i l y t a x e d by t h e L e g i s l a t u r e .
124
D e s p i t e t h e f a c t t h a t Chinese miners were f o r c e d t o pay i n t o t h e colony's
revenues i n t h e same p r o p o r t i o n ( i f n o t a h i g h e r p r o p o r t i o n ) as w h i t e miner,
d e s p i t e t h e h i g h e r import t a r i f f s on Chinese goods, and t h e h o r t i c u l t u r a l t a x e s ,
Chinese p e o p l e were n o t p e r m i t t e d t h e same r i g h t s a s w h i t e s .
f r a n c h i s e demonstrates t h i s .
The i s s u e of t h e
I n t h e f i r s t e l e c t i o n of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s t o t h e
L e g i s l a t i v e Council of B r i t i s h Columbia i n 1863, no q u a l i f i c a t i o n s were req u i r e d f o r v o t e r s i n t h e t h r e e d i s t r i c t s of Hope-Yale-Lillooet,
Cariboo E a s t ,
and Cariboo West, and hence a l i e n men of a l l n a t i o n a l i t i e s could v o t e .
Chinese miners voted a t Cariboo West.
The
To Robson, and o t h e r w h i t e men, i t was
bad enough t h a t Europeans had been allowed t o v o t e w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e t o
nationality,
b u t A s i a t i c s , on t h e way down from t h e mines, many of them d o u b t l e s s
en r o u t e t o China, were dragged up t o l i s p t h e name of t h e a m b i t i o u s
c a n d i d a t e f o r l e g i s l a t i v e honors. We p r o t e s t e d a t t h e time a g a i n s t t h e
d e g r a d a t i o n t h u s c a s t upon B r i t i s h r e s i d e n t s by p l a c i n g them upon a
p o l i t i c a l l e v e l w i t h Chinese
Let i t no l o n g e r be s a i d t h a t B r i t i s h
c o l o n i s t s a r e t o submit t o t h e i n d i g n i t y , upon t h e i r own s o i l , of
walking side-by-side w i t h Chinamen t o e x e r c i s e t h a t r i g h t s o s a c r e d t o
e v e r y B r i t o n . l25
...
The Returning O f f i c e r a t Quesnelmouth, Cox, s t r u c k o u t a l l Chinese v o t e s
i n t h e 1863 e l e c t i o n , t h e o n l y a l i e n s mentioned a s b e i n g t r e a t e d i n t h i s way.
126
I n t h e 1865 e l e c t i o n Chinese men a g a i n v o t e d , one w h i t e v o t e r e s t i m a t i n g t h a t
one t h i r d of t h e v o t e r s were A s i a t i c s . l Z 7
The i s s u e was even more of a p o l i -
t i c a l s c a n d a l i n t h i s e l e c t i o n because, a c c o r d i n g t o Robson, t h e wrong condid a t e had been e l e c t e d .
He s u g g e s t e d d i s e n f r a n c h i s e m e n t of t h e whole d i s t r i c t
u n t i l t h e v o t e r s l e a r n e d t h a t t h e f r a n c h i s e was "a s a c r e d t r u s t " .
128
I n t h e d i s c u s s i o n on t h e N a t i v e Evidence Ordinance, a b i l l brought i n t o
d e a l w i t h I n d i a n s g i v i n g e v i d e n c e i n c o u r t who w e r e W d e s t i t u t eof knowledge of
God and of any r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f " ,
was d i s c u s s e d .
t h e q u e s t i o n of Chinese p e o p l e ' s evidence
Because of t h e form of t h e o a t h t h e y swore i n c o u r t , i t would
seem t h a t t h e i r evidence was n o t t a k e n t o o s e r i o u s l y .
I f t h e f a r c e e n a c t e d of b r e a k i n g a s a u c e r i n t h e i r p r e s e n c e were
t o p r e v a i l , and such a proceeding form t h e o b l i g a t i o n of t h e i r o a t h ,
no credence whatsoever could e v e r be g i v e n t o t h e i r evidence
i t was a w e l l known f a c t t h a t such was n o t t h e i r mode of b i n d i n g t h e i r
consciences t o t e l l t h e t r u t h . I had merely been p r e s c r i b e d f o r them.129
...
M r . E l l i o t t expressed t h e view t h a t from h i s e x p e r i e n c e h e would r a t h e r ".place
t h e B i b l e i n t h e hands of a savage t h a n a Chinaman".
t h e Chinese p e o p l e had no form of b i n d i n g o a t h .
A s f a r a s h e w a s aware,
130
Aside from t h e q u e s t i o n of whether t h e i r e v i d e n c e was b e l i e v e d i n t h e
w h i t e men's c o u r t s , t h e r e i s t h e i s s u e of t h e i r t r e a t m e n t i n t h e l e g a l system.
The f a c t t h a t t h e Chinese people formed Benevolent S o c i e t i e s t o d e a l w i t h problems w i t h i n t h e i r own community and t o p r o t e c t i n d i v i d u a l Chinese a g a i n s t w h i t e
violence i n d i c a t e s t h a t they did n o t receive j u s t i c e i n t h e white c o u r t s , nor
did they p l a c e much f a i t h i n them.
A few examples of t h e i r t r e a t m e n t i l l u s I t h a s been demonstrated
t r a t e s t h a t t h e i r p o s i t i o n was founded on e x p e r i e n c e .
t h a t p h y s i c a l a s s a u l t s on Chinese miners o f t e n went unpunished.
To o b t a i n
j u s t i c e from c o n t r a c t o r s who d i d n o t f u l f i l t h e i r o b l i g a t i o n s , t h e Chinese
brought charges a g a i n s t them.
I n one c a s e a Chinese man Ah Yek (Ah Yep?) sued
f o r wages of $960.00 which were owing t o him f o r work done on t h e Cottonwood
Road.
I n t h e f i n a l s e t t l e m e n t h e r e c e i v e d $371.74.
A s i m i l a r i n c i d e n t occured
i n t h e Douglas Road c o n t r a c t when Koo Loo, r e p r e s e n t i n g twenty-nine Chinese men,
appealed t o Governor Seymour f o r payment of $708.50 owing from t h e c o n t r a c t o r ,
Scott.
The Governor could n o t h e l p him a s f i n a l payment t o S c o t t had a l r e a d y
been made by t h e government. 131
I n a n o t h e r c a s e a Chinese man was u n j u s t l y
declared r e s p o n s i b l e f o r d e b t s amounting t o $60.00 which a w h i t e man had i n c u r r e d .
--
-
--
The Chinese man l o s t $2,400.00 worth of p r o p e r t y and was unable t o o b t a i n l e g a l
r e d r e s s . 132
A Chinese cook employed by t h e Western Union Telegraph Company was
charged w i t h s t e a l i n g a p i e c e of pork valued a t $5.00.
He was s e n t e n c e d t o s i x
months j a i l w i t h h a r d l a b o u r , a r e l a t i v e l y s e v e r punishment. 133
The i n s t a n c e
p r e v i o u s l y mentioned of t h e Chinese man accused of smuggling opium demonstrates
t h e w h i t e a t t i t u d e toward Chinese "crimes".
Such c a s e s were used a s examples t o t h e r e s t qf t h e Chinese community.
Robson commented on t h e opium smuggling a r r e s t :
t h e s e r a s c a l s a s a l u t a r y l e s s o n " . 134
"A few such c a s e s w i l l t e a c h
A s i m i l a r a t t i t u d e was t a k e n when seven
men running a Chinese gambling house i n Yale were a r r e s t e d . 135
Newspaper r e p o r t s
of Chinese c r i m i n a l c a s e s c o n t a i n an "I t o l d you so" a t t i t u d e .
They r e i n f o r c e d
t h e image of t h e average Chinese man a s b e i n g by n a t u r e l e f t - h a n d e d ,
c r u e l and inhumane. 136
cunning, s t o l i d ,
~n incoherency can be found i f one t r a c e s t h e i r r a t i o n a l i t y of e a r l y w h i t e
imigrantsl
a t t i t u d e s t o Chinese people.
No m a t t e r what t h e y d i d , they could
n o t upgrade t h e i r i n f e r i o r p o s i t i o n o r change t h e n e g a t i v e o p i n i o n t h a t w h i t e s
h e l d , t o a more p o s i t i v e image.
I n t h e e a r l y y e a r s of t h e g o l d r u s h , Chinese
miners worked t h e abandoned b a r s on t h e F r a s e r River.
I t was p o i n t e d o u t t h a t
i f they d i d n o t work them no-one would because t h e r e t u r n was s o low.
because t h e y d i d work them, t h e y f a c e d abuse.
Yet,
It was s a i d of them t h a t they
r a p i d l y exhaust t h e s u r f a c e mines, "and l i k e a swarm of l o c u s t s l e a v e t h e c o u n t r y
impoverished and d e s o l a t e " , 13' y e t when t h e y d i d move o f f t h e abandoned d i g g i n g s
i t was r e p o r t e d t h a t t h e y were'ltaking over" a r e a s which w h i t e men had opened up.
An argument p u t forward b o t h by Robson and miners g e n e r a l l y was t h a t t h e Chinese
never p r o s p e c t new gold f i e l d s b u t " j a c k a l 1 [sic]
of t h e hardy [white]
pioneer". 138
l i k e , f o l l o w upon t h e h e e l s
They were damned i f t h e y s t a y e d on abandoned
claims, and damned (and f a c e d open h o s t i l i t y and v i o l e n c e ) i f t h e y moved i n t o
new d i g g i n g s .
That Chinese miners n e v e r p r o s p e c t e d new a r e a s was a n assumption h e l d by
many p e o p l e a t t h e t i m e , and one which h i s t o r i c a l w r i t e r s have p e r p e t u a t e d .
William H a z l i t t ' s guide f o r gold s e e k e r s p o i n t s o u t t h a t Chinese miners o u t of
n e c e s s i t y were n o t long s a t i s f i e d w i t h low y i e l d d i g g i n g s :
Some of t h e Chinamen, w h i l e s e r v i n g t h e i r n o v i t i a t e a r e s a t i s f i e d
w i t h such poor d i g g i n g s a s y i e l d o n l y $1.00 t o $2.00 a day, b u t t h e y a r e
soon f o r c e d by t h e i r t a s k m a s t e r s , who p a i d t h e i r expenses from China and
San F r a n c i s c o , and f o r whose b e n e f i t t h e y l a b o u r , and who t a x them b o t h
f o r repayment of t h e s e expenses and f o r a p r o f i t on t h e v e n t u r e , t o
abandon such poor d i g g i n g s f o r a r i c h e r . And a s t o w h i t e m i n e r s , n o t one
of them w i l l work f o r t h e s m a l l e a r n i n g s I have mentioned. l39
Chinese miners d i d p r o s p e c t new f i e l d s d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d .
Governor Douglas
on a v i s i t up t h e F r a s e r i n 1861 met a p a r t y of seven Chinese men who had d i s covered gold on Spuzzum F l a t .
He promised them p r o t e c t i o n . 140
I n May 1866
i t l e a k e d o u t t h a t a company of e i g h t Chinese miners had p r o s p e c t e d and were
mining s u c c e s s f u l l y a t Canon Creek.
Within t e n days a w h i t e p a r t y from Quesnel
was organized t o p r o s p e c t t h e c r e e k w i t h funds r a i s e d by t h e Quesnel i n h a b i t a n t s ($300.00) and t h e government ( c o n t r i b u t i n g $200.00). l4'
I n t h e same month
r e p o r t s reached New Westminster of Chinese miners p r o s p e c t i n g t h e Similkameen
River.
142
Another company s e t o f f t o p r o s p e c t t h e Coqueballa,
143
and i n June
1866 a company of Chinese miners were p r o s p e c t i n g and had begun working on t h e
n o r t h f o r k of t h e Similkameen River.
144
Only a few miners a c t i v e l y p r o s p e c t e d
f o r g o l d , t h e m a j o r i t y merely moving on t o a newly d i s c o v e r e d r e g i o n a s soon
a s word reached them.
m i t t i n g t h i s crime.
Rut i t was o n l y t h e Chinese who were s i n g l e d o u t a s comMost miners l e f t t h e c o u n t r y t a k i n g t h e i r gold w i t h them
b u t i t was usually145 Chinese miners whose a c t i o n s were o b j e c t e d t o and who
were accused of e x p l o i t i n g t h e c o l o n y ' s gold r e s o u r c e s .
By t h e autumn of 1866 t h e complaint a g a i n s t t h e Chinese was no l o n g e r
t h a t t h e y exhausted s u r f a c e minings abandoned by w h i t e men.
t h a t t h e y were t a k i n g over.
The c r y was now
They were n o t o n l y monopolizing t h e Kootenay mines,
according t o Robson, b u t a l s o t h e t r a d e and commerce of t h e a r e a , and h e f e a r e d
t h a t i n t h e 1867 season t h e r e would be few w h i t e men i n t h e a r e a . 14'
I f they
e n t e r e d predominantly w h i t e f i e l d s t h e y f a c e d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of b e i n g d r i v e n
off.
I f they k e p t t o themselves and worked s p e c i f i c a r e a s t h e y were blamed
f o r taking over.
The Chinese a s miners were simply n o t wanted e x c e p t by t h e
government who v a l u e d t h e i r t a x d o l l a r s .
U n t i l 1866 however, Chinese miners
u s u a l l y worked over t h e abandoned c l a i m s of w h i t e miners.
they could make them pay.
Forming companies,
The companies were d i v i d e d i n t o two s e c t i o n s , one t o
work t h e mines, t h e o t h e r t o grow t h e food n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e whole company's
s u r v i v a l . 147
By co-operative a c t i o n t h e y were a b l e t o make a l i v i n g i n a r e a s
which i n d i v i d u a l w h i t e miners d i s m i s s e d a s u n p r o f i t a b l e d i g g i n g s .
The Chinese people f a c e d h o s t i l i t y which cannot b e e x p l a i n e d away by
economic competition d u r i n g t h i s p e r i o d .
men had p r e v i o u s l y done.
They d i d n o t t a k e o v e r j o b s t h a t w h i t e
I n s t e a d t h e y d i d work t h a t w h i t e men were u n w i l l i n g
t o do - e i t h e r low s t a t u s j o b s a n d / o r low p a i d work.
Labourers were i n s h o r t
supply, and t h e Chinese were employed on j o b s t h a t w h i t e men, a t t r a c t e d t o
B r i t i s h Columbia by t h e l u r e of gold and t h e promise of w e a l t h , were n o t
i n t e r e s t e d i n doing
-
o t h e r t h a n i n times of extreme economic h a r d s h i p .
Chinese workers b u i l t many of t h e wagon t r a i l s i n t h i s p e r i o d .
148
They were em-
ployed t o b u i l d t h e Douglas-Harrison T r a i l t o H a r r i s o n Lake i n 1858 a l o n g w i t h
B r i t i s h , American, Danish, French, German and b l a c k miners on t h e i r way up t o
t h e gold f i e l d s . 14'
The Cariboo Road through t h e F r a s e r Canyon from L y t t a n was
b u i l t i n 1862 and 1863 w i t h Chinese l a b o u r s u p p l i e d by t h e Ho Hang and Ah Yep
f i r m s . 150
White l a b o u r w a s u n o b t a i n a b l e a•’t e r t h e ' f i r s t t w e l v e m i l e s due t o
news of g o l d d i s c o v e r i e s i n t h e Cariboo, b u t t h e Chinese s t a y e d on k e m o n s t r a t ing t h e i r reliability].
The I n d i a n s and Chinese workers h i r e d by t h e c o n t r a c t -
o r s Walter Moberly and C h a r l e s Oppenheimer were decimated by small-pox i n 18621863.
15 1
I n 1865, Dewdney, t h e c o n t r a c t o r f o r t h e t r a i l from Hope t o Wild Horse
Creek, h i r e d s e v e n t y - f i v e Chinese l a b o u r e r s f o r $75.00 a month and found.
152
They were a l s o employed on t h e wagon road from Quesnelmouth t o Cottonwood.
When t h e Union Telegraph Extension was c o n s t r u c t e d , Chinese men were employed
a s cooks, polemen and wiremen.
153
Chinese men i n t h e g o l d mining towns provided t h e s e r v i c e s n e c e s s a r y f o r
a p o p u l a t i o n of predominantly s i n g l e men w i t h o u t t h e f a m i l y i n s t i t u t i o n and
t h e work of women t o p r o v i d e f o r everyday s u r v i v a l needs.
s m a l l b u s i n e s s e s and f i l l e d t h i s gap.
Chinese men s t a r t e d
They began t r u c k farming, s u p p l y i n g
miners w i t h f r e s h v e g e t a b l e s by p e d d l i n g t h e i r produce. 154
They worked i n
l a u n d r i e s and by 1862 most of t h e r e s t a u r a n t s were r u n by Chinese men, prov i d i n g h o t , a p p e t i z i n g meals a t r e a s o n a b l e p r i c e s . 155
merchant, grazed s t o c k f o r t h e L i l l o o e t market. 156
Kwong Lee, a Chinese
He opened a branch of h i s
f i r m i n Quesnelmouth, p r o v i d i n g p r o v i s i o n s f o r b o t h w h i t e and Chinese m i n e r s ,
b u t e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e l a t t e r who could n o t o b t a i n c r e d i t above L i l l o o e t .
Gint Cawston, an o l d - t i m e r ,
i n h i s r e c o l l e c t i o n s , r e c a l l e d pack t r a i n s r u n by
Chinese men i n t h e e a r l y days.
.
L i l l o o e t 158
157
Lew packed i n t o t h e Cariboo, and Yib Poy a t
They a l s o drove p i g s and o t h e r s t o c k t o t h e mining t o w s .
t h e Kootenays, b o t h l o c a l I n d i a n s and Chinese owned cows.
In
159
A s t h e above e v i d e n c e i n d i c a t e s , t h e Chinese p e o p l e s u p p l i e d t h e gold
mining towns w i t h n e c e s s i t i e s .
T h e i r l a b o u r was a l s o u s e f u l t o l a t e r s e t t l e r s
i n t h e c l e a r i n g of l a n d and t h e h a r v e s t i n g of crops.
The B r i t i s h Columbian
r e p o r t e d i n t h e l a t e summer of 1868 t h a t f a r m e r s i n t h e Cariboo were o f f e r i n g
$2.50 t o $3.00 a day t o l a b o u r e r s and s t i l l could n o t o b t a i n a d e q u a t e h e l p .
160
I n some i n s t a n c e s , a f a m i l y of w h i t e men occupied i n e s t a b l i s h i n g a farm
h i r e d a Chinese l a b o u r e r .
undertaking.
H i s work could mean t h e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e of t h e
Employed as a s e r v a n t , h i s j o b s were a s "cook, washerman and
g e n e r a l man of a l l works, f o r n o t h i n g came amiss t o him". 161 They
cooked, baked, d i d washing and s c r u b b i n g , milked cows, bucked
t h e wood, f e d p i g s and i n l e i s u r e hours went i n t o t h e garden. 162
I n t h e Report of t h e Royal Commission of Chinese Immigration 1885, a
judge of t h e Supreme Court of B r i t i s h Columbia, Henry P.P.
on t h e l a b o u r s i t u a t i o n i n t h i s e a r l y p e r i o d .
Crease, gave evidence
White men, i f the- d i d n o t g e t
t h e h i g h pay t h e y c o n s i d e r e d t h e i r due, c r o s s e d t h e United S t a t e s ' b o r d e r where
they could o b t a i n h i g h e r r a t e s of pay.
Crease s t r e s s e d t h a t t h e r e was a
s c a r c i t y of r e l i a b l e w h i t e women t o do t h e " s e r v i l e occupations" of t h e p i o n e e r
household.
I n d i a n s were c o n s i d e r e d u n s u i t a b l e a s employees, a t f i r s t because
t h e i r l a r g e numbers were t h r e a t e n i n g , and t h e n because t h e y were s e e n a s b e i n g
" r e s t l e s s , nomadic"
-
and t h u s u n s u i t a b l e a s domestics.
S e v e r a l s h i p s were
c h a r t e r e d by p r o s p e c t i v e employers t o b r i n g female s e r v a n t s from England t o
chop and c u t wood, g e t w a t e r , c l e a n t h e d i s h e s , p o t s and pans, cook,
wash, bake, sew, and r e a r f a m i l i e s , and d i s c h a r g e a l l t h e o t h e r onerous
and m u l t i f a r i o u s d u t i e s of t h e manage. 163
Repayment of t h e women's f a r e s was a n t i c i p a t e d o u t of t h e i r s a l a r i e s .
Few
women, however, s t a y e d i n t h e households long enough t o make f u l l repayment.
Hence, t h e y proved "a complete f a i l u r e " .
" ~ a n a k a s " , n a t i v e p e o p l e s from t h e
Sandwich I s l a n d s , were t r i e d n e x t , and " a l s o f a i l e d ; . s o ,
exhaustion, no r e s o u r c e was l e f t b u t Chinese labour". 164
by t h e mere p r o c e s s of
crease s t a t e s :
Everyone had a g r e a t and n o t u n n a t u r a l o b j e c t i o n t o t r y them, b u t
gradn e c e s s i t y h a s no law, i t was Chinese l a b o u r o r none a t a l l
u a l l y a s t h e w h i t e woman saw h e r neighbor g e t some r e l i e f from t h e
k i l l i n g domestic s l a v e r y of c o l o n i a l l i f e s h e a l s o adopted them and,
by t h e s h e e r n e c e s s i t y of t h e c a s e , t h e i r emplo e n t a s domestic
s e r v a n t s became g e n e r a l , and a t l a s t u n i v e r s a l . E5
...
It was t h e u s e f u l n e s s of Chinese men a s domestics t h a t Crease emphasized.
Without them
t h e p r i v a t i o n s i n f a m i l y l i f e , extreme and of wearying monotony,
would have become i n t o l e r a b l e , and a g e n e r a l exodus of f a m i l i e s would
have been t h e r e s u l t . 166
Another f a c t o r was t h a t Chinese domestics knew t h e i r p l a c e i n t h e household
while
...
..
.
white labour
e s p e c i a l l y female s e r v a n t s ,
would n o t
submit t o c o n s i d e r themselves i n t h e household arrangements a s i n
any r e s p e c t s u b o r d i n a t e t o t h e i r employers. 167
Chinese domestic s e r v a n t s r e l i e v e d wealthy w h i t e households of some of
t h e arduous t a s k s , and u n l i k e w h i t e s , worked f o r what Crease considered were
I1
reasonable o r p r a c t i c a b l e rates".
subordinate position.
They were more r e l i a b l e and knew t h e i r
Although a t f i r s t a n e c e s s a r y e v i l , Crease considered
t h a t they performed t h e i r j o b s o w e l l and t h e i r work was s o n e c e s s a r y t h a t i t
" c r e a t e d a good f e e l i n g towards them".
It map have been t h e c a s e t h a t t h e
wealthy c l a s s e s i n V i c t o r i a who employed s e r v a n t s - a s m a l l p e r c e n t a g e of t h e
population16* - moved beyond t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s i n t h e f a c e of n e c e s s i t y b u t
t h e f a c t t h a t t h e Chinese d i d perform t h e s e s e r v i l e t a s k s merely r e i n f o r c e d
t h e s t e r e o t y p e image of them a s an i n f e r i o r r a c e .
To t h e s e V i c t o r i a n s they
were a s e r v a n t c l a s s and t o o t h e r c l a s s e s t h e Chinese were f a i r game, and
t a r g e t s of w h i t e men's h o s t i l i t y and a g g r e s s i o n .
White "hoodlums" a s s a u l t e d
Chinese domestic s e r v a n t s on t h e s t r e e t s of V i c t o r i a . 1 6 '
To e x p l a i n t h i s
phenomenon merely i n terms of economic c o m p e t i t i o n i s t o o s i m p l e .
d i d n o t work a s domestics.
Nor d i d t h e y want t o .
White men
D i s s a t i s f i e d with t h e i r
economic p o s i t i o n , w h i t e men e x p r e s s e d t h e i r f r u s t r a t i o n by a t t a c k i n g a
s u b o r d i n a n t group, t h e Chinese.
It i s c l e a r t h a t Chinese men were employed i n o c c u p a t i o n s c o n s i d e r e d
too arduous f o r Europeans t o engage i n , such a s menial low-paying and lows t a t u s occupations.
Although t h e t a s k s of b u i l d i n g r o a d s , p r o v i d i n g e s s e n t i a l
s e r v i c e s i n t h e gold mining towns, and work a s domestics were of t h e utmost
importance i n t h e development of t h e p i o n e e r s o c i e t y , t h e y were low-status
o c c u p a t i o n s and l a c k e d t h e p r e s t i g e , glamour and p o s s i b l e monetary rewards of
e i t h e r gold p r o s p e c t i n g o r w h i t e men's work i n b u s i n e s s , p o l i t i c s , t h e p r o f e s s i o n s o r home-steading.
Because of t h e s c a r c i t y of w h i t e women, Chinese men
d i d t h e t a s k s normally a s s i g n e d t o women.
A s mentioned, t h e y predominated i n
domestic s e r v i c e and i n t h e laundry b u s i n e s s .
I n C a l i f o r n i a t h e washing of
d i r t y l i n e n had been predominantly a Chinese o c c u p a t i o n and t h e f i r s t appearance of Chinese men i n V i c t o r i a conjured up t h e s t e r e o t y p e image w i t h a n a t t i tude of amused contempt.
out t h a t washing c l o t h e s
Ronald L e a l , i n h i s s h o r t h i s t o r y of l a u n d r y , p o i n t s
-
a n o c c u p a t i o n whose h i s t o r y goes back t o b e f o r e t h e
e s t a b l i s h e d s e t t l e m e n t s of Egypt and Mesopotamia
work of women.
-
h a s been p r i m a r i l y t h e
T h i s was t h e a t t i t u d e i n t h e gold r u s h p e r i o d .
Rather than
doing t h e i r own laundry
t h e p r o s p e c t o r s i n t h e C a l i f o r n i a Gold Rush, out-numbering t h e
women twelve t o one, sometimes s e n t t h e i r s h i r t s a l l t h e way t o
China t o be laundered. 170
This t y p e of domestic work i s by i t s v e r y n a t u r e non-productive.
In a
p i o n e e r s o c i e t y involved i n t h e r a p i d e x p l o i t a t i o n of n a t u r a l r e s o u r c e s , t h e
most important c o n s i d e r a t i o n was p r o f i t .
The l u r e of g o l d , t h e myth of t h e
h e r o i c and adventurous l i f e of a gold miner, and t h e f r e e and a c t i v e l i f e - s t y l e
a l s o a t t r a c t e d men t o B r i t i s h Columbia.
But i n a c a p i t a l i s t , c o l o n i a l s o c i e t y ,
t h e work one does determines o n e ' s p o s i t i o n and image.
The work of Chinese
men i n domestic s e r v i c e
- women's
work
-
r e i n f o r c e d t h e image w h i t e s c a r r i e d
of t h e Chinese a s a p a s s i v e , i n f e r i o r r a c e , ready t o work f o r lower wages
than w h i t e men i n o c c u p a t i o n s t h e y considered were beneath them.
By doing
what was considered t o b e degrading work, t h e Chinese were c o n s i d e r e d
degraded.
1 71
Footnotes ( ~ h a f l e rI )
I
h', Ifark Lai and P h i l l i p P. Choy, Outlines.
America,
an Francisco,
HiStory of t h e Chinese i n
Chinese American S t u d i e s Plannirg Group,
1977),~.
25.
i k r y Coolidge, Chinese Immigration,
1909),
( ~ e wYork, Henry Holt and Co, ,
pp. 21-25.
That t h e y were welcomed is disputable. See; Robert Edward biynne,'
"Reaction t o t h e Chinese i n t h e P a c i f i c Northwest and B r i t i s h Columbia, 1850 t o 1910", PhD. t h e s i s , University of Washington, pp.
1-4; L a i and. Choy, pp. 4 8 4 9 ; and S t u a r t C. M i l l e r , The Unwelcome
( ~ e r k e lye, University of Calif o r n h Press, l96?), pp,
Lai and Choy, pp. 47-48.
Albert W , Palmer, O r i e n t a l s i n American L i f e , (sew York, Friendship
Press, 1934), p. 12.
Tierg-fang Cheng, O r i e n t a l Immigration i n Sanada , (shanghai, Commercial
Press Ltd., 3.?31), p. 35.
Kinahan Cornwallis, The Xew E l Dorado o r B r i t i s h Columbia, ( ~ e p r i n ted.,
New York, New York Tines Co., 1973), 9. 294, ( O r @ . ed, 1858).
,
V i c t o r i a Gazette, June 30, 1858,
James Morton, I n t h e Sea of S t e r i l e Mountains, ( ~ a n c o u v e r ,J. J. Douglas, 19743, p. 6.
Secretary of S t a t e f o r t h e Colonies, S i r Edward Bulwer Lytton, t o Governor James Douglas, J u l y 1, 1858, F i r s t d r a f t s of despatches outward from t h e Colonial Office i n response t o correspondence inward
from t h e colony. Colonial Office l h n u s c r i p t s 60/1 ( ~ i c r o f i l m ,
erea after c i t e d C.O. 60/1)
s.F.u.),
.
See a l s o Robert M. Sallantyne, Handbook t o t h e 3ew Gold F i e l d s , (%inburgh, Alex Strahan, l858), p. 105, and B r i t i s h Columbian, March
21, 1861, p. 2.
Douglas was c o n t i n u a l l y concerned with e s t a b l i s h i n g B r i t i s h Columbia
as a B r i t i s h colony, and wrote t o t h e Colonial Office asking for
"upright" Englishmen f o r c o l o n i a l o f f i c e s , English clergymen t o
prevent t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of f o r e i g n c l e r g y and t h e i r influence,
and g e n e r a l l y of t h e need f o r a "respectable B r i t i s h element" i n
t h e population, t h u s supporting land g r a n t s t o r e t i r e d men of t h e
army, navy and r o y a l engineers. Douglas t o Lytton, 29 September,
1858; 27 Xovember, 1858; 6 November, 1858; 8 November, 1858.
C.O. 60/1.
Lytton t o Douglas, 14 August, 1858, C.O.
60/1.
V i c t o r i a Gazette, J u l y 4, 1858.
V i c t o r i a Gazette, August 10, 1858.
b r i a n T. Place, Cariboo Gold, ( ~ e wYork, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
of Canada, 1970). p. 59.
Douglas t o Right Honourable Henry Labourchere, A p r i l 6, 1858, C. 0. 60/1.
( ~ l s oi n Robert M. Eallantyne, op. c i t . , Appendix V I I I , pp. 98-99).
F. Bret Harte, That Heathen Chinee.
Narkin T. Place, o
Johnny Usher-uver
cit., p. 107.
Also, Me1 Rothenberger, We've Killed
Press, 1973). p. 16.
, 1d:itchell
3 r i t i s h Colonist, August 8, 1859, p. 1.
Chartres Brew t o Colonial S e c r e t s r y , 'rlilliam A. G. Young, 19 Firch, 1859,
i n F r e d e r i c X . Howay, The Garly History of t h e F'raser River Mines,
Archives of B r i t i s h Columbia, Memoir No. V I , (Victoria, Charles F.
Banfield, t h e King's
P r i n t e r , 1926. ), pa 94,
Henry kyarrd B a l l i n a l e t t e r t o t h e Colonial Treasurer of B r i t i s h Colm b i a , November 30, 1860, estimated t h a t ons half of t h e Chinese
i n t h e Lytton d i s t r i c t took out mining licences and only two-thirds
of a l l miners took out t h e licence. That season Chinese miners were
t h e p r i n c i p a l source of t h e Miners' Licence Revenue i n t h e Lytton
d i s t r i c t , and ha a n t i c i p t e d that t h i s revenue would be l o s t t o t h e
d i s t r i c t i n 1861, when t h e Chinese located higher up t h e Fraser River, B, C. Gold Colmission, Lytton, Correspondence Outward. 18591%;.
Ms, P,A,3.C,
B r i t i s h Colonist, March 6, 1860, pa 3.
&it&&
Colonist, March 8, 1860, p, 2.
Ibid.
I
B r i t i s h Columbian, February 13, 1861, p. 2.
The e d i t o r , John Robson, was born i n Upper C a n a d a of S c o t t i s h parentage.
He was a pro-confederationist and a n anti-Chinese representative
i n t h e Legislative Council, I n t h e first ProvinciP1 Legislative
Asselnbly (1872) he introduced a nation t h a t a b i l l should be s e n t
t o t h e Dominion Government providing f o r a f i f t y d o l l a r head t a x
on a l l Chinese men i n t h e province.
Ibid., March 14, 1861, pa 2.
-
The average wage of a Chinese labourer was $225.00 a year; h i s l i v i n g
expenses $182.00 a year; hence he could not save more than $43.00
a year. From Tieng Fang Chew Oriental Immigration i n Canada,
(shanghai, Comercia1 Press Ltd, , 1931) , pa fj6.
-
Chinatown News, J u l y 3, 1958.
Peter W, Ward, "The Oriental I n r i g r a n t and Canada's
B, C. Studies, No, 22, Summer 1974, pp. 54-55.
Protestant Clergy",
31.
Douglas t o Lytton, 27 November, 1858, C. 0. 60/1.
Charles W e Dilke, writing i n 1869 expresses t h e notion as:
...
Nature seems t o intend t h e English f o r a race of o f f i c i e r s , t o direct and guide t h e cheap labour of t h e Esrstern peoples
It
looks as t h o h t h e cheaper m i n e s g would s t a r v e out t h e dear
as r a b b i t s d r i v e out stronger but hungrier hares.
race
~~lis7
e en
York, Harper and Brothers, i869),
Charles W. Dilke, Greater B r i t a i n ,
p. 194.. See a l s o D. Woodruff, "Expansion and Eblgration" in G. 8 .
Young (ed. ) Early Victorian ~ngland,Vol 11, Chapter X V I (London,
Oxford University Press, 1963); L. P. C u r t i s Jr., Anglo-Saxons and
Celts, ( ~ o n n e d i c u tConference on B r i t i s h Studies at t h e University
of Bridgeport, 1968). pp. 8-15; and Robin A. Fisher, "Indian-European Relations i n B r i t i s h Columbia, 1774-1890n, PhD. t h e s i s , Univ e r s i t y of B r i t i s h Columbia, 1974, Chapter I V , pp. 112-143, regarding t h e European w e of t h e Indian.
-
32.
en
York, Thomas
See Phmin Harris, The Rise of Anthropolugical Theoq,
V. Crowell Company, 1968) e s p e c i a l l y Chapter 4, "Rise of Racial Determillism" f o r elaboration of t h e " s c i e n t i f i c w basis af racism,
Also, Ashley Montagu, Man's Most Dangerous mhr The Fsllacy of
Race, ( ~ e wYork, Oxford University Press, l974), e s p e c i a l l y Chapter
11, "Eugenics, Genetics, and 'Race',".
For excerpts from t h e various ~ s e u d o - s c i e n t i fi c t h e o r i e s of race see P h i l i p Curtin (ed. 1,
Imperialism, ( ~ e wYork, Walker and Company, 1971); Milton ~ i l h u s e r ,
Just Before Darwin, Robert &zmbers and 'Vestiges ' ( ~ o n n e citc u t
W e s l e ~ nUniversity Press, 1959). For a more general discussion of
mid-&ntw
t h e o r i e s s e e i t h e 1 ~ o b a c h ,John G G ~ U ~ SHoward
O S , R.
Topoff, Charles G. G r o s s , The Four Horaemenr Racism, Sexism, M i l i (New York, Behavioral Publications,
n, Race and Darwin. Symposium on Race
Oxford University Press, 1960).
-
,
,
For t h e r o l e t h a t h i s t o r i a n s played i n t h e development of t h e concept of
Anglo-Saxonisa, eee G.S.R. Kitson-Clark, An Expanding Society:
Britain, 1830-1900, (Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1967),
pp. 122-123.
See also, P h i l i p Curtin, The Image of Africa, B r i t i s h Ideas and Action,
1780-1850, (Madison, University of Wisconsin Press, 1964), particul a r l y Chapter 9, and Eric Stokes, The English U t i l i t a r i a n s and India,
(oxford, Oxford University Press, l963), f o r t h e j u s t i f icat ion of
t h e continuence of a u t o c r a t i c rule i n India,
33.
Curtin (ed. ) , Imperialism, X I .
Natthctr MacFie,
oron onto,
Vancouver Island and B r i t i s h Colmbia, facsimile ed.,
Coles Publishing Co., 19?2), pp. 380-3€h, (0rig. Pub. 1865. )
~ o u g l a st o Lytton, 29 September, 1358, C. 0, 60/1.
9-
bid
8 November, 1858, C. 0. 60/1.
Ibid., 12 October,
-
1858, C, 0, 60/1.
William b r e w H a z l i t t , The Great Gold F i e l d s of Caribog, ( v i c t o r i a ,
Klanak Press, l9?4), p. 106. (1st e d i t i o n , 1862. )
Kinahan Cornwallis,
OP.
c i t e , XVI.
Report. -,
of..t h e Colmbia
Mission 1860, (~ondon, R, Clay, Son, and Taylor,
..
,
Clive ?hillips-Molley, F,R.G 3. The T r o t t iws of a Tenderfoot,
Richard Bentley and Son, 1884>, pp. 228-229,
For t h i s English pre-occupation s e e L. Pa C u r t i s Jr., p. 12.
W, ?, M o m l l , The Gold Rushes, (London, Adaa and Charles Black
ppa 89-31
Also, C. H. Shinn, Mining Camps, ( ~ e wYork, 1885). and Reverend D. S.
Woods, Sixteen Months at t h e Gold Diggings, ( ~ e wYork, 1851).
A v i g i l a n t e group was formed a t Wild Horse Creek i n 1864 when two r i v a l
gangs threatened t o d i s r u p t t h e camp. An o f f i c e r of t h e l a w a r r i v e d
t o deal with t h e s i t u a t i o n , It was "by chancett t h a t he was i n t h e
area. F'rank W. Anderson, The Dewdney T r a i l , Salmo t o Fort S t t e l t ,
(Calgary, F r o n t i e r Publishing Co. , 19721, pp. 15-16.
An incident occurred i n Victoria i n 1858 when a prisoner was rescued from
t h e hands of t h e police and it was proposed t h a t t h e Arnerican Flag
be hoisted over t h e f o r t , Alfred P, Waddington, The F'raser Mines
Vindicated, (~ancouver, Robert R. Reed, 1%9), p. 9,( 1 s t publish-
'
1
8
5
8
)
,
B r i t i s h Colonist, A u g u s t 31, 1860, p. 2.
B r i t i s h Columbian, May 30, 1861, p, 2.
' .Ibid
January 23,
Ibid., June 6,
-
1865,
p, 3,
1865, p. 2.
It is d i f f i c u l t t o make an accurate estimate of t h e numbers of Chinese
men working i n t h e gold f i e l d s , as newspapers and most others
tended t o over-estimate t h e i r nupbgrs, During t h e months of May t o
August 1865, t h e B r i t i s h Columbian reported on t h e large numbers
of Chinese e n t e r i n g t h e gold f i e l d s of t h e Cariboo and t h e lower
Columbia. B r i t i s h Coltuabian, May 2, 1865, p. 31 May 30, 1865, p. 3 ;
August 17, 1865, p. 3& By August 17, f i f t e e n hundzed Chinese miners
were estimated t o be mining the Columbian River. Holbrook estimated
t h a t t h e r e were t h r e e thousand Chinese men i n t h e colony of B r i t i s h
Columbia i n June 1865. B r i t i s h Columbian, June 6, 1865, p. 3.
-
-
B r i t i s h Columbian, May 5, 1866, p. 2; Hay 19, 1866, p. 3,
Alexander Allsn Lettar Book, 18&-i876,
Pis, PmAmBmCm
Robert W e W p e ,
Letter,
6 January 1870.
op. c i t . , p. 125.
Report of t h e Columbia Mission 1860, op. c i t . , pp, 74-75, B r i t i s h Columbian, June 21, 1862, Pe 2.
-
' .Ibid
September 13, 1862, p. 3,
Chinatown News, August 18, 1958.
B r i t i s h Columbian, April 22, 1865, pa 3; November 25, 1865*, pa 3.
A possible reason that more crime did not occur i n B r i t i s h Columbia, as
cornparedto California, has to do with t h e climate and topography
of B r i t i s h Columbia, r a t h e r than t h e presence of B r i t i s h Law Enforcement Officers. It ms more d i f f i c u l t t o .rke a complete getamy
as t h e r e were only a few possible routes out of t h e area, Giving
c r e d i t where it is due, however, t h e B r i t i s h u g i s t m t e s were nore
dispassionate i n dispensing j u s t i c e when they were present, than
Californian L a w Officers,
Report of t h e Royal Commission on Chinese Immigration 1885, Report and
Evidence. (Ottawa, 1885). Evidence Judge Matthew Bqgbie, p, 72.
( ~ e r e a f t c rc i t e d R.RsC. 1885.)
' .Ibid
Appendix T.,
f u r t h e r evidence Judge Matthew Begbie, p. 415,
Ibid .
Ibid., Evidence Honourable
-
A. E. B, Davies, p.
51.
R. C. PIayne, R.N.F.R.G.S.,
Feur Years i n B r i t i s h Colurbia and Vancouver
Island, ondo don, John Murray, 1862), p, 164.
-
Fisher, ''Indian European R e h t ions", p. 136.
Victoria Gazette, May 28, 1859, pa 31 June 7, 1859, P.
B r i t i s h Colonist, May 8, 1860, p. 3,
' .Ibid
August 3, 1860, p, 1,
B r i t i s h Colonist, September 12, 1860, p. 3 ,
Chinahown News, July 3, 1958,
30
73.
B r i t i s h Columblan, May 7, 1864, p. 3.
74.
Stanford M. Lyman, W. E. W i l h o t t , and Berchiw Ho, "Rules of a Chinese
Secret Society i n B r i t i s h Columbian, ~ u l l i t i nof
- t h e School of O r i e n t a l and African Studies, Vol X X V I I , Part 3, 1964, p, 532. See
a l s o , W, E. W i l l m a t t , "Approaches t o t h e Study of t h e Chinese i n
B r i t i s h Columbion, B, c.-studies, No, 4, ~prik1970, pp. 49-50;
Chuen-Yan David hi, 'The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Associat i o n in Victoria: The Origins and Functions*, B. C. Studies, No. 15,
F a l l 1972, pp. 53-67; Francia C. Hardwick, P h i l i p Moir and Harry
Johnson ( ~ d .and ~ e s e a r c h e r a ) ,h s t Meets West : -Chinese i n ~ a & ,
(~ancouver, Tantalus Research, 1975). pp. 37-41; C. P. Sedgwick and
W. Em W i l l r o t t , "External Influences and Emerging Identity: The
Evolution of Corrunity S t r u c t u r e Among Chinerse Canadiansw, Canadian
Forum, Vol, LIV, No. 644, September 1974, pp. 9-10.
-
75.
Chinatown News, August 18, 1958.
76.
Stanford M. Lynun, e t a l , op. cit., p. 537.
It w a e argued t h a t w e of t h e white legal systaiil w o a d "create mere
t r o u b l e and expense o r damage friendships".
n.
Chinese address t o Gsvernor Arthur Edward Kenedy.
Matthew MacFie, op. cit., p. 387.
78.
B r i t i s h Coluabian, April 11, 1861, p. 2,
79.
Ibid., March 14, 1861, p. 2.
80.
Ibid.,
81.
Ibid., A p r i l 22, 1865, P. 3; A p r i l 25, 1865, p. 3.
83,
Ibid.,
February 18, 1865, p. 3.
April 29, 1865, p. 3.
Quoted i n f u l l i n
British Colurbian, February 25, 1865, p. 3.
Ibid., February 21,
Ibid
9-
1865, p. 3.
March 14, 1865, p, 3.
Ibid., March 2,
-
1865, p,
9.
Ibid.
-
Sbid,, A p r i l 4, 1865, p. 3.
Ibid., A p r i l 27,
-
1865, p. 3.
For further exanples of t h i s kind of reporting see British Coluwbian,
J u l y 4, 1865, p. 31 August 17, 1865, p. 3: September 13, 1865, P. 3:
Novenber 25, 1865, p. 2.
British Columbian, June 17, 1865, p. 3.
Ibid., June 6, 1865, p.
-
3.
These numbers a r e inflated, The population of the Be C, colony estisrated
i n September, 1865, was t 8,000 whites; 3,000 Chinese; 50,000 Indians,
British Columbian, Septenber 20, 1865.
' .Xbid
W.
August 17, 1865, pa 3.
Champness, To Cariboa and Back i n 1862, (~aahington, Ye Galleon
Press, 1972). pa 72. (1st published i n s e r i a l form i n England i n
The Leisure Hour: A Farily Journal of Instruction and Recreation,
A p r i l , 1865).
For information on the Big Bend area and t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s i n mining
it see British Columbian, June 16, 1866, pa 2; July 11, 1866,
Pa 3.
-
Unlike the f i r s t gold rush of 1858, t h e Cariboo rush a t t r a c t e d more
Britons than Americans due partly t o reports which Donald b s e r
submitted t o t h e London Times. W, Champness, ap, cit., pa 7.
3iarjr of john Svans. The B r i t i s h Colwnbian Mining Adventure 1862-54.
Entry September 10, 1863, p. 49. Fs. P.A.B.C.
British Columbian, January 4, 1865, F. 3.
See also, W i l l i s e ! Mark, Cariboor A True and Correct Narrative,
(stockton, W, M a Wright, 1863) f a an account written by an msuccessful and disgruntled miner.
British Coluabian, June 20, 1865, pa 3.
Ibid, , March 30,
-
1865, pa 3.
Ibid. , June 6, 1865, pa 2.
-
Ibid.,
February 1, 1865, pa 1.
110.
Howay, The Eorly History of the b s e r River Mines, p. 97.
111. British Columbfin, October 18, 1865, p. 3,
112,
Sbid,, December 23, 1865, p. 3,
1
The revenue collected f r o m the Gold Export Tax amounted t o I10.428.
14.2d. O f t h i s , E9,9119.13.3d was collected a t New Westminster
and P1,300-0-lid a t the southern border, British Coltmbian, January31, 1866, p. 3.
114.
Ibid., November 1, 1865, p. 2.
11.
Ibid,, Septenber 20, 1865, p. 2 .
118.
Ibid., February 10, 1866, p. 3.
119.
Ibid.
120.
Ibid,, November 14, 1861, p. 2.
121.
Ibid,, September 27, 1865, P.
124.
, December 12,
1861, p. 2.
3.
Amor de Cosmos complained i n the Legislative Assembly i n 1861 t h a t
Chinese people monopolised the vegetable trade t o the detriment
of white gardeners. Reported i n Colonist, December 15, 1968,
P. 5.
125.
B r i t i s h Columbian, November 11, 1865, pa 2,
126.
Entry, December 12, 1863, Diary of John Evans, ope c i t e , pa 78.
127.
British Coluatbian, November 15, 1865, pa 2.
128.
Ibid.
129.
Ibid.8 January 28, 1865, 9, 3.
---
131. Ibid.
, November 25,
1865, pa 3.
-
-
There were other labourers both Chinese and some whites who were
a l s o l e f t without provisions o r back pay when t h e contractor went
bankrupt.
Ibid,, December 16, 1865, pa 3.
For the Douglas Road contract see Koo Loo, "Letter t o H i s Excellency
Governor Seymour", Mew Westdnster, 21 June, 1865, Ms. P.A.B.C.
132.
135.
From a l e t t e r signed " N o n v e r o s a s ~ p i n a "t o t h e editor, B r i t i s h
Columbian, February 14, 1866, pa 3.
bid., July 4, 1861, pa 2.
.the headline above t h e report of the murder of a Chinese man
by two of h i s compatriots reads "Terrible Butchery at Lillooet",
B r i t i s h Columbian, October 11, 1865, pa 3.
136.
Em G.,
137.
British Columbian, March 14, 1861, pa 2.
oron onto,
Clarke, Irwin and Co, ,
14.0,
From Bruce Hutchison, The Fraser,
LM., 19651, p. 70.
141,
B r i t i s h Columbian,
-.
May 9, 1866, p. 3 and May 19, 1866, p, 3.
144.
Ibid,
, June
30, 1866, p. 3.
I
145.
-
I n an e d i t o r i a l "The Character of Our Immigrationn, Robson points out
the need t o encourage white farmers r a t h e r than gold ainers.
B r i t i s h Columbian, April 30, 1862, pa 1, See also, May 31, 1862,
p. 2 .
146. Ibid., November 14, 1866, pa 3.
147,
I n 1878 a t McDame Creek t h i s is how the Chinese companies worked.
See Lyn Hancock, 'Gold Fever a t McDasle Creek", Westworld, September-October, 1975, p. 24. In a f i c t i o n a l piece s e t i n 1862,
two white men lured t o the Cariboo by the gold rush hired a
Chinese cook, Phon, i n Victorfa, He provided t h e e s s e n t i a l services necessary f o r t h e i r survival while t h e white men prospected
and mined. Clive Phillips-Wolley, Gold, Gold i n Carib& 8 A
Columbia, (London, Bhckie and Son
14-8. W. Champness worked on a f a n i n the Thompson River Valley f o r three
months i n an attempt t o recoup t h e heavy losses f r o m h i s abortive
t r i p t o Antler Creek i n 1862. W. Champness, pa 88.
9
J. H. Stewart Reid, Mountains, Men and Rivers,
19!%),
PO
o or onto,
Ryerson Press,
142,
Five hundred Chinese labourers were employed by Wright and Company t o
construct t h e Cariboo Road at $40,00 a month, In J a m s Morton,
op, cit., p, 14,
I
1
151. Wellwood J , Johnson, Legend of LBngley, (~ancouver,Langley Centennial
Committee, 1958), pa 65, and Fa W, Howay, B r i t i s h Columbia, Vol.
11, (~ancouver, S. J. Clarke Publishing co.,
152.
1914). p, 101.
B r i t i s h Columbian, August 17, 1865, pa 3.
-
153. Ibid., October 27, 1866, p, 3,
19.
"Every chinaman has a vegetable patch,
1$,
B r i t i s h Columbian, March 30, 1865, p, 3.
What is produced f i n d s ready
s a l e i n t h e mining camps." G i l b e r t Malcolm-sproat, B r i t i s h CO-1umbia. 1nformat ion For Emigrants ondo don, 1875). p. 65.
"Because t h e Chinese could obtain l i t t l e credit f u r t h e r south, t h e
first s t o r e was b u i l t a t Quesnel as e a r l y as May /286g*
I a second one, f a r t h e r up t h e r i v e r , by June". From ~&do?i R, E l l i o t t ,
Quesnel C o m e r c i d Centre .of t h e Caxiboo Gold Rush, ( ~ u e s n e l ,
Cariboo H i s t o r i c a l Society, 1958), p. 46.
-
158. "John Chinaaan.
Reoollections of A. H, ( ~ i n t )Canston", Okanzgan
H i s t o r i c a l Society, Thirty-f irst Report, 1967, p. 110.
159.
G i l b e r t M. Sproat, op, c i t . ,
p, 65,
160,
B r i t i s h Columbian, August 19, 1868, p. 3.
161,
Rev. W. G. H. Ellison, The S e t t l e r s of Vancouver Island,
Arthur Chilver publisher, 1907). p, 81,
ondo don,
E l l i s o n considers that a Chbuse servant i s s u p e r i o r t o a white maid
servant who was prone t o up-and-leaving at t h e f i r s t opportunity,
He parallels t h e work of Chinese servants and wives and infers
t h a t a wife is superior t o a Chinese dombstic becruse t h e latter
has t o be paid whilst t h e husband owns t h e lobom of h i s wife, f o r
as long as she l i v e s , Also, h e r capacity t o reproduce more labour f o r a farming e n t e r p r i s e was valued, He states I "A mother,
sister, o r wife comes i n handy, and is s o valued i n t h e s e t t l e ments and amongst t h e backwoodsmen of t h e Far West." pp, 64-65,
162,
"John Chinaman. Recollections of A, Ha ( ~ i n t )Cawston", p. 115, For
f u r t h e r evidence of Chinese workers on hornestcads see Rev. W. G.
Ha Ellison, 0 c i t e , and Francis Em Herring, Among t h e People
of B r i t i s h Co ua ha, ondo don, T. Fisher Unwin, 1903).
164.
Ibid.
168.
I n B r i t i s h Colunbia i n 1884, Chinese cooks and servants numbered 279;
hshermen 156.
+
From Chuen-Yan David L a i , "Korme County and Clan Origins of Overseas
Chinese i n C a n a d a i n t h e Early 1880's."
B. C. Studies, No, 27,
Autumn 1975. Table 9, pa 16. From t h e Royal Cormnission Report
on Chinese h m l g r a t i o n of 1885.
169.
See J, W. Boddam-Whetham, Western Wanderings. A Record of Travel i n
t h e Evening Land, ba on don, Richard Bentley and Son, 1874). pa 158,
Also, W. A. Baillit-Gmhnran, F i f t e e n Y e a r s ' Sport and L i f e i n t h e
Hunting Grounds of Western America and B. C,, (ondon, Horace
Cox, iS)OO), pa 347. Chapter XV t i t l e d 'The Yellow and White
Agony A Chapter on Western Servants by HITS. Baillie-GrohmanH,
d e a l s with the servant p r o b l t r i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n t h e 1870's
and 1880's. She employed a white gardener f o r $1.00 a day and
t h r e e meals, t h e d a i l y r a t e of Chinese gardeners with food addit i o n a l , but he worked f o r only three days before leaving, H e
wouldn't work if he only got "Chinanan's wages". pa 3 9 .
-
170.
Ronald Leal, "Rub a Dub Dub: A Short History of Home Laundry" i n
Raymond Fa Locke, Ed., The Human Side of History. Man's Manners,
Morals and Games. ( b s Angeles, ManIcind Pub,, 1970), pa 159.
171. Oliver Cromwell Cox i n Caste, C l a s s and Race, ( ~ e wYork, Monthly Review
Press, 1959), s t a t e s t
"In order t o j u s t i f y degrading employment and treatment, e x p l o i t e r s
argue t h a t t h e workers a r e innately degraded and degenerate and
consequently merit t h e i r condition. " p. 334.
It is not only t h e employers who view t h i n g s i n t h i s my. I n a capitalist, p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y t h e work one does determines one's
position and image i n t h a t society. As hrelyn S u l l e r o t has pointed out r
--
" a c t i v i t i e s within t h e house are feminine, those which take place
outside business, p o l i t i c s , war
are masculine. T h i s p o l a r i t y
outside, i n t e r i o r
e x t e r i o r , imperceptibly became
of i n s i d e
a d i s t i n c t i o n between i n f e r i o r i t y s u p e r i o r i t y . Gradually, act i v i t i e s conducted i n s i d e were considered i n f e r i o r t o those performed outside. Evelyn S u l l e r o t , Wonan, Society and Change,
Transl. Margaret Scotford Archer, (New York, McGraw-Hill Book
- -
This p o l a r i t y becones even more e x p l i c i t i n a s o c i e t y based on t h e
p r o f i t motive. Work that is s o c i a l l y u s e f u l (domestic work) is
devalued because it does not d i r e c t l y produce commodities f o r
exchange. See Genevieve L e s l i e "Domestic Service i n Canada, 1880
1920" i n Janice Acton, Penny Goldsmith and Bonnie Shepard (~d.),
Women a t Work, Ontario, 1850-1930, C ~ o m g t s ,W onen's Educational
Press, 1974), pp. 71-125,
-
CHAPTER I1
THE IMPERIAL CONNECTION
With such a people I maintain it is f o l l y t o say t h a t they w i l l
"break before they w i l l bend". They a r e only Asiasticsz make them do
a thing
compel them t o advance and they w i l l do it as well a s any
of us; but consult t h e i r prejudcie, o r t h e i r ease, and good-bye t o any
change o r advancement. Bear t h a t i n r i n d t r e a t them as children;
make them do w h a t we know is f o r t h e i r benefit, as well a s our own,
and a l l d i f f i c u l t i e s with China are a t an end.1
-
-
-
Up t o t h i s point, t h e discussion has d e a l t with t h e colony and its r e l a t i o n s h i p t o Vancouver Island o r California.
B r i t i s h colony, and as part of t h e -pire
p e r i a l policy.
But B r i t i s h Colunbia was a
was subject t o B r i t i s h l a w and Im-
B r i t i s h Colunblans were t o l e a r n t h a t p o l i c i e s contrary t o
Imperial t r e a t i e s could not be implemented i n t h e colony.
B r i t i s h r e l a t i o n s with China had s i g n i f i c a n t consequences on colonies
within t h e B r i t i s h Ehplre.
enotionally t o Britain.
The China t r a d e was of importance economically and
For instance, one ninth of t h e t o t a l i n c o ~ eof Great
B r i t a i n and one seventh of B r i t i s h India's revenue i n 1852 was derived from
t h e Opim Trade between India and China.
B r i t a i n had been an acquiescent
guest i n China, but by 1842 t h i s policy was changing.
B r i t a i n became an ag-
gressive foreign power and laid t h e rules governing its presence i n China.
Other Western nations, p a r t i c u l a r l y France and t h e United S t a t e s , supported
B r i t i s h attempts t o open t h e doors of China by t h e use of gunpowder and they
a l s o joined i n t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of t h e s p o i l s .
The e f f e c t of t h e s e p o l i c i e s
on t h e Chinese and B r i t i s h Colmbians w i l l be discussed i n t h e following pages.
The romantic image co~:,;ured ir. Europe by the fabled Cathay changed by
t h e mid-nineteenth century t o t h e Image of a dark, heathen, backward people.
The r o o t s of t h i s western h o s t i l i t y began when t r a d e r s attempted t o open Chine s e markets t o manufactured products.
Advanced technology was seen by west-
erners as evidence of a higher c i v i l i z a t i o n , and few recognized t h a t t h e r e
was a difference between c i v i l i z a t i o n and technological development, Yavlng
iln-
b i b e d t h e n o t i o n of t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of t h e West's economic and s o c i a l systems,
an a t t i t u d e reinforced by t h e i r demonstrably superior m i l i t a r y force, and bols t e r e d by t h e hapoleonic wars and t h e conquest of India, B r f t a i r i s e t ol;t to
end Chinese i s o l a t i o n from t h e West,
A hundred years of foreign aggression,
domination, and invasion followed, and t h e Western economic penetration of
t h e peasant economy disrupted t h e f a b r i c of Chinese society.
The motivation behind t h e attempts of Westerners t o open Chinese p o r t s
t o trade l a y i n t h e increased demand f o r Chinese exports i n t h e seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries.
Concurrently, Manchester merchants dreamed of op-
ening t h i s inexhaustible market of f o u r hundred million people.
By 1840, t h e
i n d u s t r i a l revolution increased t h e efficiency and output of B r i t i s h f a c t o r i e s
t o such an extent t h a t t o maintain productivity, new foreign markets had t o
be found.
England desired a r e c i p r o c a l t r a d e , while China was content with
exporting what it considered were luxury items
and lacquer-ware
- i n exchange f o r s i l v e r .
- tea,
s i l k , rhubarb, procelain
I s o l a t i o n and exclusion had been
t h e o f f i c i a l Chinese policy s i n c e t h e Manchu conquest i n t h e 1640's.
Being
an a l i e n dynasty, t h e Manchus faced opposition from within and from t h e "seabarbarians" without.
They feared t h a t t h e latter would be a b l e t o gain access
t o t h e enpire through foreign t r a d e , j o i n f o r c e s with opposition groups with-
i n China, and thereby overthrow t h e Manchu dynasty.*
Thus f o r reasons of in-
ternal s e c u r i t y as well a s t h e i r o f f i c i a l a t t i t u d e toward t r a d e , r e s t r i c t i o n s
were placed on foreign merchants
.)
Most inportantly, China
ups
economically
s e l f - s u f f i c e n t and d i d not need western products, a fact that B r i t a i n d i d not
recogniee u n t i l t h e Mitchell Report of 1852. 4
A f u r t h e r a f f r o n t t o t h e B r i t i s h uas t h e Chinese i n s i s t e n c e on a t r i b u t e
form of trade, implying Chinese s u p e r i o r i t y over a11 foreignersO5 Envoys were
expected t o acknowledge t h e i r submission i n t h e Kotov ceremonyo6 China8e
LYI
r e f u s a l t o treat England a s a t l e a s t a n equal was an important f a c t o r leading
me
t o t h e c o l l i s i ~ nof t h e two nations, 7
L
&ll
C
Control over and dominance of I n d i a had important psychological and econ-
uun
Or"
e f f e c t s,
m
Mm
I
Wherever e l s e t h e Briton went he f e l t and spoke a s r e p r e s e n t a t i v e of
t h e power a t whose f e e t crouched a hundred million H i n d w he saw e t h e r
"natives" as s o many more crouching Hindus i n d i f f e r e n t disguises .8
N o t only "natives".
The Chinese were a l s o seen i n t h i s way,
a l s o economic l i n k s between India and Chine.
B u t t h e r e were
The c u l t i v a t i o n of r a w cotton
and opium i n India was controlled by t h e East India Company, and t h e s e products
provided conaodities t o exchange for Chinese exports
- a l t e r n a t i v e commodities
t o gold and slilver, The Opium trade .as a complex arrangement
tween t h e East India Company and t h e "Country traders".
>be-
The a s t India Company
had a monopoly on B r i t i s h trade with Chfna and granted licences t o p r i v a t e
merchants who c a r r i e d t h e t r a d e between India, South-east A s i a and China, a
t r a d e i n spices, cotton
and,
opium.
These licences provided funds i n Canton
3
L
m
MI
f o r t h e Company's t e a investrrtnts.
t o deal i n tea.
The p r i v a t e merchants were not permitted
A s t h e i r exports t o China far exceeded imports, t h e p r i v a t e
aerchants used t h e Company's banking system a t Canton.
The Company accepted
t h e specie t h e country t r a d e yielded, and exchanged it f o r B i l l s on t h e Court
of Directors i n London, o r on t h e Government of Bengal.
I n t h i s way t h e East
India Company obtained revenue t o exchange f o r Chinese products i n demand i n
England,
The Country trade was t h e key t o t h e old China t r a d e and as t h e t r a d e
increased t h e s e p r i v a t e merchants demanded an end t o t h e E a s t India Company's
monopoly, and an end t o China's
closed door policy.
The Opim t r a d e was "in-
extricably mixed up with every t r a d i n g operation between t h e t h r e e countries
B n d i a , China, and Great ~ r i t a i n n . I n 1852 China only imported one and a
half million pounds s t e r l i n g of inanufactured goods while B r i t a i n bought more
than f i v e million pounds s t e r l i n g of t e a and s i l k .
The d i f f e r e n c e was mde
up by t h e Opim trade. 9
Despite t h e Chinese government's prohibition on t h e importation of opium
i n 1800, t h e t r a d e increased i n t h e nineteenth centurY.l0
I n t h e hopes of
i n t e r e s t i n g t h e Eaperor i n B r i t i s h manufactured goods, and thus expanding t h e
export t r a d e , embassies were s e n t t o China but they had no success i n changing
Chinese policy and a t t i t u d e s toward foreigners and foreign t n d e . l l
This
uncompromising a t t i t u d e , t h e r e f u s a l t o d e a l with f o r e i g n e r s on equal grounds,
and China's r e f u s a l t o adopt commercialism, were i n t e r p r e t e d as evidence of
China's stagmt ion. l2 The accounts of t h e s e missions were widely publicised
i n Ellrope and replaced t h e o p t i m i s t i c and in some cases imaginary accounts of
China t h a t had previously c i r c u l o t e ~ l . ~The
~ negative image was i n formation
as B r i t i s h t r a d e r s saw China preventing then from f u l f i l l i n g what they s a w
as t h e i r mission.
Westerners impregnated with t h e i r ethos of change, progress, energy,
invested commerce with t h e same divine r i g h t that monarchy formerly
claimed, and were i r r e s i s t i b l y tempted t o r e s o r t t o f o r c e
To knock
down d e c r e p i t regimes was t o l i b e r a t e people's from t h e crushing burden
, Backward lands would be given c i v i l i m t i o n , i n reof t h e i r past
t u r n f o r t h e products wanted by ~ o ~ e . 1 4
...
. .
Religious opinion a l s o condemned China's closed-door policy.
The London
Missionary Society s e n t a missionary t o Canton i n 1 8 0 7 , ' ~ but Robert Morrison
had l i t t l e success i n converting t h e Chinese t o Protestantism,
With unreal-
i s t i c hopes of successfully converting f o u r hundred million s o u l s , t h e m i s -
s i o n a r i e s ' e f f o r t s were doomed t o f a i l u r e .
Their concurrent disappointment
coloured t h e image of t h e Chinese t h a t they presented t o a wide audience
through l e c t u r e s , books, and r e l i g i o u s s o c i e t y publications.
Archihld Little,
himself a missionary i n China f o r f o r t y years, considered t h a t many of t h e
misconceptions that westerners had concerning t h e Chinese and t h e i r government, customs, l a w s and r e l i g i o n , were due t o t h e fact that such information
came f r o m ntissionaries.
To de~lonstrostet h e need f o r t h e i r existence, t o j u s t i -
f y t h e i r life-work and lack of v i s i b l e success, missionaries represented China
i n its worst l i g h t , l6 emphsising vice, debauchery, i n f a n t i c i d e , i d o l a t r y ,
licentiousness and t h e d-dud
position of
Further evidence of
Chinese bsckwardness and need of reform was found i n t h e a t t i t u d e of Chinese
o f f i c i a l s who d i d not encourage t h e missionaries' e f f o r t s .
Missionaries t h u s
supported e f f o r t s t o change t h e a t t i t u d e t o and t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e foreigner
i n China.
It was t h e combined pressure of r e l i g i o u s , trade, and p o l i t i c a l i n t e r e s t s
that caused a s h i f t i n B r i t i s h policy i n China.
P r i o r t o 1839 t h e B r i t i s h
had t r i e d t o persuade China that a more s t a b l e t r a d i n g rel.ationship would
benefit both nations.
But with t h e voice of t h e s e i n t e r e s t groups, with t h e
backing of t h e nanufacturing i n t e r e s t s of England, and after t h e 1832 Reform
B i l l with t h e backing of t h e House of Commons, m i l i t a r y force was advocated
t o open Chinese ports.
The Opium Wars and t h e T a i p i w Revolution reinforced
t h e notion of western superiority.
The u n f l a t t e r i n g image of t h e Chinese,
which was necessary t o j u s t i f y B r i t i s h aggression, was publicized i n western
accounts of t h e s e wars.
terns
Chinese closed-door policy was explained i n racial
- as evidence of Chinese i n f e r i o r "characterH -
t h e i r education through t h e use of force.
and t h e s o l u t i o n was
The Fast India and China Associa-
t i o n , which represented t h e merchants of London with i n t e r e s t s i n t h e Far
E a s t , explained t o t h e Foreign Secretary a f t e r t h e F i r s t Opium War:
..
Submission w i l l now only aggravate t h e e v i l , ,
a n attempt should
be made, supported by a powerful force, t o obtain such concessions from
China as would place t h e t r a d e upon a secure and perinanent footing.18
The prevailing view i n 1855 w a s :
-
For a revolution t o be e f f e c t i v e i n China e f f e c t i v e i n reforming
every branch of t h e goverxment, and i n inproving a l l c l a s s e s of t h e people
we believe it will have t o c a l l i n t h e a i d and t h e influence of
B r i t i s h representatives
p o l i t i c a l and commercial
t h e foreigner
and r e l i g i o u s d e p s r t m e n t d bent on t h e improvement and t h e welfare of
t h e Chinese branch of t h e human f a ~ a i l ~ , l g
-
...
Ff
Captain Sherard Osborn i n t h e Spring of 1 8 9 wrote of t h e necessity of t h e
second Opium War i n t h e same p a t e r n a l i s t i c tones:
- .. .
Great B r i t a i n had t o i n t e r f e r e , not only t o r e t r i e v e h e r damaged
but physical force had t o be applied t o compel t h e
prestige
Chinaman t o do w h a 3 we thought r i g h t ,2O
The Opium Wars closed with t h e Manchu government acceding t o western
demands i n harsh and humiliating t r e a t y terms.
The Treaty of T i e t s e n and t h e
Convention of Peking gave B r i t a i n a l l t h e concessions f o r which t h e wars had
been fought.
B r i t a i n obtained e x t r a - t e r r i t o r i a l i t y i n China, access t o over
ninety ports, concessions i n mining and railroads, missionary access t o inland China, and r e s t r i c t i o n s on Chinese sovereignty.
One of t h e most i m p o r
t a n t r e s t r i c t i o n s was t h e c o n t r o l of t h e Chinese M a r i t h e Customs by foreignBy s e t t i n g t h e import tariff at f i v e per cent ad valore~;:China could
21
no longer protect l o c a l industry.
ers.
I n F'rederic Wakeman's b r i e f a n a l y s i s of t h e economic consequences of t h e
importation of B r i t i s h manufactured goods on r u r a l cottage i n d u s t r i e s , he
underestimates t h e i r e f f e c t s on both l o c a l industry and t h e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e
of r u r a l China.
He points out t h a t i n rural a r e a s where cottage industry was
most a f f e c t e d by B r i t i s h t e x t i l e s "anti-foreignism" was most narked.
He a l s o
argues t h a t r u r a l inpoverishment has been *grossly overemphasized8'. 22 But
he does not consider women's work, and t h e r e f o r e its cessation, t o be of suff i c i e n t importance t o include in h i s analysis.
That it was not i n s i g n i f i c a n t
is denonstrated by t h e f a c t that i n Shun-te county i n 1853, h a l f of t h e women
weavers l o s t t h e i r occupations due t o t h e introduction of competitively priced
foreign ~ 1 0 t h .The
~ ~l o s s of t h e i r l o c a l market r e s u l t e d i n t h e i n t e n s i f i cation of farpily members inter-dependence.
A greater reliance
was placed on
t h e earning power of male members of t h e lineage and t h i s i n t u r n a l t e r e d soc i a l relations.
I n t h e e a r l y nineteenth century, Ch'ing emperors expanded cotton c u l t i vation and c l o t h was exported t o t h e West i n l a r g e q u a n t i t i e s ,
Between 1860
and 1890, however, Lancashire drove t h e native cotton c l o t h e n t i r e l y out of
t h e urban markets of China, u n t i l by 1905 f o r e i g n c l o t h c o n s t i t u t e d forty-four
per cent of China's foreign imports, excluding opium, 24 The l o s s of t h e mark e t meant t h e l o s s of occupations f o r cotton growers, spinners and weavers,
A s a consequence, male members of l i n e r p ~ e semigrated,
By 1870 a similar pat-
t e r n of unemployment had occurred among t h e spinners and weavers of P'an Yu
county i n Kwangtung.
I n t h e e a r l y 1880's sixty-five per cent of t h e Chinese
population on t h e Thompson River, B r i t i s h Columbia, and nearly s i x t y per cent
of L i l l o o e t *s Chinese population had m i g r a t e d from P'an yueZ5 This indicates
t h a t impoverishment i n t h i s county ms of s u f f i c i e n t s e v e r i t y t o compel Chine s e men t o migrate as labourers t o a foreign and h o s t i l e country, i n an attempt t o assist t h e i r lineages economically,
Unfortunately t h e r e has been
no research done on t h e records of t h e earlier Benevolent S o c i e t i e s , and t h u s
no infornation as t o t h e county o r i g i n s of earlier Chinese immigrants,
How-
ever, t h e Chinese p a t t e r n of "chain migration" suggests t h a t e a r l i e r h i g r a t i o n t o t h e s e areas i n B r i t i s h Columbia probably originated from t h e same
counties,
W h a t is c e r t a i n is that t h e Chinese who d i d immigrate t o North
America originated f r o m t h e two provinces of Kwangtung and Fukien and t h a t
these areas were m o s t a f f e c t e d by t h e s o c i a l , economic and p o l i t i c a l d i s l o c a t i o n which occurred after B r i t a i n intervened i n China,
Thus t h e economic and s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n which occurred i n Kwangtung
and F'ukien as a r e s u l t of t h e Opiun Wars and t h e Taiping revolution was t o
bring t o t h e B r i t i s h Columbian colony unwelcome Chinese sojourners,
Rela-
t i o n s between China and B r i t a i n had a d d i t i o n a l e f f e c t s on t h e mainland colony.
A r t i c l e V of t h e Convention of Peking contained a stumbling block t o
exclusionist policy makers i n B r i t i s h Columbia and other B r i t i s h colonies, 26
Its importance warrants t h e f u l l quotation;
A s soon as t h e R a t i f i c a t i o n s of t h e Treaty of one thousand eight
hundred and fifty-eight s h a l l have been exchanged, H i s I m p e r i a l Majesty
t h e Emperor of China, w i l l , by decree, command t h e high a u t h o r i t i e s of
every province t o proclain throughout t h e i r j u r i s d i c t i o n s that Chinese,
choosing t o t a k e s e r v i c e i n t h e B r i t i s h colonies o r o t h e r p a r t s beyond
t h e sea, a r e a t perfect l i b e r t y t o e n t e r i n t o engagements with B r i t i s h
Subjects f o r t h a t purpose, and t o s h i p themselves and t h e i r f a m i l i e s on
board any B r i t i s h v e s s e l a t any of t h e open p o r t s of China, Also that
t h e high a u t h o r i t i e s aforesaid, s h a l l , i n concert with h e r Britannic
Majesty's Representative i n China, frame such regulations f o r t h e prot e c t i o n of Chinese emigrating as above, as t h e circumstances of t h e diff e r e n t open p o r t s may dellmd,27
The young colonies soon discovered that t h e i r i n t e r e s t s w e r e indeed of
secondary importance t o t h e commercial iwabitions of G r e a t B r i t a i n ,
I n 1866
Robson of t h e B r i t i s h Colmbian was t o complain;
We a r e q u i t e aware that t h e HInstructions" from t h e Colonial Office
f o r b i d t h e imposition of s p e c i a l t a x e s upon persons of Asiatic Origin;
but s u r e l y t h e r e is a p o s s i b i l i t y of having t h e s e "InstructionsH so m o d i f i e d as t o admit of a poll-tax upon Chinese, It is hardly f a i r f o r t h e
Imperial Government t o throw s o small and young a community a l t o g e t h e r
upon its own resources
compel us t o pay our way and defend ourselves,
and a t t h e same t h e ixapose such r e s t r i c t i o n s as w i l l prevent our Government from carrying i n t o e f f e c t a f i s c a l system which would f a l l equitably
upon a l l c l a s s e s of t h e comnunity,28
-
He c a l l e d f o r t h e r e c a l l o r abrogation of such Imperial "instructions" which
placed limits upon possible l e g i s l a t i o n by t h e B r i t i s h Columbian Legislature,
A f u r t h e r f a c t o r which added fuel t o already r a c i s t fires had t o do with
t h e timing of t h e immigration,
The Chinese emigmted from Kwangtung at a
time when slavery was a controversial issue i n North America.
Slave labour
had been abolished i n B r i t i s h possessions i n 1833 and it was slowly being
recognized by economists t h a t a s l a v e labour system involved more c a p i t a l out-
lay than a d i s c i p l i n e d "freen labour force.
When t h e pressure of population induces t h e freeman t o o f f e r h i s
services as he does i n a l l old countries, f o r l i t t l e more t h a n t h e nat u r a l minimum of wages, those s e r v i c e s are very c e r t a i n t o be more productive and less expensive than those of t h e bondsman, whose support is
a charge t o t h e aster and who has nothing t o gain by h i s i n d ~ t r y . ~ 9
This proposition had been proven i n t h e West Indies where, with t h e introduct i o n of Indian "cooliesn, prosperity exceeded t h e l e v e l reached p r i o r t o t h e
a b o l i t i o n of slaverym3' The A n t i S l a v e r y Reporter published r e p o r t s demon*
trating t h e advantages of free labour over slavery.
An impoverished Ire-
land provided a ready source of cheap labour f o r t h e United S t a t e s , labour
cheaper than black slaves.
The p i l o t s of t h e Mississippi steam boats t e l l t r a v e l l e r s t h a t they
cannot a f f o r d t o have negro s t o k e r s they are t o o expensive, Every
time a b o i l e r b u r s t s they would l o s e s o many d o l l a r s ' worth of slaves,
whereas, by g e t t i n g Irishmen at a d o l l a r a day, they pay f o r t h e article
as they g e t it; and if it is blown up, why they g e t another, and only
l o s e a day's wages by t h e transaction,31
-
The Chinese f i l l e d a similar need f o r manual labourers i n t h e P a c i f i c
Northwest and t h e i r l i v e s were as cheap.
They were known a s t h e " I r i s h of
t h e Pacificn, and as contract labourers w e n t from China t o t h e West Indies,
Cuba, Peru, Chile and t h e P a c i f i c Islands.
I n t h e twentieth century they
were contracted t o Western Samoa, New Zealand, and t h e Transvaal,
The contract t r a f f i c was c a l l e d t h e "pig traden.
Foreigners engaged t h e
s e r v i c e s of Chinese men f o r usually f i v e year c o n t r a c t s and shipped them d i r e c t l y from China ( t h e e a r l i e s t port of e x i t was Amoy f o r t h i s t r a d e ) t o t h e i r
contract destination.
Through t h i s system, Indian and Chinese "coolies" re-
placed s l a v e labour on t h e plantations of t h e B r i t i s h colonies.
India were seen as v a s t reserves of unskilled labour.
China and
Their recruitment i n
China, o f t e n under f a l s e pretenses, was c a r r i e d on through Chinese c o o l i e
brokers employed by fomQn f i r m s .
The Chinese l a w of debt bondage aade it
possible f o r Chinese men t o be obtained through "debt, deceit, o r argumentH,32
and as they were kept under c l o s e guard i n barracoons
was improbable.
- "pig-pens" - escape
P e r s i a Crawford Campbell describes t h e t r a d e as followst
...
Coolies were induced t o s e l l t h e i r freedom i n t h e gambliw dens,
Some of
o r they were deceived by promises o r engagements of work
t h e coolies were d e l i b e r a t e l y drugged and possession taken of t h e i r persons, others were seized by f o r c e
The c o o l i e s were misused and
O r they were
beaten. If necessary they were t i e d up by t h e thumbs
plunged i n t o t h e cold waters of t h e r i v e r u n t i l they consented t o emigrate. Some were t o l d t o choose between emigration and death.33
...
...
Their forced emigration and treatment on t h e voyage occasioned r i o t s and muti n i e s , and B r i t i s h newspapers reported "another coolie tragedy1' frequently i n
t h e 1850's. 34
Reports of t h e contract t r a f f i c confused t h e white population.
Although
t h e bulk of t h e Chinese immigrants came t o t h e P a c i f i c North West by t h e credi t - t i c k e t system, m o p c a n s raisunderstood t h e nature of t h e c r e d i t - t i c k e t
system and saw it as being t h e same as t h e contract labour system.
Thus t h e
Chinese labourers were known as "coolies" and never l o s t t h e connotation of
slave labour.
John Robson reported i n 1865:
The g r e a t bulk of t h e s e people are mere s l a v e s , and as such may be
considered poor i n a sense. 35
A negative stereotype of t h e Chinese as a r a c e was thus formed before
they reached t h e west coast of North America.
They d i d not a r r i v e i n B r i t i s h
Columbia i n an "opinion v a c u u ~ n " , ~The
~ r i s e of t h e popular press a t t h e time
of t h e Opium Wars spread t h e unpopular image throughout B r i t a i n and North
Americae3'l
B r i t i s h and American t r a v e l l e r s t o China viewed t h e Chinese with
disdain and t h e i r a t t i t u d e s reached a wide audience through l e c t u r e t o u r s and
publications.
Writing from t h e point-of-view
of B r i t i s h merchants and B r i t i s h
"honour", Captain Sherard Osborn described t h e Chinese as "money-making ani-
mals ( f o r they a r e l i t t l e
Of g r e a t e r influence i n North America,
p a r t i c u l a r l y California, i n forming opinion among a population ignorant of
China and Chinese customs was Bayard Taylor, who was t h e most popular l e c t u r e r
of h i s time. 39 After having spent a few b r i e f months i n China i n
- and
that
was spent mainly i n p o r t s with day excursions t o t h e Chinese q u a r t e r s of t h e
city
- he spoke as an a u t h o r i t y on t h e Chinese.
O f t h e Chinese character he
s a i d , "The Chinese nature appears t o be s o thoroughly passive t h a t it is not
even receptive. wK)
H e continues i
The only t a s t e which t h e Chinese e x h i b i t t o any degree, is a love
of t h e monstrous , , , they ad!nire whatever is d i s t o r t e d o r unnatural
, It is my d e l i b e r a t e opinion that t h e Chinese are, morally, the
most debased people on t h e face of t h e e a r t h ,
t h e r e was enough i n
t h e t h i n g s which I could not avoid seeing and hearing
, t o inspire
me with a powerful aversion t o t h e Chinese race, Their touch is pollut i o n , and, harsh as t h e opinion may seem, j u s t i c e t o our own r a c e demands t h a t they should not be allowed t o s e t t l e on our s o i l e b i
. .
.. . .
John Robson of t h e B r i t i s h Columbian printed miscellaneous items on
China from English papers
Chinese as a people.
- items which reinforced t h e negative
inage of t h e
The probability is t h a t t h e day is near when t h e Chinese as a
nation w i l l c a s t off t h e v e i l of pride and self-conceit with which t h e i r
minds have s o long been blindd.42
P e t e r Yard i n "White Canada Forever" h a s demonstrated t h e comonality
of t h e Chinese stereotype i n B r i t a i n , B r i t i s h North America, and t h e United
S t a t e s , by looking a t t h e inwe portrayed i n school geography text books, 4.3
Through thismediumthe negative image was perpetuated,
The white population
defined "the Chinalaan" and then saw what had already been defined i n t h e behaviour, habits, and customs of t h e Chinese immigrants,
Permitted g r e a t e r
freedom of movement t o B r i t i s h colonies after t h e signing of t h e Convention
of Peking, facing economic and s o c i a l i n s t a b i l i t y and uncertainty i n t h e i r
home counties, and encouraged by t h e exaggerated s t o r i e s of t h e r i c h e s t o be
made across t h e seas, t h e Chinese headed f o r B r i t i s h Columbia, California
and other B r i t i s h colonies.
They immigrated a t a time when cheap labour was
required t o replace s l a v e labour.
Confusion between t h e c r e d i t - t i c k e t system
and t h e contract labour system r e s u l t e d i n t h e Chinese being branded as slaves
- a t a time when slavery was a controversial i s s u e i n North America,
Thus
t h e negative stereotype formed by Europeans as a result of t h e l r ethnocentric
reporting of events i n China was reinforced by contact i n North America,
The unpopular image had been formed and from t h i s basis demands were made
f o r t h e exclusion of t h e Chinese from B r i t i s h Columbia with a d d i t i o n a l arguments based on t h e science of ethnology, a g r e a t e r awareness of health and
disease, and an emphasis on morality.
-
The popular image ws printed i n Punch
i n 1858 and can be located i n t h e minds and newspapers of North America and
B r i t i s h colonies J
A CHANSON FOR CANTON
John Chinaman a rogue is born,
The laws of t r u t h he holds i n scorn;
About as g r e a t a b r u t e a s can
Encumber t h e e a r t h is John Chinaman.
Sing Yeh, my c r u e l John Chinaman,
Sing Yeo, my stubborn John Chinaman;
Not Cobden himself can t a k e off t h e ban
By humanity l a i d on John Chinanran,
With t h e i r l i t t l e pig-eyes and t h e i r large p i g - t a i l s ,
A n d t h e i r d i e t of rats, dogs, slugs, and s n a i l s ,
A l l seems t o be game i n t h e frying-pan
O f t h a t nasty feeder, John Chinaman.
Sing Lie-Tea, my s l y John China.man
No fightee, my coward John Chinaman:
John B u l l has a chance Let him, if he can,
Somewhak open t h e eyes of John Chinamanew
-
-
Footnotes (chapter 11):
1.
Captain Sherard Osborn, The Past and Future of B r i t i s h Relations i n
China, dinb burgh, William Blackwood and Sons, 1860). p. 15,
2.
J. L. Cranmer-Byng, An Embassy t o China: Being t h e Journal kept by
Lord Macartney during h i s embassy t o t h e Emperor Ch'ien-lung 17931794, (London, Longmans, Green and Co., Ltd., 1962). pp. 10-11.
3.
Barriers t o t r a d e included: t h e l i n i t a t i o n of t r a d e t o t h e Canton a r e a
and t h e r e s t r i c t i o n of trading with one group of Chinese merchants
t h e Co Hong
which eliminated a competitive market; foreign residence r e s t r i c t e d t o t h e f a c t o r i e s of t h e outlying d i s t r i c t s of Qnton, and only between October and May; prohibitions on t h e h i r i n g
of Chinese servants, t h e possession of firearms, and t h e bringing
of wives t o China. I n t h e Confucian class system t r a d e was considered a profession of low repute and merchants a despised class.
G. B. ~ n d a c o t tand A. Hinton, Fragrant Harbour: A s h o d Histo
of How Kong, ( ~ o n gKong, Oxford University Press, 1%2), pp. 931.
See a l s o J. L, Cranrner Byng, op. c i t . , p. 8.
-
The Mitchell Report was an a n a l y s i s of t h e Far %stern Trade prepared
f o r t h e B r i t i s h Foreign Office. F'rederic Wakeman Jr., Stra e r s
a t t h e Gate r Social Disorder i n South China. 1839-186ls-ey
and Los Angeles, University of California Press, 1966). p. 72.
5.
J. K. Fairbank,
6.
'This involved t h r e e separate kneelings, each one followed by a f u l l pros t r a t i o n with t h e forehead knocking t h e ground t h r e e times," J. L.
Cranmer-Byng, OP. cit., pa 6.
7.
Victor Purcell, China,
8.
V, G, Kiernan, The Lords of Human Kind, ondo don, Weidenfeld and Nicolson,
i
"Tributary Trade and China's Relations with t h e West",
ondo don, Ernest Benn Ltd., 1962), p. 53,
1969). P. 25.
S
B
-
4.
k
B
-
9.
Alexander Michie, The Englishman i n China during t h e Victorian Era, Vol,
I, dinbu burgh, William Blackwood and Sons, 1900). pp. 196-197:
~ i c h a e ~l r e e n b e r ~B,r i t i s h Trade and t h e Opening o f china 180042,
(cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1969) ; Maurice C o l l i s , Foreign Mud: The Opium Imbroglio a t Canton i n t h e 1830's and t h e AngloChinese W a r , (New York, W. W. Norton and Co., 1968)1 and Victor
m i n a , OP. c i t . , pp. 53-54, especially.
-
10,
I n t h e e a r l y eighteenth century t h e annual import of opium i n t o China
was 200 chests. By t h e beginning of t h e nineteenth century, it
had r i s e n t o 5,000 chests per annum; by 1831 t o 16,500 chests; by
1838-39 ( a f t e r t h e East India Company monopoly had been abolished),
t o 40,000 chests per annum. ( 1 chest f 3/5 lb. ) G. B, Endacott
e t a l , op. cit., pa 14.
11.
Lord Macartney l e d an embassy t o China i n 1794. which f a i l e d t o expand
t h e t r a d e i n B r i t i s h goods p a r t l y because of: t h e c o n f l i c t between
China and B r i t a i n i n T i b e t ; t h e t h r e a t B r i t a i n posed due t o its
v a s t a c q u i s i t i o n s i n India; t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e Chinese Viceroy i n
Canton who opposed f u r t h e r extensions of t r a d e ; and because Lord
Macartney refused t o perform t h e Kotow. Chinese o f f i c i a l s continued t o view t h e t r a d e as one desired by t h e barbaric English, and
they were not impressed with English science and technology. J. La
Cranmer-Byng, ope c i t e , and Hugh Murray, John Crawford, P e t e r Gordon e t a l , An H i s t o r i c a l and Descriptive Account of ZhC, 3 Vols. ,
dinbu burgh, Oliver and Boyd, 1843). Vol. I, pa 315.
The East India Company requested a second embassy t o open t h e China t r a d e
i n 1814. B r i t a i n had v i o l a t e d Chinese n e u t r a l i t y by s e i z i n g a n
American s h i p a t Whampoa i n April-May 1814, and by bringing captured l o o t t o Macao during t h e W a r of 1812, To remove t h e s e past
grievances and t o open normal t r a d e r e l a t i o n s Lord Amherst was s e n t
t o China i n 1816. H i s mission had even l e s s success than Macartney's and he was ordered t o leave Peking before an audience took
place, The East India Company paid t h e expenses of t h e mission
and Lord Amherst had been authorised t o perform t h e ICotow if t h e r e
~ Tung,
was a chanoe of "material benefit" t o t h e company. W i l l h La
China and t h e Foreign Powers: The Impact of and Reaction t o Unep a 1 T r e a t i e s , (New York, Oceana Publications, 19701, pa 6, and
Hugh Murray, OP* tit , Val. I., ppm 32.59331a
,
12.
The h i s t o r i c a l debate over t h e "Asiatic Mode of Production" continues.
For a r e f u t a t i o n of Marx, Engels and l a t e r Wittfogels conceptuali z a t i o n of late Imperial China as a stagnant and s t a t i o n a r y s o c i e t y
s e e F'rances Moulder, HThe Asiatic Mode of Production and Late Imperial China: A Society Without Class Conflict and S o c i a l Change?"
Radical History Review, Vole 3, No, 1-3, Fall-Winter, 1975, pp. 4455.
See a l s o Joseph Esherick, nHarvard on China: The Apologetics
-of Imperialism", B u l l e t i n of Concermd Asian Scholars, Vol IV, No.
4, (~ecember1972), pp. 9-16. f o r a discussion of t h e assumptions
held by twentieth century a p o l o g i s t s of western imperialism i n Xm-
p e r i a l China. Hu Sheng i n Imperialism arad Chinese P o l i t i c s , ( ~ e k ing, Foreign Languages Press, 1955) argues t h a t t h e Manchu dynasty
nas facing severe t h r e a t s t o its a u t h o r i t y from peasant uprisings
and t h a t t h e presence and a c t i v e support of foreigners i n t e n s i f i e d
t h e a u t o c r a t i c r u l e of t h e Manchus. p p 1
Ping-ti Ho, i n
Studies on t h e Population of China, 1368-1953, (cambridge Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 1959) demonstrates t h a t t h e t r e a t y
tariffs, by protecting foreign-owned industry i n China impeded
China's economic progress, pa 207,
b
OP. c i t e , pa 55.
See a l s o Raymond Dawson, The Chine s e Chameleon: An a n a l y s i s of European conceptions of Chinese civ i l i z a t i o n , (London, Oxford University Press, 1967).
13. J. L. Cranmer-Byng,
14, V. G, Kiernan,
15.
-
OD.
cit., pa 26.
17954895, Vol,
I, ( ~ e p r i n t ,Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1st. printed 1899),
pa 104.
A. Lovett, The History of t h e London Missionary Society
16. Archibald L i t t l e , Gleanings from F i f t y Years i n China, ondo don, Sampson
Low, Marston and Co., Ltd,, lglO), p. 295,
I n Raymond Dawson, op, c i t . , t h e change i n t h e European a t t i t u d e t o
China is explained by t h e l o s s i n impetus of t h e sinophilisra of
t h e Enlightenment and t h e "chinoiserie" vogue, and t h e i n d u s t r i a l
progress i n B r i t a i n coupled with overseas imperialism which engendered a n a t t i t u d e of s u p e r i o r i t y , However, Dawson considers t h a t
Protestant C h r i s t i a n i t y was "at t h e h e a r t of t h i s new a t t i t u d e ,
providing its ideological j u s t if i c a t ion, " p. 132.
17. S t u a r t C. Miller, The Unwelcome Immigrant, Berkeley, University of Calif o r n i a Press, 1969). pp, 63167.
18, Alexander Hichie,
OP.
c i t e , Vol I, pa 88.
19, Quoted f r o m t h e Edinburgh Review i n Rev, William Milne, L i f e i n China,
(London, G, Routledge and Company, l857), pp. 516-537. Milne was
a missionary i n China from 1839 t o 1854 with t h e London Missionary
Society, This S o c i e t y had many businessmen on its Board of Direct o r s whose policy was t h a t t h e Society should l a r g e l y pay its way.
Missionary s h i p s could carry out cargoes of missionaries and recoup
t h e Society through r e t u r n cargoes of merchandise, R. Lovett, 2
tit., V O ~1, pa 78.
-
Missionaries a l s o d i r e c t l y served t r a d e r s i n China by t r a v e l l i n g with
them i n t h e capacity of i n t e r p r e t e r s ,
20.
Captain Sherard Osborn, ope c i t . ,
p, 4,
This is not t o say t h a t t h e r e was unanimous agreement i n Britain on t h e
"r3ghtness" of t h e Opium Wars. W i l l i a m E, Gladstone condemned it
as a w a r " t o p r o t e c t a n infamous c o r r t r a ~ dtraffic", "a war more
unjust i n its o r i g i n , a war more calculated t o cover t h i s country
with permanent disgrace, I do not know and have not read of".
Quoted i n W i l l i a m Tung, ope c i t e , p, 7,
($d. ) , Marx on China 18531860, (~ondon, Lawrence and wishart, 1951), e s p e c i a l l y a r t i c l e i n
New York Daily Tribune, A p r i l 10, 1857, quoted on p, 39.
Karl Marx a l s o condemned it, See Dcxna T o r r
-
22.
Frederic Wakeman Jr,, Strangers a t t h e Gate: S o c i a l Disorder i n South
T ~ e r k e l eand
~ Los Angeles, University of CaliforAppendix I V , pp, 187-188.
,
24.
Ping-ti Ho, op. c i t e , pp, 201-202, p, 207,
25.
Chuen-Yan David Lai, "Home County and Clan Origins of Overseas Chinese
i n Canada i n t h e Early 1880'sW, Be C, Studies, No. 27, (~utumn1975).
p* 11.
26.
Queensland r a n i n t o t h e same objections i n 1877. See P e r s i a Crawford
Campbell, Chinese Coolie Emigration t o Countries Within t h e B r i t i s h Empire, (London, Frank Cass and Co. Ltd,, 1971), p, 62,
27,
Convention of Peking, 1860, Article V. Quoted i n Harley F. MacNair,
Modern Chinese History, Selected Readings ( ~ e wYork, Paragon Book,
1967), ppe 319-320,
28,
B r i t i s h Columbian, November 24, 1966, p. 1.
Herman Merivale, Lectures on Colonization and Colonies, ond don, Longman, Green, Longman and Roberts, 1861). Chapter X I , "Slave Labour",
especially p. 305.
This was one of a s e r i e s of l e c t u r e s delivered before t h e University of
Oxford i n 1839, 1840, and 1841.
Merivale here r e f e r s t o t h e example of Mauritius.
The Anti-Slavery Reporter, ( ~ p r i 1,
l 1853), Vol. I, No. 4, ( ~ e ws e r i e s ) ,
"Irishmen and Negroesy', pa 84.
Persia Crawford Campbell, op. cit., p. 95.
She describes t h i s system and t h e part played by B r i t i s h firms i n Amoy
i n "Chinese 'Contract Ehigration' ",Part 11.
Ibid,, pp.
-
117-118.
Alexander Michie, op. c i t . , Vol. 11, pa 168.
A description of t h e Portugese coolie t r a d e at Macao published i n a
Hong Kong newspaper reads: "Coolies, kidnapped, imprisoned i n bar-
racoons, flogged t o make then consent t o s i g n t h e iniquitous cont r a c t t h a t binds them t o a l i f e of slavery marched with a strong
guard t o t e s t i f y a t t h e Government o f f i c e s t o t h e i r signature as
given v o l u n t a r i l y and f r e e l y , half-starved, exposed t o blindness
and disease on board s h i p i n t r a n s i t t o t h e place of t h e i r e x i l e ,
o r l e f t on some barren i s l e t o d i e , if l o s s of
tossed over-,
s i g h t o r sickness render them useless t o t h e i r nrasters."
For descriptions of similar conditions and treatment on board American
and B r i t i s h v e s s e l s see Persia Crawford Campbell, op. c i t , , pp.
95-98. Chinese labourers contracted by Andrew Onderdonk came d i r e c t l y from Hong Kong i n t h e 1880's t o build t h e B r i t i s h Columbian
section of t h e Canadian P a c i f i c R a i l r o a d . Left t o fend f o r thems e l v e s a f t e r completion of t h e C.P.R.,
they would have starved if
they had not received a i d from t h e Chinese Benevolent A s s o c i a t i o ~ ~ .
i
35. B r i t i s h Columbian, March 2, 1865, p. 3.
36.
S t u a r t C. Miller, ope c i t e , p. 7.
37. For t h e formation of t h e negative w e i n U.S.A., s e e S t u a r t C. Miller,
op. cit., e s p e c i a l l y Chapter 5, ''Opium W a r popularizes t h e Unfavoma b l e Innage 1839-1850".
For formation of t h e image i n Europe (part i c u l a r l y ~ n g l a n d ) , see Raymond Dawson, :pa cit. See a l s o George
Wingrove Cooke, Chinat being "The Times s p e c i a l correspondence
from China. i n t h e Years.1857-1858, (London, G. Routledge and Co.,
1858). I n a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e Chinese he writes:
'The s t u p i d expressionless pigs' eyes and bald f a c e s , and t h e same att i t u d e of s t o l i d grave conceit which we fancy t o be a c a r i c a t u r e
when we s e e it o n a willow-pattern p l a t e ' b u t f i n d t o be t r u e veget a t i n g Chinese l i f e . " p, 5,
38.
Captain Sherard Osborn, ope c i t e , p. 178.
39.
John Hohenberg, Between Two Worlds, ( ~ e wYork, Frederick A. Praeger,
1967), pe 401.
40.
Bayard Taylor, V i s i t t o India, China and Japan i n t h e Year 1853, ( ~ e w
York, G. P. Putnam and Co., 1855), p. 333.
42.
B r i t i s h Columbian, A w s t 1, 1861, p. 1.
This was a comment a t t h e c l o s e of t h e Opium War
forced t o accede t o B r i t i s h demands.
- after China had been
43.
W i l l i a m P e t e r Ward, W h i t e Canada Forever, B r i t i s h Colwnbia's Response
t o Orientals, 1858-1914". PM., Queen's University, Ontario, S e p
tember, 1972, pp. 3-4.
44.
"A Chanson f o r Cantonw, Punch, Vol XXXIV,
( ~ p r i 10,
l
1858), p. 151,
The image of t h e Chinese is t o o s i m i l a r t o t h e image Anglo-Saxons held
of t h e I r i s h t o be mere co-incidence. The Victorian image of t h e
I r i s h contained t h e following notions: t h a t they were c h i l d i s h ,
emotionally unstable, ignorant, indolent, s u p e r s t i t i o u s , primitSve
o r semi-civilized, d i r t y , vengeful, violent, and feminine, The
cartoon w e was t h a t of t h e pig, A s with most stereotypes, t h i s
image t e l l s us more about Anglo-Saxons than t h e I r i s h , The simila r i t y of t h e images of t h e two r a c i a l groups
I r i s h and Chinese
can be explained i n terms of Anglo-Saxon ethnocentrism, t h e B r i t i s h
assumption that they had been chosen a s t h e "Lords of Human Kind",
and t h e cheap unskilled labour f o r c e t h a t t h e I r i s h and Chinese
supplied.
-
For t h e Anglo-Saxon image of t h e I r i s h s e e L. P. C u r t i s Jr., AngLoSaxons and Celts, ( ~ o n n e c t i c u t,t Published by t h e Conference on
B r i t i s h Studies a t t h e University of Bridgeport, 1968).
-
THE RATIONALE FOR THE RESTRICTION
OF THE CHINESE If: BRITISH COLUMBIA
S h a l l t h e fair prospects of t h i s P a c i f i c province be marred with
a flood of t h e worst and most degraded elements of paganism, and made
a reformatory f o r A s i a t i c criminals and a nursery of vice? ( ~ o y a lCommission Report 1885, Evidence David W i l l i a m Gordon, M. P., p. 140.)
The econolaic and p o l i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n i n China accounted f o r the ~ecessity
of t h e emigration of Chinese men.
The s o c i a l organization of a south-eastern
Chinese v i l l a g e explains why they could leave t h e i r f a m i l i e s and communities,
and why many were only sojourners i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
lage drew them back t o China.
T i e s with t h e i r v i l -
Their s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e , h a b i t s and c u l t u r e were
brought t o B r i t i s h Columbia with them and re-established here with necessary
modifications.
Their s o c i a l organization nade it possible f o r them t o survive
i n a h o s t i l e and a l i e n environment.
Europeans, already perceiving t h e Chinese
negatively, saw t h e segregated Chinatown of e a r l y B r i t i s h Columbian towns,
with its d i f f e r e n t c u l t u r e , organization, and s o c i a l values a s evidence of
t h e u n a s s i m i l i a b i l i t y and a l i e n n e s s of t h e Chinese, and t h i s provided a rat i o n a l e f o r r e s t r i c t i n g and taxing them.
The p o l i t i c a l , economic and s o c i a l d i s l o c a t i o n t h a t began i n Kwangtung
with t h e Opium Wars i n t e n s i f i e d with t h e Taiping Revolution
which cost a t l e a s t t e n t o twenty million Chinese lives.'
- a c i v i l war
Added t o the pol-
i t i c a l s i t u a t i o n were t h e perennial problems of pressure of population,
famines bringing povcrty,Irand-lordism, and land shortages.
5
f
Land-iordism,
however, has been exaggerated by modern w r i t e r s e 2 The Chinese were not a
migratory people, but economic conditions and p o l i t i c a l upheaval forced emigration,
With no land of t h e i r own, t h e poor laboured f o r landowners and
were t h e first t o s u f f e r if crops f a i l e d and food was scarce,
The scorched
e a r t h policy of t h e Imperial government during t h e Taiping revolution forced
others o f f t h e land t o t h e c o a s t a l c i t i e s ,
With a bleak f u t u r e i n China,
thousands of young Chinese men, encouraged by foreign agents, emigrated with
t h e philosophy
To be s t a v e d and t o be buried
i n t h e sea a r e t h e same , , ,
Why not plunge r i g h t i n t o death
r a t h e r than wait f o r death?3
4
The more p o l i t i c a l l y independent people of t h e Province of Kwangtung
were exposed through commercialism t o t h e wider world,
The Manchu dynasty
confined t h e western t r a d e t o Canton i n 1757 and t h u s t h e Cantonese were furt h e r exposed t o westerners and gained knowledge of t h e Americas, hearing s t o r i e s of t h e g r e a t e r economic opportunities a v a i l a b l e i n t h e "Cold Mountains".
Friends and r e l a t i v e s followed t h e e a r l y emigrants, encouraged by shipping
companies' propaganda of high wages and material success.
g r a t i o n began.
Thus t h e chain m i -
Faced with economic and p o l i t i c a l uncertainty i n t h e i r own
v i l l a g e s they looked t o t h e Americas t o make a l i v i n g ,
The s o c i a l organization of south-eastern Chinese v i l l a g e s made t h i s emiThe family served as t h e organizing p r i n c i p l e of t h e v i l -
g r a t i o n possible,
lage
Villages were composed of families r e l a t e d by male descent t o a common
m l e ancestor, and inhabitants were predominantly o r e n t i r e l y people with a
Common surname
,'
The lineage functions were economic, r i t u a l i s t i c and re-
l i g i o u s , educational, s o c i a l and included welfare functions. 6 Thus, a Chinese
male could leave h i s v i l l a g e with t h e i n t e n t i o n of economically improving h i s
lineage and not leave h i s family d e s t i t u t e .
Other members of h i s family could
f u l f i l h i s r o l e s and d u t i e s i n h i s absence.
However, these family obligations
ensured t h a t h i s l o y a l t i e s would be retained i n t h e lineage and village.
The close-knit community organization of t h e Chinese v i l l a g e was transported, with necessary modifications, t o B r i t i s h Columbia,
Chuen Yan David
Lai, researching t h e records of t h e Chinese Benevolent Society i n Victoria,
discovered t h a t i n 1881 t h e majority of Chinese i n h a b i t a n t s of a Chinatown
i n B r i t i s h Columbia spoke a common d i a l e c t , dominated s p e c i f i c occupations
and t r a d e s , and originated from t h e same county and/or clan.
For example,
seventy-seven percent of Quesnelmouth had originated from K'ai-p'ing.
Of
t h i s dominating county group, eighty-four per cent belonged t o t h e Chou clan.
Forming county o r clan a s s o c i a t i o n s f o r mutual help, t h e s e organizations excluded from t h e a r e a Chinese who were not members.
Unless a Chinese male was
a member of t h e l o c a l clan group he had d i f f i c u l t y finding work e i t h e r among
t h e Chinese o r t h e white community.'
Thus t h e exclusiveness of a south-eastern
Chinese v i l l a g e was established i n B r i t i s h Columbian Chinatowns.
These clan and caunty s o c i e t i e s provided some s t a b i l i t y t o Chinese immigrants i z i their i n i t i a l period of adjustment as new immigrants
- "cultm
shock" occasioned by leaving a highly organized and s o c i o l o g i c a l l y complex
E
i
society and being faced with t h e s t r i v i n g pioneer f r o n t i e r of B r i t i s h Col-
i
umbiaO8 Other functions were t o provide s o c i a l and economic a s s i s t a n c e t o
6
clan members.
i
C
A s a l i e n s i n a h o s t i l e white society, they were delegated t h e
lowest economic position which effectively excluded them from t h e s o c i a l and
p o l i t i c a l l i f e of t h e colon7r. Liviny on t h e f r i n g e s of t h e dominant c u l t u r e
t h e associations provided t h e Chinese community with a cohesiveness?
a u t as
Chuen-Yan David Lai points out, t h i s clan s o l i d a r i t y produced d i v i s i o n s within
t h e l a r g e r Chinese community when t h e i n t e r e s t s of d i f f e r e n t clan o r county
associations conflicted.
Chinese community unity.
Local l o y a l t i e s could have t h e e f f e c t of weakening
10
Chinese immigrants came t o B r i t i s h Columbia e i t h e r as f r e e miners from
t h e Californian gold f i e l d s and overland from Portland, Oregon; by a s s i s t a n c e
from r e l a t i v e s ; o r through t h e c r e d i t - t i c k e t system,
Early immigrants spread
t h e word t o r e l a t i v e s i n China, paying t h e i r f a r e s t o North America i n some
cases, and i n s t i g a t i n g a 'chain migrat ion".
''
I n conversation with George
H i l l s , t h e Bishop of Columbia, a nineteen-year-old
Chinese man from Canton,
Wong Chan Yun, explained;
The Chinese here, he s a i d , have come on t h e i r own nhook". I n Calif o r n i a they a r e bound t o some head man who receive pa& of t h e i r earn.
ings .I2
He had himself a r r i v e d i n California i n 1851 from Hong Xong.
Reliable in-
formation on t h e nature of t h e c r e d i t t i c k e t system is scanty and inadequate.
The Chinese kept t o themselves and d i d not proffer information t o t h e white
community regarding emigration, and t h u s conclusions can only be t e n t a t i v e .
Under t h e c r e d i t t i c k e t system Chinese men were indebted t o t h e l o c a l Chine s e merchants who acted as labour agencies and contractors.
The c o s t of pas-
sage was retained by t h e merchant from t h e i r wages u n t i l it was f u l l y paid.
{
White employers endeavoured t o recover t h e c o s t of passage of female domestic
servants from B r i t a i n i n 1862 i n t h e same reanner.
P e r s i a Crawford Campbell
concludes from her research that Chinese immigration i n t o B r i t i s h Columbia
followed along t h e Californian system.
I n t h e 1876 Report of t h e United
S t a t e s Commission on Chinese Immigration i n t o California, s e v e r a l witnesses
s t a t e d t h a t t h e system was based not on s e r v i c e contract but on debt-bondage,13
Oncea man h a d r e p a i d t h e d e b t ~ ~ h f cehn s u e d f r o m l e a v i ~ C h i n a , h e x a sf r e e , %i:;
debt was estima,ted by t h e Chinese Consulate i n San Francisco, Huang-Sic-Chen,
a s being seventy d o l l a r s a head from China t o B r i t i s h Columbia. 14
This v a r i a t i o n of t h e indenture system explained by Stanford Lyman, en-
I
abled Chinese men t o leave China and provided passage, food, lodging and em-
I
I
ployment f o r them on t h e i r a r r i v a l i n San Francisco.
I
Money f o r h i s passage was obtained from kinsmen o r fell*?w-villagers
who assigned t h e c o l l e c t i o n of t h e debt t o kinslaen o r Landsmanner i n
The merchant l e a d e r s of t h e Lui Kuan (~andsllrannschafSan Francisco
t e n ) acted as contractors and s e n t gangs of men out t o work. The debts
incurred by t h e Chinese immigrants were deducted from t h e i r wages by
Chinese headmen, and defalcating debtors were prevented from escaping
back t o China by s p e c i a l arrangements between t h e Chinese c r e d i t o r ass o c i a t i o n s and t h e merchant fleet. The e n t i r e system was frought with
corruption and undoubtedly not a few Chinese found themselves poorer
off i n t h e end than they had been when they began t h e i r American advent u r e , and many were forced t o s t a y overseas much longer than they had
anticipted.15
...
I n B r i t i s h Columbia t h e Chinese merchants established s o c i a l and economic prominence i n t h e Chinese community because of t h e absence of a gentry
class.
This was a marked improvement over t h e i r previous s t a t u s i n China
where t h e i r profession placed them a t t h e lower end of t h e s o c i a l scale.
The Victoria Benevolent Society records demonstrate t h a t merchants controlled
1
II
I
t h i s organizational6 It was denounced on one occasion f o r protecting t h e
i n t e r e s t s of t h e merchants only, and not those of individual Chinese workers.17
Chinese labourers joined a s s o c i a t i o n s of t h e i r o m county o r clan t o gain
employment ,I8 and as merchants controlled these organizat ions on a r o t a t i n g
b a s i s they were d i r e c t l y o r i n d i r e c t l y under c o n t r o l of t h a t c l a s s ,
Before
he l e f t Vancouver, t h e individual Chinese man was checked t o ensure that he
had repaid h i s debts.
He could not g e t passage back t o China unless he ob-
t a i n e d t h i s clearance. 19
Evidence from t h e i r records suggests t h a t i n B r i t i s h Columbia clan ass o c i a t i o n s were benevolent i n t h e i r functions.
They provided lodgings on
a r r i v a l o r i n periods of unemployment, and served a s employment agencies.
They provided c a p i t a l f o r a member t o set up i n business, s e t t l e d disputes
between members, gave l e g a l support i n a dispute with a non-Chinese, and
provided welfare b e n e f i t s f o r its needy members,
c o l l e c t e d through t h e clan association.
Debts owing could a l s o be
One of t h e regulations of t h e Chih-
Kung T'ang, known as t h e Chinese Freemasons, states:
Members, no matter whether they a r e l i v i n g i n town, i n mining
areas, i n ports, o r i n c i t i e s w i l l not be permitted t o reduce wages o r
t o spread slander a g a i n s t each o t h e r i n order t o compete i n hiring.
Anyone committing t h e s e acts w i l l be punished i f a complaint is made
and evidence p r e ~ e n t e d . 2 ~
Thus t h e Chih-Kung Tsar.,/- acted as a t r a d e union.
It a l s o ran a h o s t e l , a
brothel, and a gambling house f o r its members.
The majority of witnesses who gave evidence i n t h e 1885 Canadian Royal
Commission on Chinese Immigration, portrayed t h e Chinese m n a s terrified
s l a v e s of Chinese companies who d i r e c t e d them as t o t h e i r place and conditions
of work and who had exclusive c o n t r o l over them.
From t h e information gleaned
from white women's accounts of t h e i r dealings with Chinese domestics, it appears thet they had mtxh more freedom of movement
*flap white
~?:en*s
r e p o d s fndicates
Yxs. Baillie-Grohman resided i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n t h e 1870's and 1880's and
she remembered being l e f t i n t h e l u r c h when her Chinese cook l e f t her while
she was l i v i n g on a ranch i n t h e Kootenays,
out warning, as he o f t e n
She says, "John disappears with-
Chinese domestics i n Victoria could only
be hired through a downtown Chinese agencyz2 uhich s e t t h e wages according
t o t h e household-type,
This agency was seen by t h e white community as evi-
dence of Chinese slavery,
I n fact, it served Chinese domestics well, a s
through it wages were maintained a t t h e going r a t e , and c l o s e a t t e n t i o n was
paid t o conditions of work.
This agency must have been invaluable t o a Chin-
ese man new t o t h e domestic scene i n Victoria,
Judge Matthew Begbie s a i d of
such organizations r
Another ground i n which I have heard it a s s e r t e d t h a t slavery is
general among Chinamen here is r a t h e r , I suspect, a proof of t h e i r freedom, o r would be s o accepted among whites. It is t h a t they demand wages,
not such as they would t a k e if l e f t t o t h e i r own choice, but such a s a r e
d i c t a t e d by c e r t a i n leaders, who s u b s i s t on a percentage of those uages.
I have no doubt but t h a t they have some s o r t of trades-unions, whose
o f f i c e r s and head-centres are supported by subscriptions from t h e wages
received; themselves deciding both on each man's wages and on h i s subs c r i p t i o n . I have no doubt but t h a t compulsion is put on a l l Chinamen,
s o t h a t it is very d i f f i c u l t f o r them t o obtain work, if they remain
outside t h i s o r g a n b a t ion ,23
Chinese servants meeting i n Chinatown would have talked among themselves
about t h e f a m i l i e s they worked f o r and t h e i r s i t u a t i o n s .
Some f a m i l i e s had
d i f f i c u l t y i n obtaining servants if they mistreated o r overworked them. 24
I n t h i s way t h e Chinese domestics had some c o n t r o l over t h e i r working conOne witness t o l d t h e Commissioners i n 1885 t h a t i f
d i t i o n s and employers.
wages were reduced t h e Chinese were s o well organized t h a t a replacement s e r vant could not be found.
other.25
He complained that t h e y would not compete with each
Chinese domestics i n fact had more independence than white women
i n domestic service.
A female servant, e s p e c i a l l y if she had no family i n
t h e colony, was i s o l a t e d from t h e r e s t of t h e community.
Because of her sex,
she was restricted i n her movements by prevailing notions of r e s p e c t a b i l i t y
and obsessive supervision of her behaviour and morality.
These a t t i t u d e s
II
I
I
I
prevailed i n B r i t i s h Columbia as i l l u s t r a t e d by t h e i s s u e of t h e employment
of women i n concert saloons.
I n t h e Colonist's campaign t o prevent t h i s oc-
cupation f o r women one a r t i c l e s t a t e d :
There is a n absolute and great disproportion between t h e sexes i n
t h i s country. There is a want of good steady industrious g i r l s t o furnish virtuous wives f o r our men and make them something else than t h e
r e c k l e s s r e s t l e s s mortals s o numerous on t h i s coast. To supply t h i s
want must be one of t h e o b j e c t s of any measure f o r t h e encouragement
There is q u i t e a s u f f i c i e n t demanc! f o r steady g i 1s
of emigration
t o a c t as servants i n respectable families, and a t very fair wages. 28
... .
Working dlass women's sphere was defined by t h e Colonist as e i t h e r paid
o r unpaid domestic service, although concert saloons provided a l e s s restricted l i f e s t y l e and b e t t e r pay.27
Although t h e Chinese domestic was a l s o iso-
l a t e d and excluded from white society, he had clan o r county members i n nearby
Chinatown.
A s a member of a r a c i a l l y d i s t i n c t group with its own community
organizations h i s i s o l a t i o n was not as complete.
If he wished t o leave h i s
employment he could obtain another position through t h e Chinese domestic agency.
A female domestic i n t h e same s i t u a t i o n had t o f a l l back on her own
resources, without a protective association o r servant organization t o a i d
her i n finding a new position.
A s she d e a l t personally with h e r employer and
not through an intermediary, h e r conditions of work and hours of employment
were s e t by her employer.28
If she was " l e t go" she faced g r e a t e r i n s e c u r i t y
f o r she a l s o l o s t her home and a roof over h e r head.
A Chinese domestic who
was f i r e d could f a l l back upon e i t h e r h i s clan a s s o c i a t i o n h o s t e l o r clan members f o r temporary support.
The economic necessity of earning a l i v i n g could
f o r c e t h e female domestic i n t o t h e position of s e l l i n g h e r s e x u a l i t y , e i t h e r
through p r o s t i t u t i o n o r marriage, as few economic avenues were open t o women.
The Cariboo S e n t i n e l reported t h e predicament of " g i r l s " who came t o B r i t i s h
Columbia from England and could not f i n d "honest employment", t h u s " t h e i r only
resource was prostitution".29
provide references
It was not t h e Chinese domestics who had t o
- r a t h e r white employers were kept
on record by t h e Chinese
agency.
I n t h e 1879 Report of t h e - S p e c i a l Committee on Chinese %migration, M r .
Barnard, M. P., reported t h a t a gentleman who had been unable t o obtain white
household servants applied a t a Chinese agency f o r a domestic,
He found t h a t
t h e Chinese agent
had in h i s books a complete r e g i s t g r of t h e whole of h i s family
affairs, 2nd a t t h e end of t h e r e g i s t e r was s e t down t h e p r i c e which
he was required t o pay i n order t o secure s e r v i c e s of a Chinaman. He
a l s o found t h a t he could not g e t a Chinaman f o r anything l e s s , and on
mking enquiries he discovered t h a t they had a c o r r e c t record, not of
t h e standing of t h e servant who w a s t o be employed, but of t h e standi n g of t h e masters who were t o employ these men as servants.30
The Chinese domestic, because he was hired through an intermediary, had cont r o l over wages and working conditions, and he could e f f e c t i v e l y pressure t h e
employer, e s p e c i a l l y i n times of economic prosperity o r when domestics were
i n s h o r t supply.
Tentative research suggests t h a t t h e Chinese were involved i n many cooperative endeavours which must have appeared as a master-slaves r e l a t i o n s h i p t o Caucasians, whose mode of a c t i o n was generally i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c .
The
Chinese migrated from a s o c i e t y where co-operation was necessary f o r survival,
and where c l o s e kinship t i e s f u r t h e r encouraged t h i s mode of a c t i o n , 31 "Chain
migration" and t h e formation of c l a n and county a s s o c i a t i o n s i n B r i t i s h Columbia f o r mutual a i d ensured that t h e s e t i e s were maintained.
Hostility
from t h e white community had t h e e f f e c t of i n t e n s i f y i n g t h e need t o co-operate
f o r protection.
On gold-bearing creeks, f o r instance, some of t h e Chinese
mined while o t h e r s gardened.
The fact t h a t they combined t h e i r e f f o r t s on
creeks, t h u s evading t h e mining tax, l e d white miners t o p e t i t i o n Governor
Seymour i n 1865, arguing t h a t a l l Chinese miners should pay t h e tax.
A t this
time only self-employed miners paid t h e tax and then only if they d i d not
want t h e i r claims jumped. 32
A f u r t h e r example of co-operation among Chinese was t h e i r r e f u s a l t o be
exploited by a steamship company,
The agent of t h e "Brother Jonathan" demand-
ed twenty d o l l a r s each of two hundred Chinese miners f o r t h e downward t r i p t o
San Fkancisco.
lars each.
The Chinese miners attempted t o g e t passage f o r f i f t e e n dol-
A f t e r much delay and haggling t h e v e s s e l l e f t without them, f o r
they refused t o pay t h e e x t r a f i v e d o l l a r s .
They c o l l e c t i v e l y agreed t o chart-
e r a s a i l i n g vessel r a t h e r than pay t h e steamship company rate,33 The exp l o i t a t i o n by steamship companies was a common complaint of white t r a v e l l e r s ,
y e t a similar example of combined a c t i o n among whites has not been recorded.
Another example of c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n occurred when t h e B r i t i s h Columbia
Legislature passed "An Act t o provide f o r t h e B e t t e r Collection of Provincial
Taxes from t h e Chinese" i n 1878.
Laundries closed, vegetables peddlers and
Chinese merchants refused t o s e l l goods t o white people, cooks l e f t t h e i r
domestic s i t u a t i o n s and r e s t a u r a n t s , wood-cutting ceased and t h e boot and
shoe and sewing f a c t o r i e s employing Chinese workers closed.*
The s t r i k e
l a s t e d f o r one week and protested t h e implementation of a q u a r t e r l y l i c e n c e
of t e n d o l l a r s on a l l Chinese people,
The Act was declared n u l l and void i n
a decision by Judge Gray i n t h e case of T a i Chong vs. John Maguire, 35
The Shinese community w2s separate an2 t o a l a r g e extelid s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t ,
The Chinese inha3itas;ts of Yale even b u i l t a h o s p i t a l t h e r e i n 1861, before t h e
white community had such an i r l s t i t u t i a n on t h e mainland. 30
Chinese merchants imported m a t e r i a l goods f o r t h e community and operated a
banking system f o r Chinese miners and labourers, sending remittances back t o
China on t h e i r behalfe3? Thus t h e European marketing and banking systems
were by-passed.
The self-sufficiency and "alienness" of t h e Chinese community
reinforced t h e image Caucasians held of t h e majority of Chinese labourers being enslaved t o a few Chinese merchants.
The system of contracting f o r workers through an intermediary was not
l i m i t e d t o domestic service.
Baillie-Grohman w r i t e s of Chinese contractors
i n t h e Kootenays vying with each o t h e r when h e r husband advertised f o r Chin-
e s e labourers,
Obtain-
The underbid each o t h e r i n an attempt t o win t h e contract, 38
work i n t h i s manner would mean t h e labourer was indebted t o t h e
contractor, but whether t h i s was a form of s l a v e r y as white men understood it
t o be, is questionable,
I*.
J u s t i c e Crease s t a t e d t o t h e Royal Commissioners
i n 1885:
Certain degrees of labour contract of l i m i t e d duration, amounting
while it lasts t o a species of slavery, are s a i d t o be common among
them, 39
Given t h e almost t o t a l ignorance and d e f i n i t e misconceptions tiat whites
had of t h e Chinese and t h e i r s o c i a l organization it is not s u r p r i s i n g that
t h e white population viewed Chinese labour i n t h i s way,
I n addition, i n t h e
e a r l y 1880's Chinese labourers were contracted by Andrew Onderdonk, t o build
t h e Port Moody t o Savonas Ferry s e c t i o n of t h e Canadian P a c i f i c Railway,
Six
thousand Chinese were employed t o build t h i s railway i n B r i t i s h Columbia. 40
They were contracted through Chinese merchants i n B r i t i s h Columbia and San
Francisco, o r d i r e c t l y from Hong Kong,
from China fared badly.
Those who came under contract d i r e c t l y
Of two shiploads, each of one thousand Chinese men,
one t e n t h died of scurvy after a r r i v a l i n B r i t i s h Columbia i n t h e spring of
1881,~~
On completion of t h e railroad i n 1886, t h e Chinese n a w i e s were discharged i n t o t h e c o m i t y .
Some Chinese a s s e r t t h a t t h e a n a d i a n government reneged on an agreement t o pay r e t u r n passage t o China f o r contracted labour, thus 42
causirg a s e r i o u s problem of indigence i n both Vancouver and Victoria,
The white population i n t h e province had attempted i n 1879 t o prevent t h e
employment of Chinese labourers on t h i s Dominion work, sending a p e t i t i o n of
f i f t e e n hundred signatures t o t h e House of ~ o m m o n s . ~Having
~
f a i l e d t o ex-
clude them, t h e i r presence under c o n t r a c t must have r e i n f o r c e d t h e white att i t u d e t h a t a l l Chinese l a b o u r e r s were s l a v e labourers.
A f u r t h e r b e l i e f was t h a t Chinese merchants contracted l a r g e numbers of
Chinese l a b o u r e r s d i r e c t from China.
The records of t h e Chinese Benevolent
Association i n V i c t o r i a suggest t h a t Chinese merchants had l i t t l e , i f any,
c o n t r o l over Chinese immigration.
With t h e increasing a g i t a t i o n by white
l a b o u r e r s a g a i n s t t h e m i n e s e , t h i s a s s o c i a t i o n t r i e d t h r e e t i m e s between
1884 and 1915 t o discourage Chinese from immigrating t o Canada, urging t h e
44
Chinese government t o r e s t r i c t emigration.
This was motivated by concern
over t h e l a r g e number of Chinese l a b o u r e r s who were poor and unemployed, a s
one of t h e f u n c t i o n s of t h e a s s o c i a t i o n w a s t o a i d d e s t i t u t e Chinese labourers.
Chuen-Yan L a i a l s o considers t h a t t h e Chinese merchants were motivated
by s e l f - i n t e r e s t .
They f e a r e d that a continued immigration of Chinese labour-
e r s would l e a d t o antagonism d i r e c t e d a t t h e i r own class.45
Zn t h e two years,
1884-1886, t h e Chinese Benevolent Association s e n t seven thousand Chinese la46
bourers back t o China.
Chinese merchants d i d act as intermediaries between white employers and
t h e i r Chinese employees and through t h i s system t h e Chinese l a b o u r e r s were
open t o abuse from both white employers, t h e Chinese middle-men, and l a t e r ,
white labour.
Robert Dunsmuir, t h e p r o p r i e t o r of t h e Wellington Coal Mines,
employed Chinese manual labourers.
They received t h e i r wages i n d i v i d u a l l y
a t t h e pay t a b l e as white miners did.
The advantage of Chinese labour, Duns-
muir explained, was t h a t he d i d not have t o d e a l with each i n d i v i d u a l Chinese
man as he had t o with white miners.
If a Chinese man was s i c k o r d i d not
show up f o r work, a s u b s t i t u t e was found without inconvenience t o e i t h e r t h e
foreman o r t h e superintendent.47
The Chinese c o n t r a c t o r found a replacement.
The disadvantage t o t h e employer of t h i s system was t h a t i n a d i s p u t e between
t h e employer and a Chinese employee t h e whole work crew would withdraw t h e i r
labour. 48 However, t h e Vancouver Coal Mining Company i n 1867 s e t about chang-
- whereby t h e company
supplied t h e b l a s t i n g m a t e r i a l s and mining implements - t o one i n which t h e
ing its system of employment from a day-labour b a s i s
work was done by c o n t r a c t s tended by t h e miners, who were a l s o r e q u i r e d t o
supply m a t e r i a l s and implements.4g
The advantages of t h e c o n t r a c t labour sys-
tem t o t h e mining companies obviously outweighed t h e disadvantages o r t h e y
would not have attempted t o i n i t i a t e it among white miners.
The Chinese c o n t r a c t labour system l e f t plenty of o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r
abuse.
According t o David William Gordon, a Vancouver M. P. from Nanaimo,
t h e Chinese under c o n t r a c t complained b i t t e r l y t o t h e white population of
t h e i r treatment a t t h e hands of t h e Chinese "bosses*' who arranged t h e i r cont r a c t ~ . T~h e~i r e x p l o i t a t i o n was, however, of a l i n i t e d d u r a t i o n and was a
form of debt bondage.
A s c l a n a s s o c i a t i o n s a c t e d as employment agencies,
l a b o u r e r s were bound by c l a n l o y a l t i e s t o t h e i r employer.
a l s o provided some p r o t e c t i o n f o r t h e employee,
This relationship
The i n t e n t i o n of Chinese
men e a r l y i n t h e colony's h i s t o r y was t o s t a y only a s h o r t time, working i n i t a l l y t o repay t h e i r d e b t s , t h e n t o achieve t h e i r l i m i t e d goal, and t h e r e -
after r e t u r n t o China w e a l t h i e r t h a n when t h e y migrated.51
Thus t h e fact
t h a t t h e i r s i t u a t i o n was only temporary made it bearable.
Chinese women i n B r i t i s h Columbia were, however, i n s l a v e bondage and
faced e x p l o i t a t i o n on t h e grounds of r a c e and sex.
The p r e v a i l i n g view among
Occidentals was that a l l Chinese women i n B r i t i s h Columbia were p r o s t i t u t e s
o r a t l e a s t concubines.
They were economically e x p l o i t e d by Chinese a s s o c b
a t i o n s and madams, and s e x u a l l y exploited by Chinese labourers and white men,
T h i s was t o some e x t e n t a r e f l e c t i o n of t h e p o s i t i o n of women i n Chinese society.
But it was a l s o t h e r e s u l t of a pioneer s o c i e t y of predominantly young
t r a n s i e n t single men.
For Chinese men, e i t h e r unmarried o r with wives i n
China, t h e Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s served t h e i r sexual needs,
U n t i l t h e first
decade of t h e t w e n t i e t h century, s i n g l e white women were a s c a r c e commodity
i n B r i t i s h Columbia, e s p e c i a l l y o u t s i d e t h e towns,
The 1881 Census of Canada
shows B r i t i s h Columbia's female population a t 19,956 ; male population, 29,503.
I n t h e c h i l d r e n and unmarried category t h e r e were 11,503 females t o 20,294
males,
Unfortunately, t h e statistics f o r r a c i a l o r i g i n s do not include a s e x
breakdown.
The S a l v a t i o n Army sponsored female emigration from t h e United
Kingdom u n t i l World War 1, The e f f e c t of t h i s d i s p r o p o r t i o n a t e s e x r a t i o among whites r e s u l t e d i n young white men patronizing Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s .
An
a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r was t h a t t h e i r r a t e s were lower t h a n those of white women.52
I n Chinese p a t r i a r c h a l s o c i e t y women's r o l e s ;*.erecunplc*tely s u b o u i i r ~ t e
t o t h a t of men, and women had l i t t l e c o n t r o l over t h e i r
o r children.
Her value as a human being was i d e o l o g i c a l l y devalued by a p a t r i a r c h a l rel i g i o n which claimed t h a t :
t h e reason f o r t h e i r having been s e n t i n t o t h e world, t h i s time
as females is because of l i v e s of wickedness, o r f o r some p e c u l i a r crime
i n t h e previous e x i s t e n c e .54
Women were kept i n subservience and obedience by t h e promise of a b e t t e r l i f e
i n t h e i r next reincarnation.
I n h e r previous l i f e , she was t o l d ,
You would not then d e s i r e t o adorn v i r t u e , t o heap up good actions,
and l e a r n t o do well: s o t h a t now you have been hopelessly born a poor
female; and if you do not t h i s second time speedily amend your f a u l t s ,
t h i s amount of wickedness of yours w i l l be g e t t i n g both deeper and heavi e r , s o t h a t it is t o be feared, i n t h e next stage of existence, even
i f you should wish f o r a male's body, yet it w i l l be very d i f f i c u l t t o
obtain it .55
I n p r a c t i c e she was considered t h e property of her f a t h e r o r husband, and her
r o l e confined t o t h e home.
A daughter was considered of l e s s value than a
son f o r t h e former would marry and thence her labour and reproductive capai
however,
c i t i e s would be l o s t t o her f a t h e r ' s household and ~ i n e a g e . ~son,
could be r e l i e d upon t o support and honour h i s parents i n t h e i r old age,
periods of severe economic hardship, female i n f a n t i c i d e was practiced.
In
The
dowry system r e s u l t e d i n t h e s a l e of wives and daughters as s l a v e s , concubines
o r prostitutes
.57
Women's seclusion i n t h e home was reinforced by t h e custom of foot-binding
which severely r e s t r i c t e d t h e i r mobility?
Thus, Chinese custom and s o c i a l
pressure, and physical incapacity, prescribed t h a t women remain i n China,
even when t h e i r husbands migrated.
Other f a m i l i e s "had no.meansN t o enable
women and children t o come t o t h e colony.59
Also, i n t h e e a r l y period of s e t -
tlement, Chinese men d i d not migrate with t h e i n t e n t i o n of permanently leaving
China.
They planned t o r e t u r n a f t e r a few years i n t h e colony.
China before they had reached marriageable age.
Many l e f t
I n i t i a l l y it was only a few
Chinese merchants who brought t h e i r families here.
The first Chinese woman
i n B r i t i s h Columbia, f o r instance, was t h e wife of t h e Victoria merchant
Kwong Lee.
~ Sishop of Columbia, while he was a t
She a r r i v e d i n 1 8 6 0 . ~ The
Douglas i n 1861, v i s i t e d a Chinese man, h i s wife and child, which he reported
t o be "a g r e a t r a r i t y i n t h i s part of t h e world".61
She d i d not have small
feet.
Women were a l s o brought i n a s wives and concubines.
Lady Dufferin,
while she resided i n Victoria, noted i n her journal t h e v i s i t by t h e wife
of h e r Chinese cook.
She w r i t e s t
Poor baby t h a t she is, she has only been married a week, and has
not known Ah Sam, who is an e l d e r l y and very ugly gentlemen, much longer. 62
Ah Sam must have resided i n Victoria f o r some years f o r he had cooked f o r
s i x Governors p r i o r t o t h e ~ u f f e r i n s . ~It~ is not c l e a r whether Ah San had
a wife i n China o r whether t h i s was h i s f i r s t wife.
West coast mining towns were predominantly male.
Recreational o u t l e t s
i n Chinatowns were limited t o opium smoking, gambling, and b r o t h e l v i s i t s ,
l u c r a t i v e businesses f o r Chinese associations.
cured i n s e v e r a l ways.
Women f o r brothels were pro-
The p r a c t i c e of s e l l i n g daughters
t h e i r escaping from poverty, famine, sickness and war
- i n t h e hopes of
- was one avenue.
Other
64
women came under t h e mistaken asswnption t h a t they would be married on a r r i v a l .
Some came under contract, t h e debts of passage and o t h e r expenses t o be paid
from t h e i r expected wages as domestics and on t h e understanding t h a t they
would be freed from bondage on t h e i r eighteenth birthday.65
napped during r a i d s on v i l l a g e s and forced t o leave
Others were kidI n 1869, A. W.
Loomis published t h e t r a n s l a t i o n of a proclamation posted i n San Francisco,
which t o l d t h e s t o r y of a Chinese woman, Ah Shau.
She had been kidnapped i n
a r a i d on h e r v i l l a g e , taken t o Macao, and then t o Hong Kong before being
located i n a San Francisco brothel.
She was "constantly subjected t o d i s t r e s -
sing persecutions" t o f o r c e h e r i n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n .
Her brother asked f o r as-
s i s t a n c e from h i s clan members t o recover her and t h e case was brought before
t h e C a l i f o r n i a n Courts.
Ah Shau's b r o t h e r l o s t t h e case because "the defend-
a n t had more money t h a n t h e p l a i n t i f f " ,
he claimed,
Ah Shau was never re-
t r i e v e d . 67
The Feverend Otis Gibson, a Methodist missionary of t e n y e a r s i n China,
and e i g h t y e a r s i n San Francisco, was interviewed by t h e 1876 committee on
Chinese Immigration.
A s he was f l u e n t i n two of t h e Cantonese d i a l e c t s , h i s
information is probably more r e l i a b l e t h a n t h a t of most white witnesses.
presented t r a n s l a t i o n s of two c o n t r a c t s signed by two p r o s t i t u t e s .
c o n t r a c t Ah Ho was i n d e b t f o r $630.00,
He
I n one
She agreed t o "give h e r body t o Mr.
Yee f o r s e r v i c e as a p r o s t i t u t e f o r a term of f o u r yearst.' i n r e t u r n f o r h i s
payment of t h e d e b t she owed, a d e b t incurred f o r h e r passage over.68
During
t h e s e f o u r y e a r s s h e was t o r e c e i v e no wages, and if she r a n away h e r mistress
(from whoni Mr. Yee bought h e r ) was t o f i n d h e r and r e t u r n h e r t o Y ee-Kwan.
Ah Ho w a s t o be r e s p o n s i b l e f o r such a d d i t i o n a l d e b t s ,
If she became ill h e r
s e r v i c e c o n t r a c t was t o be extended by an e x t r a month f o r each t e n days she
was "off duty".
I n t h e second c o n t r a c t Loi Yau was indebted t o h e r mistress
Sep Sam f o r f o u r and one h a l f years, receiving no wages.
she was t o pay t h e expenses incurred i n r e t u r n i n g her.
t o China t h e n Loi Yau was t o s e r v e another party.
she was ill, she was t o s e r v e a n e x t r a month.
If s h e r a n away
If Sep Sam r e t u r n e d
For each f i f t e e n days t h a t
If s h e was ill f o r one hundred
days o r more and could not be cured s h e had t h e option of r e t u r n i n g t o Sep
Sam, 69
These two c o n t r a c t s g i v e evidence of t h e a b s o l u t e bondage i n which women
were held and h i n t a t t h e l i f e that Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s endured,
Some of
t h e s e women t r i e d t o escape from t h e b r o t h e l s , but i n C a l i f o r n i a t h e i r attempts were f r u s t r a t e d by t h e police.
It is a l l e g e d , however, t h a t when a Chinawoman escapes from a brot h e l t h e r e is wonderful a c t i v i t y manifested i n c e r t a i n q u a r t e r s b e e . ,
t h e p o l i c e f o r c d t o r e c a p t u r e t h e runaway and r e t u r n h e r t o h e r v i l e .
den wherein she has shown a d i s i n c l i n a t i o n t o r e s i d e , a s p e c i a l pecuni a r y b e n e f i t accruing from such s e r v i c e s being represented as inducement. 70
Thus t h e system of female ownership leading t o degradation, demoralisation,
d i s e a s e and death was upheld by t h e white l e g a l system.?'
Laws d i r e c t e d spe-
c i f i c a l l y a t Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s were enacted, many being Health Ordinances,
but most were not enforced,72
However, "by 1865 three-fourths of a l l Chinese
arrests were of p r o ~ t i t u t e s " . ~Most
~
of t h e s e arrests were under bogus warr a n t s , and few went t o trial.
It w a s through t h i s system t h a t Chinese women
who had escaped from t h e b r o t h e l s were r e t u r n e d by l a w enforcement o f f i c e r s ,
who received a pay-off f o r t h e i r t r o u b l e ,
The a t t i t u d e o f "good c i t i z e n s "
w a s t h a t Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s were a necessity,
The white family was "much
more sacred and more puree,74 with t h e i r presence.
This C a l i f o r n i a n evidence is of value because it influenced t h e Commfss i o n e r s i n 1884 and t h e r e f o r e t h e i r f i n a l r e p o r t and recommendations,
Also,
evidence presented before t h i s Canadian Commission demonstrates t h a t a similar
system functioned on a smaller s c a l e i n B r i t i s h Columbia, although c a r e must
be taken i n s i f t i n g through t h e evidence o f obviously prejudiced white men
who looked f o r
- and t h u s found - a p r o s t i t u t e i n every Chinese woman.
The
overwhelming opinion of witnesses was t h a t a l l Chinese women i n B r i t i s h Columb i a were p r o s t i t u t e s , 7 5 although t h e Chinese Consulate a t San Francisco, HuangS i c Chen.,presented statistics of t h e numbers of Chinese and t h e i r occupations,
b
i
which show t h a t Chinese women i n t h e province numbered one hundred and f i f t y f i v e of whom sixty-seven were p r o s t i t u t e s i n 1884. 76
Evidence does demonstrate t h a t Chinese women were bought and s o l d i n
B r i t i s h Columbia.
A Chinese Rescue Home was s e t up i n 1887 i n Victoria by
Its object was t o rescue women from being
t h e Women's Missionary Society.
"enslaved" and t h e Commissioners i n 1884 praised t h e s o c i e t y f o r "checking
t h e t r a f f i c i n s l a v e g i r l s more e f f e c t i v e l y than could possibly be done by
.
paid o f f i c i a l s " 77 The b r o t h e l business caused problems i n Victoria8s Ohinatown a s evidenced by t h e reasons given f o r t h e formation of t h e Consolidated
Benevolent Association i n victoria.'18
I n t h e Royal Commission Report, Begbie
explained t h a t a Chinese man could buy a woman f o r f i v e hundred d o l l a r s and
t h i s permitted him complete possession of h e r f o r a period of s i x months, o r
u n t i l they disagreed, 79
It is evidence t h a t t h e female is a mere slave, and t h a t opinion
is conclusively established when t h e husband, a f t e r t h e fashion of h i s
people, hands h e r over t o a second husband f o r a similar amount, The
woman is a s l a v e s o l d i n t o prostitution.80
It was common knowledge t h a t Chinese women were s o l d i n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n .
One witness, a r e s i d e n t of Forks Quesnelle, who had l i v e d i n t h e mining sect i o n of t h e Cariboo f o r twenty-five years s t a t e d ;
It is a fact that t h e
would any domestic animal.
s e l l and t r a d e t h e i r females j u s t a s we
h
John Tindal, a r e s i d e n t i n t h e province s i n c e 1862, expressed t h e same s e n t i ments.82
P r o s t i t u t i o n was not limited t o Victoria and t h e Cariboo.
The Sher-
men than among white women,83 although Huang S i c Chen's population statistics
show t h a t a t o t a l of t h i r t e e n Chinese women lived i n New Westminster of whom
seven were p r o s t i t u t e s .
84
John Westhrop Carey, t h e Mayor of Victoria, and a
r e s i d e n t s i n c e 1859, expressed t h e predominant a t t i t u d e of whites t o Chinese
women:
if they were not p r o s t i t u t e s then they were second wives.
In either
case, they were immoral and not respectable. 85
Chinese women were stereotyped i n t h i s way because they were Chinese but
a l s o because they were women.
White men, seeing s o few Chinese women among
a community of s i n g l e Chinese men, saw t h e i r function i n sexual terms.
Chin-
ese men were degraded and degenerate, therefore, by association, were Chinese
women.
The system of p r o s t i t u t i o n t h a t existed was taken as f u r t h e r evidence
of t h e innate character flaws of t h e Chinese race, and proof t h a t none should
be welcomed as s e t t l e r s .
Indian labourers.
I n c o n t r a s t , B r i t i s h Guiana imported Chinese and
Plantation owners r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e success of t h e contract
labour scheme r e s t e d on t h e importation of Chinese and Indian women too,
86
f o r t h e i r presence l e d t o "an eminent improvement of morality i n t h e Colonies".
Also, one suspects, t h e presence of families would mean, economically, it was
more f e a s i b l e f o r labourers t o remain i n B r i t i s h Guiana r a t h e r than demand
tack passage when t h e i r contract ended.87
Hcdever, white B r i t i s h Columbkns
d i d not want an a l i e n community i n t h e i r midst and t h u s Chinese female emig r a t i o n was not encouraged.
p
I n fact, t h e Victoria Gazette c a l l e d f o r t h e
prohibition of "depraved" Chinese female immigrants as e a r l y a s 1859.
88
I
i
L
k
The i s s u e of Chinese female immigration demonstrates t h e cumulative na-
ture of racism.
S o c i a l customs existed i n China that were a b a r r i e r t o female
emigration, but some wives d i d emigrate.
However, t h e prejudiced view and
racism of white s e t t l e r s i n B r i t i s h Columbia was not conducive t o Chinese
settlement, and t h e introduction of a p o l l t a x e f f e c t i v e l y prevented it.
The
Chinese population remained predominantly s i n g l e and male u n t i l a f t e r 1946.
Thus t h e combination o f t h e prejudiced a t t i t u d e and Chinese s o c i a l custom res u l t e d i n a n i n t e n s i f i c a t i o n of racism.
The lack of females i n Chinatown was
seen as evidence of t h e immorality of t h e Chinese race and provided f u r t h e r
support t o arguments f o r t h e i r r e s t r i c t i o n .
Chinatowns throughout B r i t i s h Columbia were separate from t h e white community and highly v i s i b l e .
i n f e r i o r i t y a s a race.
This l e d t o f u r t h e r accusations concerning t h e i r
I n Victoria, i n 1860, f o r instance, Chinatown covered
a rectangle formed by Yates, Fort, Quadra and Cook S t r e e t s .
Mot only was it
separate but
it was from a r e s i d e n t i a l point of view a most undesirable a r e a ,
There was a two-acre lake between Yates and Cook S t r e e t
a l l dry
land was a t a ~ r e m i u m . ~ 9
...
Lytton was a l s o a segregated town i n t h e sense t h a t t h e Chinese s e c t i o n was
distinct.
The upper part of t h e town was Occidental while
i n t h e lower part of t h e town, which is c h i e f l y inhabited by Chinese, t h e r e a r e f o u r bakers, f i v e shops, f o u r r e ~ t a u r a n t s . 9 ~
Of Barkerville i n 1865, t h e B r i t i s h Columbian reported t h a t a l a r g e number
of Chinese were building houses close t o Barkerville, t h e implication being
that a Chinatown was being b u i l t separate from t h e white town.91
community d i d not want t h e Chinese as neighbours.
The white
They feared an a l i e n com-
.
munity i n close proximity.
These f e a r s were o f t e n voiced i n terms of moral-
i t y o r h e a l t h a t a time when medical science had come t o recognize t h e connect i o n between d i r t , overcrowding, and disease.
However, r a t h e r than understand-
ing t h e s e problems t o be dependent on t h e s o c i a l and physical environment,
white B r i t i s h Colwnbians r e l a t e d them t o t h e character of t h e Chinese race and
demanded t h e i r exclusion. 92
A s e a r l y as 1866 t h e B r i t i s h Columbian lambasted t h e f i l t h of Chinatown
i n an invocatory a r t i c l e t i t l e d T h e Approach of t h e Cholera
- Prepare".
It
described Chinatown's s t r e e t s as;
almost inundated with stagnant water, its l a n e s and back yards lite r a l l y reeking with f i l t h , Indians, Chinese, and whites more degraded
than e i t h e r , huddled promiscuously together i n low and noisome hovels,
we say Victoria presents a f e r t i l e f i e l d of operation f o r t h e coming
pestilence .93
The Reverend P h i l i p Dwyer expressed t h e same f e a r s t o t h e Royal Commissioners.
Their houses, and yards, and s t r e e t s , and d r a i n s (such as t h e latt e r a r e i n v i c t o r i a ) , a r e offensive a l i k e t o t h e senses of s i g h t and
smell; and should any epidemic a r i s e , t h e combination of Chinese, l i v ing on low d i e t and congested amidst reeking o f f a l and f e c a l matter,
, sooner o r l a t e r
must breed i f not spread plague o r pestilence
"Chinatown" must become a mine of d e s t r u c t i v e influences, operative over
a wide radius, a g a i n s t t h e l i f e and health of t h e c i t y of victoria,*
..
Thus, t h e f a c t t h a t they l i v e d i n a low l y i n g a r e a of t h e c i t y with l i t t l e o r
no drainage,95 t h a t human f e r t i l i z e r was kept f o r gardens, and t h a t they l i v e d
i n crowded q u a r t e r s upset t h e d e l i c a t e s e n s i b l i t i e s of t h e white community.
A common b e l i e f expressed by John Robson was t h a t disease, e s p e c i a l l y leprosy,
s y p h i l i s , and small-pox,
originated i n Chinatown,
I do not know of any contagious d i s e a s e s amongst them, but t h e Chinese q u a r t e r s a r e look
upon with f e a r and trembling when any contagious
disease comes around,
%
These myths were d i s p e l l e d by witnesses before t h e
i n d i c a t o r s of t h e f e r o c i t y of r a c i a l prejudice,
om mission.^^
They a r e
Not one witness placed t h e
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r Chinatown's drainage problems where it should have resteO
- on t h e l o c a l a u t h o r i t i e s .
The t a x e s paid by Chinese i n Victoria included
t r a d e s licences, water r e n t s , road taxes and r e a l e s t a t e taxes, t h e bulk of
t h e revenue coming from t r a d e licences and water r e n t s , 98 Yet t h e c i t y , it
would seem, d i d not provide adequate s e r v i c e s i n r e t u r n ,
It was not only Chinato-m t h a t was viewed as disease-ridden,
Individual
Chinese were seen as t h e c a r r i e r s of diseases, p a r t i c u l a r l y venereal disease.
One witness who had resided i n t h e province s i n c e 1862 presented t h e following
evidence t o t h e Commiasionersr
Some very feeble-looking Chinanen I have seen s i t t i n g by t h e roads i d e were turned out by t h e i r countrymen and not allowed t o come near
them, t h a t they were suffering from a dangerous and very i n f e c t i o u s comp l a i n t ; t h a t i f a person even s a t on a c h a i r they had occupied t h e disease would be transmitted,99
Dr, Helmcken considered t h a t they were "crowded and d i r t y r a t h e r from choice,
perhaps than necessity". loo Although t h e majority of witnesses could not
disagree t h a t t h e individual Chinese was clean i n her/his person, they believed t h a t t h e Chinese, as a race, were f i l t h y i n t h e i r h a b i t s ,
The Chinese l i v e d i n dormitory-type dwellings i n Chinatown that were, by
white standards, over-crowded,
k
Caucasians i n f e r r e d from t h i s t h a t t h e Chin-
ese labourers were not f r e e agents but were kept t h e r e a g a i n s t t h e i r w i l l ,
exploited by t h e i r Chinese landlords.
However, t h e t a x f i g u r e s f o r t h e c i t y
of Victoria i n d i c a t e that t h e r e were only f o u r Chinese r e a l e s t a t e owners i n
the city,
The overcrowding was t o some extent a r e s u l t of t h e i r s o c k 1
organization but it was white landlords who demanded t h e high r e n t s and as a
consequence contributed t o t h e overcrowding. lo2 A s J u s t i c e Crease s t a t e d
t o t h e Commission:
This i n B r i t i s h Columbia is d i r e c t l y owing t o t h e f a c t t h a t a s
foreigners, held i n dangerous disesteem by a n a c t i v e s e c t i o n of t h e
whites, they n a t u r a l l y c l i n g together f o r protection and support. Their
very language keeps them together and apart from t h e whites; but much
of t h i s overcrowding is a t t r i b u t a b l e t o t h e whites themselves, who ext o r t heavy r e n t s from them f o r very scant house accomodation, and they
accentuate t h e very e v i l f o r nhich i n public they profess such profound
d i s l i k e . 103
This combination of crowded l i v i n g q u a r t e r s and a predominantly male
population l e d t o t h e stereotyping of t h e "immoral Chinese".
James Young,
t h e recording s e c r e t a r y f o r t h e Knights of Labor, Eanaimo, s t a t e d ;
I have never y e t seen s o many white people with s o few women among
them; but wherever I have known any considerable number of men deprived
of female s o c i e t y f o r any length of time, t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t has been
t h a t they have become coarser. The i n t e l l e c t is depraved, t h e whole
moral tone is lowered, and men rush i n t o a g r e a t e r depth of wickedness
and vice than would otherwise have been possible. Such is t h e e f f e c t
amongst white men, even of t h e b e t t e r c l a s s , and I judge t h a t t h e e f f e c t
is s i m i l a r amongst t h e Chinese, o n l y i t m u s t be worse amongst them, seeing t h a t t h e standald of morality with them is immensely below ours.iW
D r . Stevenson countered as "abominable slander"105 t h e claim t h a t sodomy was
practised among t h e male Chinese.
With t h e a t t i t u d e that t h e morality of
t h e Chinese was lower than that of whites, that t h e r e was more vice among
t h e Chinese, t h e white population saw t h e Chinese as a threat t o t h e moral
f i b r e of t h e community.
They were accused of e n t i c i n g white
and
young white menio8 i n t o t h e i r brothels, and complaints were made of i n s u l t s
white men encountered while walking through Chinatown s t r e e t s "by t h e s o l i c i t a t i o n s of depraved Chinese". 105'
Much was made of t h e i r opium smoking and they were accused of spreading
t h i s h a b i t t o working men and white women, even white g i r l s of "respectable
The only white woman seen by t h e Commissioners i n t h e i r v i s i t
- and t h e only woman interviewed
by t h e Commissioners i n B r i t i s h Columbia - permitted them t o interview her
t o t h e opium dens of Victoria's Chinatown
and advanced
a very d i f f e r e n t view of Chinese men.
She explained t h a t she
needed opium t o l i v e , that she was "a fast woman" and t h a t "troubles" l e d
her t o smoke.
When asked i f she had ever been i n t e r f e r e d with by a Chinese
man she answered no
- " i n t h a t respect they a r e far s u p e r i o r t o white men".
She considered that non-opium-smoking Chinese men
a r e f a r more c e r t a i n not t o offend o r m l e s t a woman than white
men, e s p e c i a l l y white men with a g l a s s in. 11
?
Her opinion was, however, a minority one.
? r e v d e n t wczs
t h e negative view expressed by one witness who considered t h e Chinese t o be
i n f e r i o r because they did not g e t drunk l i k e Ehrropeans,
He said8
They only g e t s t u p i d l y drunk, l i k e animals when intoxicated. 4
man must have brains t o e t h i l a r i o u s l y t i p s y and noisy under t h e influence of strong drink. Pi2
Their "paganism" and lack of "proper respect" f o r C h r i s t i a n i t y provided furt h e r evidence of t h e i r i n a b i l i t y t o a s s i m i l a t e ,
Another witness was asked
what t h e difference was between g e t t i n g drunk o r smoking opium.
He r e p l i e d
l
I
I
t h a t "one was a Christian h a b i t , t h e o t h e r was a heathen vice".
This
statement contains i n a n u t s h e l l t h e content of t h e h o s t i l i t y of whites t o
Chinese.
Viewing t h e i r own c u l t u r e a s superior, t h e white community stereo-
typed t h e Chinese people a s l e s s e r human beings, more prone t o vice, immorality,
and uncleanliness and saw t h i s view confirmed i n t h e Chinese community,
Armed
with t h i s "evidence" of Chinese r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y , white B r i t i s h Colwnbians
c a l l e d f o r l e g i s l a t i v e powers t o r e s t r i c t t h e i r a c t i v i t i e s i n t h e province,
and, eventually, t h e i r e n t r y i n t o Canada,
The e f f e c t s of white a t t i t u d e s on Chinese people were economic, s o c i a l ,
psychological and p o l i t i c a l ,
The white community was aware of t h e s i t u a t i o n
of Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s yet t h e majority r e a c t i o n was t o stereotype a l l ChinBy acquiescence t o t h e s t a t u s quo t h i s system of
e s e women as p r o s t i t u t e s ,
Chinese men were zelegated t o t h e low paying,
female slavery was upheld.
low s t a t u s jobs t h a t white men would not do,
of t h e i r work was seasonal
road construction
- i n t h e sawmills,
By t h e 1870's and 1880's much
salmon canneries, and on rail-
- and t h i s added t o t h e density and problems of
Chinatowns,
e s p e c i a l l y Victoria, i n t h e winter months, 115
The Chinese were poor labourers, on t h e whole, dependent f o r t h e i r l i v e lihood on a h o s t i l e white community.
Being sojourners, dependent on white
o r Chinese bosses, confined t o Chinatown by t h e h o s t i l i t y of whites t o t h e i r
h a b i t s , d r e s s and customs
- by t h e i r obvious a l i e n n e s s - t h e p i c t u r e of them
being p a t i e n t d o c i l e workers is understandable.
o r a t least a d a p t a b i l i t y ,
Dependency implies conformity
This passive and d o c i l e image has been perpetuated
by Anglo-Saxon h i s t o r i a n s who have accepted t h e r a c i s t stereotype a t face
value and t h u s have ignored t h e economic, p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l reasons f o r
t h i s mode of action.
Subservience was a response t o t h e hardship and op-
pression t h a t t h e Chinese faced i n an a l i e n and h o s t i l e land, not a characteri s t i c innate t o Asians,
'''
The fact t h a t few intended t o s t a y long would tend
t o make t o l e r a b l e working and l i v i n g conditions which on a life-time basis
would be i n t o l e r a b l e ,
Aside from t h i s , what has been ignored axe t h e many
attempts t h a t e a r l y Chinese immigrants made t o f i g h t white racism,
This was
done through individual a c t s of r e b e l l i o n , s t r i k e a c t i o n , co-operative a c t i v i t i e s t h r o w h t h e i r various associations, and by f i g h t i n g l o c a l l e g i s l a t i o n
through t h e court system, 117
The Federal Government refused t o permit r e s t r i c t i v e immigration l a w s
before t h e promised railway was b u i l t as Chinese labourers were "necessary"
f o r t h i s public work,
But by 1885 it was no longer necessary t o import Chin-
ese men f o r railway construction.
Therefore, t h e Federal Government brought
i n l e g i s l a t i o n t h a t r e s t r i c t e d t h e number of Chinese permitted t o be carried
on a v e s s e l t o B r i t i s h Columbia, and i n s t i g a t e d a f i f t y d o l l a r p o l l tax.
Pro-
v i n c i a l and municipal governments prohibited t h e employment of Chinese upon
public works, '18 and t h e former passed a l a w i n 1884 prohibiting t h e Chinese
from buying land.
The municipal government i n Victoria passed s a n i t a r y or-
dinances and t r a d e l i c e n s e s d i r e c t e d s p e c i f i c a l l y a t t h e Chinese and t h e i r
occupations,
One such a c t , passed i n 1878, and s a i d t o be a h e a l t h measure,
was d i r e c t e d a t t h e Chinese men's queues.
h a i r cut.
A l l long-term prisoners had t h e i r
With t h e memory of b r u t a l experiences i n t h e gold f i e l d s and e a r l y
settlement period, with t h e s i t u a t i o n of and a t t i t u d e toward Chinese railway
n a w i e s (when many Chinese men were dying of vitamin d e f i c i e n c i e s i n t h e hard
winter of 1882-1883, no medical a s s i s t a n c e was supplied by t h e railway cont r a c t o r s ) , t h e Chinese l e a r n t t h a t s u r v i v a l necessitated a s t o l i d acceptance
of t h e s t a t u s quo.
Classed as a l i e n s , prohibited from voting provincially, 119
o r f e d e r a l l y , t h e Chinese could do l i t t l e t o change t h e i r s i t u a t i o n , f o r t h e
dominant white community had placed t h e Chinese i n a p o l i t i c a l l y powerless
position. 120
Organized labour considered t h a t it was impossible t o co-operate o r work
with t h e Chinese. 12'
Thus t h e Chinese functioned as a reserve supply of cheap
labour which undermined t h e position of white male workers.
A representative
of t h e Knights of Labor voiced t o t h e 1884 Royal Commissioners t h e p a r t i c u l a r
f e a r s of t h e working c l a s s as well as those f e a r s of disease, f i l t h , prost i t u t i o n , gambling and opium smoking which a l l c l a s s e s expressed.
The addi-
t i o n a l f e a r was t h a t :
Their mode of l i v i n g , a few cents per day, and t h e absence of fami l i e s among them w i l l make t h e white men powerless t o compete against
them f o r l a b o r . 1 2 7
The argument was not t h a t Chinese labour was cheap labour, but r a t h e r
Chinese l a b o r is confessedly of a low, degraded, and s e r v i l e type,
t h e i n e v i t a b l e r e s u l t of whose employment i n competition with f r e e white
l a b o r is- t o loy,eg and degrade t h e l a t t e r without any appreciable elevation
of t h e fomer.lLJ
-
Again, t h e f e a r expressed was t h a t t h e Chinese would:
Become a l l t o o dangerous competitors i n t h e l a b o r market, while
t h e i r d o c i l e s e r v i l i t y , t h e n a t u r a l outcome of centuries of grinding
poverty and humble submission t o a most oppressive system of government,
renders them doubly dangerous as t h e w i l l i n g t o o l s whereby grasping and
t y r a n n i c a l employers grind down a l l labor t o t h e lowest l i v i w point.124
I n 1884 t h e Chinese did not compete with s k i l l e d male labor.
This was
recognized by t h e Knights of Labor and other working c l a s s witnesses before
t h e Commission.
But t h e presence of Chinese labourers meant t h a t t h e sons
and daughters of t h e working c l a s s could not obtain employment u n t i l they
reached maturity.
Thus they could not contribute t o t h e family income i n t h e
normal way by working a s unskilled labourers o r a s domestics. 12'
Neither did
126
they receive t h e necessary s o c i a l i z a t i o n and t r a i n i n g i n d i l i g e n t work habits.
The f e a r r a i s e d was t h a t white employers would extend t h e employment of Chine s e i n t o t h e s k i l l e d s e c t o r s on t h e grounds t h a t they were l e s s trouble.
If
t h i s gave those employers an advantage it would mean t h a t t o compete, o t h e r
employers would a l s o have t o employ t h e Chinese. '27
~ h u s ,t o prevent an ex-
tension of Dunsmuir's policy i n t h e Wellington C o l l i e r i e s , t h e Knights of
Labour demanded "as a r i g h t , t h a t t h e f u r t h e r immigration of Chinese be a t
once stopped".
128
Organized Labour's a g i t a t i o n against t h e Chinese was focused a t h'anaimo
and was t h e r e s u l t of b i t t e r experience i n t h e coal mines where t h e Chinese
had been used a s a weapon t o s e t t l e s t r i k e s .
By using t h e Chinese as a
weapon against white workers, employers bred h o s t i l i t y and divided t h e labour
f o r c e t o t h e i r advantage.
The use of t h e Chinese created uncertainty and in-
s e c u r i t y among working men and a n anti-Chinese platform was one of t h e major
i s s u e s around which workers unionised from 1884.
130
One witness before t h e Commission described t h e prevalent prejudice aptljr
as "self defense".
I n 1885 working people feared t h a t t h e Chinese would
take over s k i l l e d jobs; small businessmen saw t h e Chinese dominate such oc-
cupations a s t h e laundry business and vegetable growing and marketing, and
feared t h e i r extension i n t o o t h e r businesses; white merchants saw t h e Chinese
people purchasing t h e i r material needs from Chinese merchants, and consequently by-passing white establishments.
The Chinese were industrious,
economical, and sober, and a s one witness s t a t e d :
What is most annoying, t h e y come here and beat us on our own ground
i n supplying our own wants, 133
F.
The f e a r was t h a t unchecked they would supersede t h e Occidentals,
Industry, s o b r i e t y , cleanliness, f a i t h f u l n e s s , peaceableness w i l l
have t h e victory. Is our race worth saving? That is t h e question.i%
Thus, t h e superior a t t i t u d e of Occidentals was based on a profound insecurity.
This i n s e c u r i t y was not s o l e l y economic, although t h e f e a r was de-
veloping t h a t t h e Chinese were competing i n t h e system t o o well, t h a t t h e i r
co-operation and exclusiveness was detrimental t o white i n d i v i d u a l i s t i c ,
i
i
small-scale capitalism,
But t h e f e a r voiced over and over again w a s t h a t t h e
morality of whites was debased with t h e presence and contact of Chinese people.
The moral e f f e c t on whites of being s o unfortunate as t o be placed
on t h e same l e v e l and obliged t o comingle with Chinese on a n equal footing i n t h e b a t t l e of l i f e would be bad, t o o bad f o r any respectable
Canadian t o contemplate, 135
This f e a r of pollution is not t h e voice of a self-confident people.
Commis-
s i o n e r Gray s t a t e d i n h i s findings8
It is something strange t o hear t h e strong broad-shouldered superi o r race, superior physically and mentally, sprung from t h e highest types
of t h e old and t h e new world, expressing a f e a r of competition with a
small i n f e r i o r , and comparit i v e l y speaking, feminine race. 36
Gray s t a t e d t h a t t h e r e were i n fact no more grounds f o r excluding t h e Chinese
than t h e r e were f o r excluding "any o t h e r c l a s s of d i r t y people". 137
Yet t h e
Commissioners brought forward recommendations t o r e s t r i c t t h e Chinese people
on t h e grounds of such r a t i o n a l i s a t i o n s .
Although t h e A d of 1885 d i d not
s a t i s f y B r i t i s h Columbians, it was very s i g n i f i c a n t .
A s Canada's f i r s t r a c i -
a l l y discriminatory immigration a c t it marked t h e change in immigration policy
which was t o l e a d t o t h e exclusion of Chinese immigrants i n 1923.
It was t h e
consequence of a t t i t u d e s which distinguished between people on grounds of race,
This was not simply a matter of physical appearance, f o r it implied a d e f i n i t e
r a c i a l h e r i t a g e of mental a b i l i t i e s , tendencies, h a b i t s , c u l t u r e , language and
morality.
By emphasizing what were determined a s negative t r a i t s , Caucasions
argued f o r r e s t r i c t i o n on Chinese a c t i v i t i e s and demanded t h e i r exclusion
from t h e province of B r i t i s h Columbia.
Footnotes (chapter 111):
1.
Vakeman, Strangers a t t h e Gate, p. 3 .
The Taiping revolution occurred between 1850-1864 and began t h e d i s i n t e g r a t i o n of t h e Chinese Empire. Ping-ti Ho considers t h a t t h e 20
30 million estimate of l i v e s l o s t is t o o low. Yriting i n 1359 he
s t a t e s t h a t some counties s t i l l have not made up t h e population numbers of 1850. Ping-ti Ho, Studies on t h e Population of China, 13681953, pp. 246-275,
-
2.
Ta Chen, Chinese Migration, with Special Reference t o Labor Conditions,
(washington, Government P r i n t i n g Off ice, 1923), pp. 5-1 1. Willmott
"Approaches t o t h e Study of t h e Chinese i n B r i t i s h Columbia", p. 41.
Also, Ping-ti Ho, p. 221.
,
3.
Pyau Ling, "Causes of Chinese Emigration" i n Rootst An Asian American
Reader, Ed. Amy Tachiki, Eddie Yong Franklin Odo, Buck Wong (California, UCLA Press. 1971), p, 137 &.hanks
t o Stewart Wow f o r t h i s
referencd.
4,
Pyau Ling's a r t i c l e , f i r s t published i n 1912, explains emigration from
Xwangturg i n terms of t h e peculiar l o c a l character of t h e Chinese.
The p o l i t i c a l independence of t h i s a r e a is stressed. Canton d i d
not j o i n t h e C e l e s t i a l Empire u n t i l t h e Ming dynasty and refused t o
submit t o t h e despotic r u l e of t h e c e n t r a l government. I n addition
t h e e a r l y commercialism of t h e a r e a exposed people t o a wider world.
bid., ?p. 135-136.
-
5.
Chuen-Yan David Lai, "Home County and Clan Origins", pp. 12-13.
6.
Willmott, "Approaches", p. 40. For f u r t h e r infoxmation on t h e functions
of clan organizations i n China s e e Fong Kum Wgon, 'The Chinese S i x
Companies", Overland Monthly, Volume X X I I I , (May 1SC!. ) , 2 ~ 51
. 8--5Zi,
7.
Chuen-Yan David Lai, "Home County", pp. 18-19, Chain migration appears t o
have been t h e usual mode of emigration. Karl Cutzlaff writing i n
1840 describes chain migration of t h e Chinese of Kwangtung and
Fukien provinces t o Siam. The l a r g e s t number came from Chaou-Chowfoo, t h e most e a s t e r n p a r t of Kwangtung and were mostly a g r i c u l t u r ists. Members of another d i s t i n c t group ( t h e Khehs o r ~ u k k a s )were
chiefly a r t i s a n s i n Siam. A few migrated from Tungan d i s t r i c t of
Fukien and were mostly s a i l o r s o r merchants, Karl Gutzlaff, Journ a l of t h r e e voyages along t h e coast of China i n 1831, 1832 and
I
1
I
I
I
I
I
1833 with notices of Siam, etc., ondo don, 1840) quoted i n Victor
Purcell, The Chinese i n Southeast A s i a ondo don, Oxford University
Press, 19661, p. 84.
Evelyn brr, "Chinese Settlement i n Kamloops", i n Know Your Local H i s t o r y , S e r i e s No. 200, ( ~ a r n l o o ~~useum).
s
Chuen-Yan David Lai, "Home County", p. 20.
pp. 522-526.
See a l s o , Fong Kum Ngon,
Chuen-Yan David Lai "Hone County", p. 20, p. 29.
I n t h i s excellent a r t i c l e , L a i provides s u b s t a n t i a l evidence demonstrating t h e "chain migration" nature of Chinese immigration t o B. C.
Although h i s d a t a is from t h e e a r l y 1880's one can assume t h a t t h i s
was a continuation of a system t h a t had much e a r l i e r beginnings.
Chain migration was a phenomena not only t o be found i n B r i t i s h
Columbia. See above footnote 7.
Pyau Ling, p. 137.
Also, Willmott, "Approaches", p. 42.
George H i l l s , Eishop of Columbia, "A Journal of t h e Bishops Tour i n
E r i t i s h Columbia 1860" i n fieport of t h e Columbia Hission 1860,
pp. 38-39.
Persia Crawford Campbell, Chinese Coolie Emigration, p. 28.
Stanford Lyman, "Strangers i n t h e City: t h e Chinese i n t h e Urban Front i e r " i n Amy Tachiki e t a l , Roots, pp. 162-163.
Chuen-Yan Lai, #'Chinese Attempts t o Discourage Emigration t o Canada:
Some Findings from t h e Chinese Archives i n Victoria", Be C.
Studies, No. 18, (summer, 1973), p. 49.
Chuen-Yan Lai, "The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association", p. 60,
Chuen-Yan David Lai, "Home County", pp. 18-19.
1885, Commissioner Chapleau's Report, LXXXV.
Kum Ngon, 9. 522.
R , R. C.,
Se a l s o , Fong
Francis C. Hardwick, et a l , East Meets West, p. 40, See a l s o , W, -2.
'dil'jnott , "Chinese Clan Associations i n Vancouver",
v alms
LXPV, (Earth-~pril I%&), pp. 33-37.
m,
Baillie-Grohman, Fifteen Years ' Sport and Life, pp, 3,%-355,
Harry Gregson, A History of Victoria ? 842-1970, ( v i c t o r i a , Victoria
Observer Pub. Co, Ltd., 1.970), p, 125.
Re 3. C. 1885, Evidence M. W. Tyrwhitt Drake, p. 153.
Colonist, August 14, 1863, p. 2,
See a l s o , t h e reminiscences of MIX. Mallandaine who came t o t h e colony
i n 1862 as a companion i n Nancy de Bertrand Lugrin, Pioneer Women
of Vancouver I s l a n d 1843-1866, ( v i c t o r i a , Women's Canadian Club,
1928), ppo 149-151.
For an account of t h e supervision of t h e s i x t y young women, most between
t h e ages of 12-16 years, on board t h e Bride-ship t h e Tyemouth s e e
A. Reeves, "Best Imported Wives", B r i t i s h Columbia Digest, 1 September, 1946, pp. 84-86.
Ibid. The "Waitress Question" again received t h e a t t e n t i o n of t h e
Colonist on J u l y 12, 1864 when t h e annual licensing court met.
A p e t i t i o n signed by eighty c i t i z e n s protested t h e granting of
licences t o those establishments t h a t employed women t o wait on
patrons. A s t h e i s s u e was beyond t h e j u r i s d i c t i o n of t h a t Court,
t h e p e t i t i o n was s e n t t o t h e Governor.
Genevieve Leslie, "Domestic Service i n Canada, 1880-1%0", i n Janice
Acton, e t a l , Women a t Work. See e s p e c i a l l y pp. 110-113.
Lori Rotenberg, "The Wayward Worker, Toronto's P r o s t i t u t e a t t h e Turn
of t h e Century", Ibid., e s p e c i a l l y pp. 39-41.
Cariboo Sentinel, Yay 16, 1867, p. 2.
R , R e C. 1885, Commissioner Gray's Report, XXXVI.
Maurice Freedman i n Chinese Lineage and Society: Fukien and Kwangtwyl,
( ~ e wYork, Humanities Press Inc., 1966), w r i t e s 8
...
t h a t t h e kind of ex"It is generally agreed by w r i t e r s on China
t e n s i v e lineage system we have been examining is above a l l charact e r i s t i c of t h e south-eastern and p a r t s of t h e c e n t r a l regions of
t h e country. These a r e i r r i g a t e d rice-growing a r e a s , and it is
c l e a r from both t h e evidence on o t h e r p a r t s of Asia and t h e d a t a
on China t h a t t h i s form of a g r i c u l t u r e allows dense populations
t o build up on small surfaces of land. Moreover, and more t o t h e
point, I suspect t h a t t h e r e is a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n between ext e n t of i r r i g a t i o n and t h e degree t o which land is held i n j o i n t
Intensively i r r i g a t e d and worked r i c e paddies have
estate
i n i t i a l l y required a g r e a t investment of labour ( i n t h e making of
channels, dams, t e r r a c e s , and s o on) but t h e rewards t o t h i s investment a r e extremely high, and it allows t h e system of c u l t i v a t i o n t o
be i n t e n s i f i e d i n response t o growth i n t h e number of people l i v ing off it. To produce such a system, groups of men have had t o
co-operate; it has been b u i l t up piecemeal over time, but co-ordinated labour has been required a t most s t a g e s of its evolution.
It is perhaps i n t h e productivity and co-operative nature of t h e
e n t e r p r i s e t h a t we can s e e a key t o common estates.", pp. 159-160.
...
Freedman considers t h a t t h i s process took place over a period of "hundreds of years" i n F'ukien and Kwangtung. One of t h e f a c t o r s , theref o r e , leading t o t h e establishment of lineage e s t a t e s is co-opera t i v e a c t i o n i n land reclamation, and t h i s mode of a c t i o n is furt h e r encouraged by t h e nature of r i c e paddy c u l t i v a t i o n .
The t a x was not i n f a c t compulsary and t h e penalty f o r not paying it
was t h e same f o r miners of a l l races
t h e i r claims were jumpable.
B r i t i s h Columbian, February 21, 1865, p. 3; February 25, 1865,
p. 3.
--
-
As Robert E. Wynne has pointed out, t h e Chinese evaded t h e
worked f o r a company o r i f they formed pzrtnerships.
136.
tax if they
Wynne, p.
Colonist, October 12, 1860, p. 2.
Colonist, September 18, 1878, p. 2; September 22, 1878, 9. 3.
Colonist, Septedwr 28, 11376, 3. 2; P. 3 .
There w e r e s t r i k e s of Chinese gangs during railway construction i n
B r i t i s h Columbia. I n other instances t h e Chinese r e t a l i a t e d when
physically harrassed by white foremen.
See James Morton, pp. 100-101.
B r i t i s h Columbian, September 26, 1861, p. 2.
P e r s i a C, Campbell, 3. 45.
i%y 8, 1860, p. 3.
B r i t i s h Colonist, January 28, 1860, p. 2;
The B r i t i s h Columbian i n 1866 reported that Kwong Lee, who established
a branch firm a t Quesnelmouth, s e n t t h r e e thousand d o l l a r s of gold
from t h e Canon Creek diggings t o Victoria. This was probably gold
recovered by individuals on t h e creek. B r i t i s h ~olumbian, May 9,
1866, p. 3.
R, R. C. 1885, Evidence J u s t i c e Crease, p. 14.5.
Paul A. P h i l i p s , No Power Greater: A Century of b b o u r i n B r i t i s h Columbia, ( ~ a n c o u v e r 3. C. Federation (5f Labour, 19671, p. 10.
,
The estimates of t h e numbers of Chinesenawies varies. Arthur J. Johnson i n "The Canadian P a c i f i c Railway and B r i t i s h Columbia 18711886", unpublished P1.A. i n History, U. B. C., September 1936 claims
that white labourers usually exceeded Chinese labourers except on
t h e s e c t i o n from Emory's Bar t o Port Moocly. pp. 134-135. The
actual numbers of Chinese workers were i n f l a t e d by t h e a n t i - 0 r i e n t a l organizations. I n 1882 it was rumoured t h a t 20,000 immigrants
were a r r i v i n g from Hong Kong, but i n fact only 5,000 came i n t h a t
year. Tien Fang Cheng, Oriental Immigration i n Canada, p. 46.
Fear tended t o i n f l a t e numbers.
John M. Gibbon, The Romantic History of t h e Canadian P a c i f i c , ( ~ e wYork,
Tudor Publishing Company, 19371, p. 241.
.
Stated by H. J. Cambie and quoted from Koel Robinson, Blazing t h e Trail
through t h e Rockies, (n.d. )
Willmott, "Approaches", pp, 46-47, The Chinese Community was l e f t t o
solve t h e problem of Chinese unemployed labourers.
Margaret A. Ormsby, B r i t i s h Columbia: A History, ( ~ a n c o u v e r ,MacMillan
Co. of Canada Ltd., 19641, p. 280.
Chuen-Yan Lai, "Chinese Attempts t o Discourage Emigration", p. 33,
I b i d * , 3. 49.
Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association (1884-1959) and Chinese
Public School (1899-1959), (Victoria, Pub, by C. B. A. and Chinese
Public School, 1959), Foreword.
R. R. C. 1885, Zvidence Robert Dunsmuir, N. L. A , ,
128.
Victoria, pp* 127-
Ibid., Evidence Portland, Oregon, 1884, Nelson Bennett, Contractor of
Cascade s e c t i o n of t h e Northern P a c i f i c Railway, p. 171. He s t a t e d
that i f you have "trouble" with one white man then you can discharge him alone. If you have "trouble" with "one Chinaman", then
you have "trouble" with t h e whole gang.
After t h e introduction of t h e p o l l t a x i n 1885, Chinese labourers were
i n g r e a t e r debt than previously and were employed under contract
i n more i n d u s t r i e s . Francis Em Herring, writing a t t h e t u r n of
t h e century, describes Chinese contract labourers i n t h e salmon
canning industry. If t h e Chinese labourers "get a down on t h e
owner", then a f t e r t h e s t i p u l a t e d number of cases had been canned
they refused t o work f o r that owner. O r t h e Chhese contractor
could ins$& on a s u b s t a n t i a l increase i n price. Francis E, Herpp. 273-274.
ring,
B r i t i s h Columbian, June 1, 1867, p. 3; June 5, 1867, p. 2, The Company
lowered t h e pay from $1.2 j a t o n t o $1 -00; and provided n e i t h e r
materials and implements nor f r e e domestic coal when they c a l l e d
f o r tenders from t h e white miners,
1885, Evidence David W i l l i a m Gordon, M. P, f o r Vancouver,
P. 3.35.
50.
R. 3. C,
51
The p a r a l l e l can be drawn (but was not a t t h e time) between t h e young
Chinese labourer whose goal was t o r e t u r n t o China a s a man of
a not unfeasible proposition
and t h e B r i t i s h
moderate wealth
migrant who s e t out t o "make h i s mark" i n t h i s outpost of t h e
B r i t i s h Empire, returning t o 3 r i t a i n a s a successful man on r e t i r e ment.
-
-
52.
R. R. C. 1885, Evidence Sgt. John Flewin, City Police and City Sanitar y O f f i c i e r Victoria, p. 50. Evidence John A. Bradley, p. 161,
who s t a t e d ; "The gross clasps of a lascivious Chinawoman can be
procured f o r f i f t y cents o r less".
53.
D r . Fernando Henriques, P r o s t i t u t i o n and Society, ( ~ e wYork, Grove Press
Inc., 1966), p. 267.
jlc.
A, 1J. Loomis, "Chinese Women i n California", Overland Monthly, Vol. 2,
( ~ p r i l ,1869), p. 351.
55.
Ibid ..
Reference t o t h i s b e l i e f can be found i n many American and English
t r a v e l l e r s ' r e p o r t s on China, e. g., George Wingrove Cooke,
China, pp. 121-122.
It is an i n t e g r a l part of Confucius' philosophy and teaching, See
William W. Sanger, The History of P r o s t i t u t i o n , ( ~ e wYork, Earper
and Brothers, 1859), p. &29, o r The I Ching.
50
Mrs. Baillie-Grohman's Chinese cook s a i d t o h e r on t h e b i r t h of h e r
son: "A boy a l l l i g h t , g i r l s no good". He explained t h a t g i r l s
cost money t o bring up arid they cannot do business f o r t h e i r
f a t h e r . pp. 337-91.
57.
This p r a c t i c e continued u n t i l t h e 1947 revolution. For f u r t h e r d e t a i l s
see "The P r o s i t i u t e s of China" in Fernando Henriques, pa 267.
Excluding t h e s i l k d i s t r i c t s , p r o s t i t u t i o n was one of t h e few occupations o t h e r than marrhge open t o women.
See a l s o , W i l l i a m V. Sanger.
A d i f f e r e n t s o c i a l organization existed i n p a r t s of Shun-te, t h e cen-
t r e of t h e Kwangtuw s i l k industry. Here, evidence suggests, women could lead more i ~ d e p e n d e n texistences, s e t t i n g up houses on
t h e i r own with, r e l a t i v e l y , fewer male controls. One of t h e feat u r e s of t h i s a r e a was a weaker lineage organization. See Freedm n , op, c i t . , p. 32.
This was not a universla custom. Reverend Milne, a missionary i n China
during t h e 181CO's, found few instances of t h i s custom among Cantonese boat-women, o r female domestics i n t h e province of Canton.
It was not, however, a custom r e s t r i c t e d t o women of t h e upper
class. I n Chusan and Ningpo women of a l l c l a s s e s , he s t a t e d , had
stunted f e e t . The reasons he presented f o r t h e custom area
t o i m i t a t e small d e l i c a t e f e e t , o r
t o keep women from gadding about,
o r t o denote g e n t i l i t y and freedom from t o i l and hard work
( i . e . , as a v i s i b l e s i g n of wealth and a form of conspicuous consumption). The a r t i f i c i a l deformity w a s a l s o considered an esaent i a l element of ( ~ h i n e s e )feminine beauty which Milne placed on a
par with t h e corseting of women's waists i n England. Whatever t h e
c u l t u r a l reason given it had t h e s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t of
i s o l a t i n g Chinese women from a wider sphere than t h e home. Even
walking was d i f f i c u l t and i n some instances women had t o be l i t e r a l l y c a r r i e d i n baskets thus making them dependent on others f o r
t h e i r mobility. Milne, L i f e i n china, pp. 8-16, and Cooke, pp,
8-9
Report of t h e Columbia Mission, 1860, p. 45.
B r i t i s h Colonist, March 1, 1860, p. 2.
Third Report of t h e Columbia Mission, 1861, ondo don, F.. Clay, Son and
Taylor, 1861), p. 9.
Marchioness of Dufferin and Ava, My Canadian Journal 1872-78, ( ~ a c s i m i l e
ed, , reprinted Coles, Toronto, 1971), Diary e n t r y Wednesday 23:
August, 1876, p. 236.
' .I b i d
64.
Diary entry, 16 August 1876, g. 253.
A. W. Loomis, p* 3G.
65.
66.
Gayle Louie, "Forgotten Women" i n Ann Forfreedom ( ~ d)., Women Out of
History : A Herstory A n t h o l w , (LOS Angeles , Ann Forfreedom,
19711, p. 197.
-
R. R, C. 1885, Appendix A .
Evidence from 1876 Committee of t h e House
of Representatives i n San Francisco. Ividence Reverend Otis Gibson i n charge of t h e Methodist Church Mission, p. 163. On one occasion he arranged passa,ge back t o China f o r t e n women who hz~dbeen
kidnapped and forced t o leave China against t h e i r w i l l s ,
68.
R, R. C, 1885, ~ p p e n d i xA, Evidence Reverend Otis Gibson, p. 262,
The t r a n s l a t i o n s t a t e s t h a t t h i s debt was incurred "for passage".
Passage t o Vancouver from China was estimated a t $70.00. Thus,
included i n t h e debt must have been her purchasing price.
70.
Los Angeles S t a r , Phy 9, 1872. Quoted i n Paul de F e l l a , "Lantern i n
t h e Western Sky", H i s t o r i c a l Society of Southern Californitt Q u a d e r l y , Los Angeles, Vol. XLII, 1960, p. 79.
Often t h e runaway women were a r r e s t e d wider a bogus warrant.
See pp.
67, 168.
However, i n Californfa, t h e majority of Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s were owned
by Chinese companies i n California, and t h e p r o s t i t u t i o n business
was a very l u c r a t i v e one a s t h e "Tong" wars demonstrate,
Chuen-Yan L a i i n "The Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association i n
Victoria", p. 61, s t a t e s t h a t Chinese p r o s t i t u t i o n was one of t h e
main causes of t r o u b l e i n Chinatown and t h e Benevolent Association
was formed, i n p a r t , "to curb violence and crimes".
.
The workings of t h i s system, by which Chinese companies i n California
kept t h e i r p r o s t i t u t e s i n absolute bondage u n t i l they sickened
and died was open knowledge t o every one i n t h e s t a t e , including
t h e h e l p f u l magistrates who issued t h e warrants f o r t h e a r r e s t of
these women, and t h e peace o f f i c i e r s who served t h e s e warrants.
Paul de F e l l a , p. 67.
-
See a l s o , Stanford Lyman, "Strangers i n t h e City", i n Roots, footnote
127, p. 185.
Gayle Louie, p. 199.
R,?.C.
1885, Appendix A, Zvidence from t h e 1876 Committee o f t h e House
of D e p r m e n t a t i v e s i n San Francisco, h?vi:lence of Arthur 3. S t o u t ,
p h y s i c k c , p. 711.
J . Pawson, J , ? , of Iianaimo, He considered t h a t n e a r l y
t h e whole of t h e Chinese females who l e f t Chira were professed
p r o s t i t u t e s from c h i l d r e n of t e n t o twelve y e a r s t o "old hags",
p. 133. ( ~ c c o r d i n gt o iiuang S i c Chen's s t a t i s t i c s t h e r e were f o u r
married women i n Kanaimo, two p r o s t i t u t e s , and two c h i l d r e n . )
Ibid .
3vidence
1
'
f o r Vancouver b u t r e s i d e n t of ::anairno, conDavid J i l l i a m Gordon, K.P.,
s i d e r e d t h a t ninety-nine percent of C h i ~ e s efemales were p r o s t i t u t e s , I b i d . , p. 1%.
James 3 , .
..ennedy,
a lumberman of I;ew ' J e s t n i n s t e r , s t a t e d i n h i s evidence
t h a t t h e Zhinese women who came were common p o s t i t u t e s . Ibid,, p 106.
Joseph Yetcalf (~r.)of !Tanaim0 put t h e number of Chinese p r o s t i t u t e s i n
t h e province a t 150. I b i d . , p. 83
Charles T. Sloomfield, Superintendent of P o l i c e i n V i c t o r i a considered
t h a t most Chinese women were p r o s t i t u t e s , b r i n g i n s s y p h i l i s and
o t h e r v e n e r e a l diseases. Ibid., p. 48,
Sergeant John r " l e w i i ~of t h e V i c t o r i a C i t y P o l i c e and Sanitz-:J O f f i c e r
f o r t h e c i t y s t a t e d t h a t o f t h e over one hundred Chinese women,
frequented by young white men.
zlmost a l l were p r o s t i t u t e s
I
b
i
d
p
.
5
0
.
' .
-
..,,.C.
p
*.7
11.
h v e l l , O r i e n t a l ?.:issions i n 3.C.,
d . ) , p. 10.
( P r o v i n c i a l Archives,
Chuen-Yan L a i , "The Consolidated Senevolent Assocjs?tior,", pa 61, ( s e e
f o o t n o t e 65).
?.
2. $ 8 , p 8
3egbie d m w s t h e i n t e r e s t i n g p a r a l l e l between
t h e p r a c t i c e i n Surope of s e t t l i w a marriage c o n t r a c t by t h e husband's payment of t e n o r twenty thousand d o l l a r s t o t h e woman's
p a r e n t s , O r .the miner who pays twenty d o l l a r s f o r "the possession
o f a female f o r a single night", y e t is "scandalized" a t a Chinese
miner p a y i r g f i v e hundred d o l l a r s f o r s i x months possession,
Ibid.
Ibid., Evidence X.
-
Stephenson, p. 124.
Ibid., Evidence John Tindal of Victoria,
-
p. 121.
He s t a t e d :
It is a well known f a c t t h a t t h e i r women a r e sold a l l over the country
a s p r o s t i t u t e s . Rotwithstanding t h e g r e a t influence t h a t t h e leaders have over t h e masses, no attempt is ever made t o l i b e r a t e a
woman s o l d i n t o t h e market of shame.
Ibid., Tvidence ' i f i l l i a m James Armstrong,
-
*
.Ibid
Appendix C.
, p.
p. 117.
363.
I b i d , , Evidence Mayor Carey,
-
g.
45
Anti-Slavery Reporter, No. 1, No. 4 ( ~ e ws e r i e s ) , ( ~ p r i 1,
l 1853), p. 89.
Ibid
d
l
Vol 1, No. 1 ( ~ e ws e r i e s ) , ( ~ a n u a r y1, 1853), p. 15.
Victoria Gazette, 31 March 1839, p. 2; J u l y 9, 1859, p. 2.
Gregson, pp. 123-123)
Sproat, p. 69.
B r i t i s h Colwnbian, October 11, 1865, p. 3.
S i r Edwin Chadwick i n h i s Sanitary Report of 1842 s e t out t o prove t h e
connection between d i r t , overcrowding and disease i n B r i t i s h towns.
This connection w a s accepted by t h e public i n general i n B r i t i s h
Columbia a s evidenced by t h e number of witnesses before t h e Royal
Comissioners who complained of t h e overcrowding and f i l t h of
Chinatown and voiced f e a r s of catching contagious diseases. However, most witnesses blamed t h e Chinese f o r t h e problem and, ur.l i k e Chadwick, d i d not recognize t h e need f o r improvements t o t h e
e x t e r n a l s a n i t a t i o n and drainage of t h e area. It is i n t e r e s t i n g t o
note t h a t i n the 1880*s the European residents of Hong Kong wanted
certain reserved r e s i d e n t i a l d i s t r i c t s s e t a s i d e f o r Europeans on
the grounds t h a t t h e Chinese were l e s s sanitary and more l i k e l y
t o spread disease. S. 3. Finer, The Life and Times of S i r ~ d w i n
Chadwick, ( ~ e wYork, Sarnes and Noble, Inc., 1970), pp. 209-229;
and Endacott and Hinton, p. 190.
93.
British Columbian, April 28, 1e66, 2 . 2,
94. R. R.
C. 1885. Evidence Reverend P h i l i p Dwyer, A, M., of Victoria,
B. C., formerly Canon of Killaloe Cathedral, Ireland, p. 125.
According t o another witness, Sergeant John Flewin who was a l s o t h e
s a n i t a r y o f f i c e r of Victoria, the Chinese habitations were f i l t h y ,
He s t a t e d t h a t they kept t h e i r urine f o r use as f e r t i l i z e r on
t h e i r gardens. Ibid., p, 49.
95.
Ibid., Evidence Sergeant John Flewin,
96.
Ibid., Evidence Honourable John Robson, Provincial Secretary, p. 65.
97.
Ibid., Sergeant John Flewin, p, 50, on s y p h i l i s ; Evidence D r . Helmcken,
p. 58, on leprosy; midence Dr. E. Stevenson, p. 92, on venereal
diseases,
98.
p, 50.
-
Mayor Carey informed the Commissioners
Ibid., Appendix J., p. 3%.
t h a t Collecting Officers got a t e n percent commission on collect i o n s made from t h e Chinese. Ibid., p. 44,
The t o t a l taxes paid t o t h e City of Victoria by t h e Chinese a r e a s f o l lows r
99.
100.
-
Ibid., Evidence John Tindall, p. 120,
Ibid.,
Evidence D r . Helmcken, p. 58.
-Ibid
'
Appendix J., p. 3%. Real e s t a t e taxes f o r t h e years 1879 t o
1583 amounted t o $187,OO a year from t h e Chinese property owners,
A property owner ( ~ a u c a s i a n )i n Portland, Oregon explained t h a t t h e
Chinese t e n a n t s were prompt with t h e i r r e n t payments, were morall y superior t o any o t h e r immigrant race and t h a t i n one house he
had f o u r hundred Chinese t e n a n t s , Unfortunately, t h e Commissioners
d i d not interview representatives of a similar c l a s s of c a p i t a l ists i n Victoria. Ibid., Evidence Joseph P, Kennedy, property
holder i n Portland, Oregon, 1884, p, 176,
Ibid., Evidence Mr. J u s t i c e Crease,
cords of t h e City of Victoria,
pp, 143-144. According t o t h e reonly f o u r Chinese men owned r e a l
e s t a t e and they paid each year $187.00 i n r e a l e s t a t e taxes,
Ibid
9-
Appendix J., p, 3%.
One of t h e more common offenses f o r which t h e Chinese community was
prosecuted was i n f r a c t i o n s of t h e s a n i t a r y by-laws.
See Appendix
H,, p. 386, and Evidence Mayor John W e Carey, p. 4'4'.
I n September 1878, t h e Colonist exposed M r . Dalby, a candidate standing
f o r e l e c t i o n t o t h e House of Commons, f o r exactly what J u s t i c e
Crease complained o f , )Ire Dalby had leased property on Cormorand
S t r e e t and placed o l d s h a n t i e s on it, accomodation t h a t t h e Colo n i s t considered could only be f o r t h e Chinese t h a t Dalby a n t i c i pated would be imported f o r t h e building of t h e railway. M r . Dalby was a l s o t h e foreman of a shoe f a c t o r y which employed f i f t y
Chinese, thus excluding white boot and shoe makers. Daily Colo n i s t , September 13, 1878, p. 3,
-
-
-
9 , R.
C, 1885, Widence James Young, p. 89.
Ibid,, Zvidence D r .
-
E, Stevenson, p. 93.
"White people have sunk t o t h e lowest depths of degradation when they
mixed with t h e immoral Chinese, and a growiw number have s o sunk
themselves. Ibid., Bvidence James Young, p, 89.
Ibid, , Widence Joseph Hetcalf
-
Jr., p, 83.
Ibid,, Evidence 3ergeant John Flewin,
Bradley, p. 161.
p, 50; Statement from John A,
, Zvidence
James Young, p. 89.
109.
Ibid.
110.
Ibid., Zvidence Superintendent Charles Bloomfield,
Ill.
-*Ibid
Rvidence "Emily Wharton", a pseudonym. p
0
- She had
explained t o t h e Sommissioners t h a t she hzd never been i n t e r f e r e d
with by a Chinese man awake o r a s l e e p i n t h e opium den. They won't
even speak t o her unless she approaches them. After t h e f i r s t
whiff of opium you don't want t o t a l k , she said. p. 151.
112.
Ibid.
, Statement
113.
Ibid., Svidence B. M. Pearse, Victoria, p. 97.
p. 48.
John A . Bradley, p. 161.
He s t a t e d ;
"We want here a white m n ' s community, with c i v i l i z e d h a b i t s and r e l i gious z s p i r a t i o n s , and not a community of 'Heathen Chinee'."
Another witness, David N i l l i a m Gordon, M. Pa, claimed t h a t they pract i c e d pagan r i t e s with effrontery, denounced t h e cross a s "too
muchee l i e " , and jeered a t a l l Christian denominations. Ibid.,
p. 136.
, Commissioner Gray's
.
114.
Ibid.
11.5.
Ibid.,
116.
Lai Jen, "Oppression and Survival" i n A s i a r ? Women ( ~ e r k e l e y ,Asian Women's Journal, ~ u b l i s h e dby t h e University of California, 1971),
pe 24.
Report, W
Eviilence Sergeant John Flewin, p,
51.
For a r a c i s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of Chinese behaviour, s e e J. Ross Tolmie,
"The Orientals i n B r i t i s h Columbia", (3. A. essay, U. B. C.,
unpublished, 1929), pp. 170-18ie
'117.
T a i Chong vs. John lhguire. This Chinese merchant went t o court
charging t h e c o l l e c t o r of t h e Chinese Tax John k g u i r e with t h e ill e g a l s e i z u r e and s a l e of goods from Chinese merchants i n l i e u of
payment of Local Chinese Tax. Through these proceedings t h e l o c a l
A c t was declared n u l l and void by Mr. J u s t i c e Gray. Reported i n
t h e Daily Colonist, September 28, 1378, p. 3 and September 28,
1878, p. 2.
3. g.,
Francis Herring noted t h a t t h e white foremen of a salmon cannery carr i e d revolvers i n case of t r o u b l e from t h e Chinese workers. They
had been e s p e c i a l l y necessary before mechanization when t h e f i s h
had been c u t up by hand, f o r a t t h a t time t h e Chinese workers were
by necessity carrying knives. This does not f i t wi+.h t h e docile,
passive image of Chinese labourers. Herring, pp. 257-268,
118.
Tien-Fang Cheng, O r i e n t a l Immigration, p. 49,
h i b i t e d from buying crown land i n 1884.
119.
Ibid,
120.
For many of t h e ideas i n t h i s paragraph I am indebted t o H. M, Lai,
"A H i s t o r i c a l Survey of Organizations of t h e Left among t h e
Chinese i n ~merica".i n ~ u l l e t i nof Concerned Asian ~ c h o l a r s ,
Vol, L,, No. 3, F a l l 1972, pp. 10-21; and t o Stewart Wong who
brought t h e B u l l e t i n t o my a t t e n t i o n . For information on t h e
Chinese i n t h e railway e r a see James Norton, pp. 99-100 and Arthur
3 , Johnson, "The Canadian P a c i f i c Railway and B r i t i s h Columbia,
1871-1886", M. A. t h e s i s i n History a t U. B. C., September 1936,
pp, 133-138. For t h e Federal Government's response t o B r i t i s h
Columbia's demands f o r Immigration Laws see Tieng-faw Cheng,
pp. 48-51 t pp. 59-60.
121.
The e s s a y i s t G i l b e r t P?, Sproat s t a t e d t h a t Canadian workingmen "cannot a s s o c i a t e with Chlnaman i n the-general i n t e r e s t s of l a b o r o r
f o r any purpose whatsoever". R. R. C. 1885, Evidence G i l b e r t M.
Sproat, Essayist of Victoria, p. 167.
, p,
39,
The Chinese were pro-
I n 1875 t h e b i l l was passed and enforced locally.
The statement made by t h e Knights of Labor, L. A,, No. 3017, Nanaimo,
expressed t h e s e same sentiments, emphasising that t h e Chinese were
not fit t o p a r t i c i p a t e i n p o l i t i c a l l i f e because they had "no sympathy i n our higher aims and objects".
Ibid,, p, 155.
, Evidence
I k . Tuckf ie l d , Victoria, p. 66.
(Zm~hasisadded. )
122
Ibid.
123
Ibid., Statement of t h e Knights of Labor, L. A., No. 3017, ??anairno,
p. 1%. (5mphasis added, )
Evidence John A. Bradley, a working man of Victoria,
See a l s o I b i d
p. 1 6 1 .
124.
'
.Ibid
Statement of t h e Knights of Labor, L. A.,
p. 156.
No. 3017, Wanaimo,
The Knights of Labor s t a t e d "Chinese l a b o r is l i t t l e , if any, cheaper
than white labor."
See a l s o evidence of J , Pawson, J. P, of Ranairno,
125.
Ibid., p. 156.
p. 13.3.
126.
Ibid.,
127.
Ibid., Evidence James Young, recording s e c r e t a r y of t h e Knights of
Labor, L. A., No. 3017, Nanaimo, pp. 88-89.
128.
Ibid., Statement of t h e Xnights of Labor,
Svidence Samuel M. Robins, Superintendent of t h e Vancouver Coal
Plinirg and Land Co, , Ltd., of Nanaimo, p. 120.
L. A.,
No. 3017, Nanaimo,
p. 159.
129.
Ibid., Evidence Samuel M. Robins, Nanaimo, Superintendent of t h e Vancouver C o d Kining and Land Co., Ltd., ?. 138. See a l s o B r i t i s h
Columbian, June 1, 1867, p. 3, Chinese s t r i k e breakers were used
by Dunsm~iri n t h e Uellington coal-mine s t r i k e i n February 1877
and again i n t h e March-April s t r i k e i n 1878.
See Horny and Scholefield, B r i t i s h Columbia:
p. 388.
130.
H i s t o r i c a l , Vol, 11,
P h i l l i p s , KO Power Greater, p. 8, p. 162. Male x h i t e workers a l s o
used d i r e c t action. Chinese labourers were brought i n t o McDougal's
work camp on E u r r a r d I n l e t . An angry "mob" attacked t h e camp i n
January 1867, and drove "the Chinese people t o t h e c l i f f s of t h e
In
I n l e t (and) forcing them t o jump i n t o t h e wintry waters".
1886, Chinese labourers from t h e Hastings I f i l l were attacked on
t h e i r way t o vote i n Vancouver's municipal elections.
David 5 . Spearing, "Chinatown. Vancouver's Heritage", Plywood World,
Vol. 9, No. 3 , 1969, p. 6. The Chinese settlement a t False Creek
was burnt down i n 1887 by white workers because of t h e use of
Chinese labourers t o t h e exclusion of white workers on t h e Port
Moody-Vancouver extension of t h e C, P. R. Paul A. P h i l l i p s ,
p. 14.
-
-
It should be remembered t h a t
again
t h e economy of B r i t i s h Columbia
was not i n good shape and workim conditions poor i n 1886 a f t e r
t h e completion of t h e C. P. R. The expected boom d i d not happen.
Piany workers l e f t E r i t i s h Columbia f o r U, S. A. where b e t t e r opportunities existed. Paul A. P h i l l i p s , pp. 15-16.
131. 3. R. C, 1885, Zvidence Reverend Philip Dwyer, Victoria, p. 125.
132.
Ibid., Evidence Samuel M, Robics, Nanaimo, p. 118.
133.
Ibid., Evidence Chief j u s t i c e S i r Matthew Begbie, p. 72.
134.
Ibid., Evidence D r .
135.
Ibid., Evidence David V. Gordon, N. P., p. 133,
136.
bid
137.
.,
E. Stevenson, Victoria, p.
Cornmiss ioner Gray's report, LxIX.
1bid.p LXV.
94.
CONCLUSION
You know t h a t joke about t h e white man's burden?
we c a r r y it. I
They rmke it,
The c o n f l i c t s r e s u l t i n g from r a c i a l prejudice have been t h e t o p i c of
r e s e a r c h by many s o c i a l s c i e n t i s t s .
Charles Wagley and Marvin H a r r i s have
seen t h e c o n f l i c t between r a c e s a s being caused not by ethnocentrism o r endogamy but by competition f o r l i m i t e d resources
.'
Gordon A l l p o r t ' s theory of.-
fers l i t t l e hope f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of prejudice a s he s e e s t h e process of
c a t e g o r i z a t i o n i n t o h i e r a r c h i e s as "natural".3
social s t r a t i f i c a t i o n arose
t e r n s of dominance"
- with
- and with
P h i l i p Mason considers t h a t
it a myth s t r u c t u r e t o j u s t i f y "pat-
economic s p e c i a l i z a t i o n and consequent p o l i t i c a l
4 Dominance of one group over another "springs from passions
:
t h a t a r e common t o a l l men".'
T. Adorno, i n c o n t r a s t , s e e s t h e ideology of
specialization.
ethnocentrism as "a g e n e r a l frame of mind",
6
an i n d i v i d u a l c h a r a c t e r trait
peculiar t o the authoritarian personality.
This would be t o assume t h a t aggres-
s i o n and competition predominate and a r e a n approved mode of response i n a l l
~ u l t u r e s . ~Rather, racial prejudice is seen as being i n t i m a t e l y bound t o a
complex economic p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l system, gaining f o r c e from t h a t system
and i n t u r n r e i n f o r c i n g t h e values o f t h a t system.
It is argued t h a t t h e pre-
judice of 'desterners t o t h e Chinese has i t s r o o t s i n t h e notions of superiori t y and t h e h e i r a r c h i c a l view of t h e world t h a t formed t h e myth s t r u c t u r e
which j u s t i f i e d Turopean imperialism.
ialism was a t o t a l system
- economic,
I
I
II
I
Racial prejudice is seen i n t h i s t h e s i s not as a problem of r a c e , nor
a s a character t r a i t , nor as "natural".
I
A s Joseph Esherick has s t a t e d , "imper-
p o l i t i c a l , s o c i a l and c u l t u r a l
- and
t h a t its component parts were i n t i m a t e l y i n t e r r e l a t e d e f i 8 The ideology of
B r i t i s h imperialism from t h e mid-fiineteenth century assumed both a r a c i a l
hierarchy and t h e s u p e r i o r i t y of its own s o c i a l , economic, p o l i t i c a l and l e g a l system.
With a b e l i e f i n progress and i n t h e evolution of s o c i e t y from
a n i n f e r i o r s o c i a l organization t o a s u p e r i o r c i v i l i z a t i o n t h e B r i t i s h saw
t h e i r r e s p o n s i b i l i t y ( t h e white man's burden) and t h e i r P r o t e s t a n t mission
t o be t h a t of bringing enlightenment t o " l e s s f o r t u n a t e t ' and "underdeveloped"
nations.
The c o l o n i z a t i o n model a s expressed by Robert Blauner is a u s e f u l t o o l
of a n a l y s i s t o e x p l a i n r a c i a l prejudice.
He states,
The e s s e n t i a l condition f o r both American s l a v e r y and European
colonialism was t h e power domination and t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l s u p e r i o r i t y
of t h e Mestern world i n its r e l a t i o n t o peoples of non-Uestern and nonwhite o r i g i n s , This o b j e c t i v e supremacy i n technology and m i l i t a r y
power b u t t r e s s e d t h e West's sense of c u l t u r a l s u p e r i o r i t y , laying t h e
b a s i s f o r r a c i s t i d e o l o g i e s t h a t were elaborated t o j u s t i f y c o n t r o l and
e x p l o i t a t i o n of non-white people .9
I
/
1
I
I
I
!
H i s c o l o n i z a t i o n complex has f o u r basic components.
involuntary e n t r y of t h e colonizer,
F i r s t , t h e forced
Second, t h e e f f e c t t h i s e n t r y has on t h e
c u l t u r e and s o c i a l organization, namely t h e transformation o r d e s t r u c t i o n of
indigenous values, o r i e n t a t i o n s , and ways of l i f e ,
Third, t h e colonized group
a r e administered by r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e dominant group.
Fourth, t h e prin-
c i p l e of racism is used t o e x p l o i t , c o n t r o l and oppress s o c i a l l y and psych10
i c a l l y t h e colonized group.
It is t r u e t h a t t h e c l a s s i c c o l o n i z a t i o n model o u t l i n e d above does not
f i t China completely.
C\ina, u n l i k e India f o r example, was more s u c c e s s f u l i n
r e s i s t i n g i m p e r i a l i s t forces.
I n p a r t i c u l a r , t h e Manchu Government remained
a d m i n i s t r a t i v e l y i n c o n t r o l although t h i s was only through t h e a c t i v e support
of Westerners.
dued?'
It was with :Jestern a i d t h a t t h e Taiping r e v o l u t i o n was sub-
Robert Kart's custom organization produced one t h i r d of t h e e n t i r e
revenue of t h e Chinese government by f8911.12 And t h e p r i n c i p l e of e x t a t e r r i t o r i a l i t y ensured t h a t Westerners were beyond Chinese j u r i s d i c t i o n .
How-
ever, t h e o t h e r components of t h e c o l o n i z a t i o n complex and t h e i r e f f e c t s apply t o China,
A t t i t u d e s of r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y served t o j u s t i f y t h e imperial-
i s t i c t h r u s t s of t h e Uestern t r a d e r , missionary and government o f f i c i a l i n
China, and t h e negative s t e r e o t y p e of t h e Chinese r a c e t h a t w a s propagated by
t h e s e i n t e r e s t groups spread throughout t h e Xestern world,
By looking a t Chinese-Yestern r e l a t i o n s h i p s i n t h e context of imperials i n t h e r o o t s of white racist a t t i t u d e s i n B r i t i s h Columbia can be located.
Contact between Europeans and t h e Chinese from t h e mid-nineteenth century
was predominantly determined by jlesterners.
chine was s u p e r i o r t o t h a t of China,
Technically, t h e i r m i l i t a r y m a -
This enabled them a forced e n t r y i n t o
China, and access t o some n i n e t y t r e a t y p o r t s along its coast.
The numerous
economic, p o l i t i c a l and s o c i a l e f f e c t s of imperialism on indigenous Chinese
s o c i e t y can not here be elaborated.13
Apolngists of Yestern imperialism have
seen t h e economic and i n s t i t u t i o n a l transformation of China which occurred
from mid-century as "modernization1' and "both necessary and good"."
assumptions behind t h i s conclusion are that:
The
f i r s t l y China was backward p r i o r
t o t h e West's "contributiont'; secondly, t h e i n d i c a t o r of a n advanced economic
system is one involved i n f o r e i g n t r a d e ( t h e i m p e r i a l i s t i c model) ; and t h i r d l y ,
B r i t a i n and America were, i n fact doing China a favour by demanding commercial
exchange.
This interpretation
- aside
from its obvious ethnocentrism
- ig-
nores t h e well developed Chinese production and marketing system which e x i s t ed p r i o r t o Yestern contact,15 a system which demonstrates t h a t China was i n
f a c t economically s e l f - s u f f i c i e n t .
It a l s o d e n i e s t h e f a c t that it was by
f o r c e t h a t t h e West intervened i n A s i a , and that i n China t h e West was pushing opium.
I n 1890 opium was s t i l l t h e l a r g e s t s i n g l e Chinese import. l6 i n
t h i s way t h e a g g r e s s i v e n a t u r e and immorality of Xestern imperialism is excused o r dismissed.
The two provinces f i r s t e f f e c t e d by t h e d i s r u p t i o n of Chinese s o c i e t y
occurring a f t e r Uestern i n t e r v e n t i o n were Kwangtung and Fukien, and it was
from t h e s e two provinces t h a t t h e Chinese who imnigrated t o B r i t i s h Columbia
originated.
Conditions i n China forced them t o l e a v e and seek employment i n
a h o s t i l e and a l i e n environment.
They came with t h e i n t e n t i o n of rnaking suf-
f i c i e n t money t o r e t u r n t o t h e i r home v i l l a g e s , with t h e same i n t e n t i o n as
t h e bulk of people who came t o 3 r i t i s h Columbia a t t h i s time.
But only t h e
Chinese miners were s i n g l e d o u t and c l a s s i f i e d as l o c u s t s , accused of e x p l o i t ing t h e gold resources of t h e colony.
These a c c u s a t i o n s r e s t e d on r a c i s t at-
titudes,
The Chinese s t e r e o t y p e had been formed from c o n t a c t i n China, and supplemented and r e i n f o r c e d by c o n t a c t i n California.
The b e l l i g e r e n t a t t i t u d e
of Europeans t o t h e Chinese i n t h e e a r l y gold f i e l d s was reinforced by t h e
n a t u r e of t h e colony,
The population was predominantly made up of s i n g l e men
involved i n t h e e x p l o i t a t i o n of g o l d resources, of merchants supplying food
and s u p p l i e s a t e x h o r b l t a n t r a t e s , of land s p e c u l a t o r s h e r e t o make a f a s t
buck.
The economy was unstable, t h e population of a l l n a t i o n a l i t i e s migra-
I
I
C
tory
- conditions
leading t o i n s t a b i l i t y and i n s e c u r i t y i n a s o c i e t y ,
In the
past t h e example of t h e Californian gold mining towns' treatment of t h e Chine s e has been used t o e q l a i n t h e a t t i t u d e of 3uropeans i n 3 r i t i s h Columbia. 17
It is a f a c t t h a t many miners d i d come from t h e s e f i e l d s , o r a t l e a s t passed
through San Francisco on t h e i r way north, and t h u s came i n c o n t a c t with Calif o r n i a n nativism and xenophobia.
However, r e c e n t research has shown t h a t i n
C a l i f o r n i a , t o o , t h e Chinese were never welcomed a s p o s s i b l e immigrants.
The
a t t i t u d e t h a t t h e Chinese were i n f e r i o r as a r a c e , t h a t t h e y were unassimilia b l e a l i e n s and l e s s t h a n human preceded them a c r o s s t h e P a c i f i c .
This a t t i t u d e i s a legacy of Western notions of s u p e r i o r i t y .
s h i p s between dominant and subordinant groups are cumulative.
Relation-
When t h e domi-
nant group has formed a p i c t u r e of t h e way t h e o t h e r is expected t o behave,
evidence
ill be found t o s t r e n g t h e n t h e viewi8 and, i n t h e case of t h e Chin-
e s e i n B r i t i s h Columbia, l e g i s l a t i o n introduced t o enforce t h i s behaviour.
Missionaries, t r a d e r s , embassy o f f i c i a l s and t r a v e l l e r s t o t h e %st were instrumental i n shaping t h e a t t i t u d e of t h e Western world towards t h e Chinese
people,
Through t h e i r published works, l e c t u r e t o u r s and influence t h e pre-
dominantly negative image spread.
emphasized t h i s s t e r e o t y p e ,
Western accounts of t h e Opium Wars f u r t h e r
White r a c i a l a t t i t u d e s e f f e c t e d t h e Chinese in
B r i t i s h Columbia and were a n important f a c t o r determining where and how t h e
Chinese l i v e d , t h e type of work t h e y d i d , a n d , later i n t h e century, were afact o r determining t h e d e c i s i o n of t h e Chinese not t o remain i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
P o l l t a x e s ensured t h a t t h e i r families could not j o i n them.
'Jhite men's treatment of t h e Chinese i n B r i t i s h Columbia h a s been det a i l e d t o e s t a b l i s h t h a t p r e j u d i c e e x i s t e d from t h e e a r l y days of t h e gold
r u s h and t o demonstrate t h a t r e s t r i c t i v e and exclusion l e g i s l a t i o n followed
l o g i c a l l y f r o n t h e white a t t i t u d e s and t h e events of t h e s e e a r l y years.
Chinese d i d not consent t o t h e i r oppression.
The
Iiesponsibility f o r raclsm leading
t o r e s t r i c t i o n and f i n a l exclusion of a TrouF of people h2s been placed not
on t h e minority group
- the
Chinese
- but
r a t h e r on t h e majority group, t h e
group t h a t t h r e a t e n e d and u l t i m a t e l y used b r u t e f o r c e t o keep t h e Chinese inf e r i o r economically and p o l i t i c a l l y .
A t first t h e y were excluded from t h e
b e t t e r diggings by violence o r t h e t h r e a t of violence, 2nd t h u s t h e Chinese
took over abandoned f i e l d s .
They worked a t jobs t h a t white men would not do
as menial s e r v a n t s and farm o r town labourers.
-
Municipal and p r o v i n c i a l l e g i s -
lation was implemented t o narrox t h e i r economic and p o l i t i c a l a c t i v i t y .
s t r i c t i o n s were placed on t h e i r mode of l i v i n g .
Re-
Thus t h e economic niche t o
which t h e y were l i m i t e d by t h e s e a c t s as well as s o c i a l custom and expectation
tended t o r e i n f o r c e t h e negative s t e r e o t y p e .
L a t e r Federal Acts were used
t o e l i m i n a t e t h e O r i e n t a l "problem" from B r i t i s h Columbia, Acts given moral
and e t h i c a l credence by t h e f a b l e of Anglo-Saxon r a c i a l s u p e r i o r i t y .
The r a t i o n a l e f o r t h e r e s t r i c t i o n a f Chinese immigrants up t o t h e first
Federal A c t of 1885 has been discussed, and t h e p a r t i c u l a r f a c e t s t h a t comp r i s e d t h e expressed negative s t e r e o t y p e i s o l a t e d .
Some of t.hese r e s u l t e d
from t h e value placed on t h e marked c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e s between Chinese and
Europeans.
But on t h e whole Europeans were ill-informed and had unfounded
notions and l i t t l e understanding of t h e Chinese o r t h e i r s o c i a l organization.
T h e i r c o l l e c t i v e h a b i t s were viewed with s u s p i c i o n and f e a r .
Overcrowding,
p r o s t i t u t i o n , drainage and d i s e a s e were seen as a d d i t i o n a l evidence of t h e
r a c i a l i n f e r i o r i t y of t h e Chinese.
R a t h e r t h a n r e c o g n i s i n g t h e s e as s o c i a l
problems that could be e r a d i c a t e d , v h i t e s saw them as proof
that the C~jnes?
s h o a l d be excluded f r a r t h e province.
Anti-Chinese a t t i t u d e s were n o t class-based.
The coflsensils o f opinior!
. h t h e province was t h a t t h e y were a l i e n s , u n a s s i m i l i a b l o s n d not d e s i r a b l e
as a permanent s e c t o r of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
Thus t h e Anti-Zhinese a g i t a t i o n
cannot ' ~ cexplainec! e x c l u s i v e l y i n tesms of c r u d e economic competition. 19
Even i n 1585, a f t e r t h e completion o f r a i l w a y c o n s t r u c t i o n work, t h e
Knights o f Labor s t r e s s e d t h e f e a r o f 3 h i n e s e c o m p e t i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n t h r f r
a c t u a l competition.
F o r o v e r twent;r-five
y e a r s t h e ? h i n e s e had been l i m i t e d
t o a n s k i l l e d , l o w - m i d , n o n - c o n p e t i t i w l a b o u r and a n t i - C h i n e s e f e c l i a g
>a::fi r m l v r o ~ t c c lir. t h e pmvir.cn.
It i s t r u e t h a t a ~ i t a t i o ra ~
g a i n s t t h e Shlrese d i 3 increxse a f t e r
t h e C.P.9,
was completed, b u t t h e r s wcr5 a d 3 i t i o m l f i x t o r s b e s i s e s
" c h e a ~Chinese l a b o u r " t o s c c o u n t f o r t h i s .
Zolunbia,
n o t occur.
A slwnp o c c u r r e d i n . ? r i t i s h
The a n t i c i p a t e d i n c r e a s e i n t r a d e , p r o s p e r i t y and j o b s d i d
The r a i l w a y brou5h.t: a n i n f l u x o f new s e t t l e r s from t h e e a s t ,
t o compete for J o b s with men d i s m i s s e d from c o n s t r u c t i s n work.
$!bite
men looked f o r a n y kind of work, even low-paid s e a s o n a l and t r a n s i t i o n a l
j o b s such as woodcutting.
and f i l l ~ dby Chinese men,
These joks, formerly typed as "Chinaman's
20
now ware a c c e p t a 5 l e t o wiiite men.
f o r Ghinese exclusi.on were l o u d l y made,
jobs"
T h s demands
A n t i - O r i e n t a l sentirnent h a s
always been a convenient s c a p e g m t f o r economic i n s t a b i l i t y and d e p r e s s i o n ,
The Anglo-5axon s o c h l s t r u c t u r e t h u s remained dominant i n 3 r i t i s h
C o l u m b i ~ , The s e n s e of insecurity
t o t h e homo:ei?eit:r
mediate v i c i n i t y
t h a t p r e v a i l e d meant t h a t any t h r e a t
of t h e dominant ~ r o u ?had t o 5 e removed from t h e
-
i n t h e case of t h e I n d i a n s
iin-
- o r e l i ~ ~ i n a t d T. h i s
p r o c e s s t o o k u n t i l I323 when a 3 e d e r a l 2xclusl.on Act was w s s e d t h a t
s t o p p e d t h e i m q i g r a t i o n of t h e Chinese t o S r i t i s h Columbia,
Zut by 1885
with t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e f i f t y d o l l a r p o l l t a x t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f
Chinese men s e t t l i n ~with t h e i r f a m i l i e s i n 3 r i t i s h Xlumbia was r u l e d
out,
The subsequent t a x e s , o f one hundred d o l l a r s l e v i e d in 1900 and
f h e hundred d o l l a r s l e v i e d i n 1903, demonstrated t h a t i n w h i t e 3sit i s h
Columbia t h e r e was no room for c o l o u r e d m i n o r i t i e s ,
Thus t h e p o ~ s i b i l l t y
of t h e fievelopment of a n e t h n i c rnosdic was never p e r m i t t e d and t h e
p r i n c i p l e of t h e r i g h t of t h e m a j o r i t y t o govern and t h e o b l i g a t i o n of
t h e mir,ority t o o3ny am1 a s s i m i l a t e was f i r m l y eslablishec?.
Footnotes (conclusion) :
John Fowles, The Magus, (pan 3ooks, 1966), p. 384.
Charles Wagley and Narvin Harris, M i n o r i t i e s i n t h e New World, (n'ew
vork, Columbia University Press, 1958), p. 263.
Gordon '+I
A.l l p o r t , The Mature of P r e j u d i c e , ( ~ e a d i n ,
g Massachusetts,
Adison Wesley Publishing Company, l9$),
Chapter 2, e s p e c i a l l y
p. 26,
P h i l i p Kason, P a t t e r n s of Dominance,
13701, P. 3.
ondo don, Oxford University Press,
T. W e Adorno e t a l e , The A u t h o r i t a r i a n P e r s o n a l i t y , ( ~ e wY or%, Harper
and Row, 1950), P. 113.
Kargaret Mead (ed. ) , Co-operation and Competition Among P r i m i t i v e
Peoples, ( ~ e wYork, McGraw-Hill, 1937).
Tsherick, "Harvard on China'', p. 13.
Robert Slauner, " I n t e r n a l Colonialism and Ghetto Revolt", i n Michael
Weitheimer (ed.), Confrontation: Psychology and t h e Problems of
T o d a ~ , ( l l l i n o i s , S c o t t , Foresman and Company, 19701, p. 124.
' .I b i d
p. 124.
Hu S h e w , Imperialism and Chinese P o l i t i c s , pp. 35-39,
p. 52.
-
Jonathon Spence, To Change China: Nestern Advisors i n Chira 1520
1960, ( ~ o s t o n ,Toronto. L i t t l e , Brown and Company, 1969), Chapt e r 4, "Lay and Hart : Power, Patronage, Pay", p. 117.
-
13.
Some s p e c i f i c e f f e c t s i n t h e province of Kwangtung have been considered
i n Chapter 2. For a more a n a l y t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n of t h i s a s p e c t of
imperialism i n China, s e e Esherick, who has i s o l a t e d t h e various
economic, s o c i a l and p o l i t i c a l e f f e c t s of Western aggression.
See a l s o Andrew J. Kathan "Imperialism's 2 f f e c t s on China", E u l l e t i n of
Concerned Asian Scholars, Vol. 4, KO. 4, ( ~ e c e m b e r , l972), and
Hu 3heqq, op. c i t .
9.
14.
Ssherick, p.
century
is John
bridge,
15.
*-
S. jlilliam Skinner. "Marketim and S o c i a l S t r u c t u r e i n Rural China" i n
These sentiments, of course, o r i g i n a t e d from nineteenth
i m p e r i a l i s t s . The modern founder of t h i s school of thought
K. Fairbank. See h i s The United S t a t e s and China, (Cam~ a s s a c h u s e t t s , Harvard University Press, 1971).
t h r e e parts, - J o u r n a l o f - ~ s i a nStudies: P a r t I I Kumber 24, (NOVember 1964), pp. 3 44; P a r t 11: Number 24, ( ~ e b r u a r y1965), p?.
195-228; P a r t I111 Number 24, (ihy 1965) PP. 363-4000
-
,
16.
Esherick, p. 10.
17.
Wynne accounts f o r t h e heavy r a c i s t nature of t h e e d i t o r i a l policy of
t h e V i c t o r i a Gazette i n 1359 i n terms of t h e o r i g i n s of t h e two
men who owned and e d i t e d t h e newspaper. Both men were from San
Francisco, and Wynne s t a t e s t h a t t h e i r "Californian a t t i t u d e "
was contrary t o t h e g e n e r a l t r e n d of a t t i t u d e s i n 3 r i t l s h Columbia
a t t h a t time. Wynne, p. 112.
18.
Yassn, ope c i t .
19.
F. U. Howay, B r i t i s h Columbia: The Paking of a Province, pa or on tot
Ryerson Press, i928), p. 263. Howay contends t h a t anti-Chinese
a g i t a t i o n had begun by 1874 and t h a t a f t e r t h e completion of t h e
Canadian P a c i f i c Railway t h e i r competition was "severely f e l t " .
H i s implication is t h a t it was a working c l a s s phenomenon.
20,
R e R. C. 1885, Zvidence John Jessop, V i c t o r i a , P r o v i n c i a l Immigration
Agent, p. 63.
I n 1870 opium made up 43% of China's t o t a l imports.
, p.
46.
1,
A s mentioned i n Chapter one, a similar s i t u a t i o n occurred i n 1%j i n
t h e gold f i e l d s when "Chinese pickings" began t o a t t m c t white
miners d i s i l l u s i o n e d with t h e Columbia and t h e Cariboo. The pres e n t r i s e o f A n t i - A s i a t i c sentiment and a c t i o n s i n Vancouver, d i r e c t e d p a r t i c u l a r l y a t Sikhs, demonstrates t h a t t h i s a t t i t u d e is
st ill p r e v a l e n t i n B r i t i s h Columbia.
I n a r e c e n t i s s u e of T h i s 1-azine,
can immigrant, Graciek Lopez.
S a t u Repo interviewed a L a t i n Ameri-
An i l l e g a l immigrant, s h e explained t h a t s h e
had emigrated because she could not support h e r s e l f m d h e r t h r e e c h i l d r e n
on t h e wages paid t o h e r by t h e American-owned d r e s s f a c t o r y i n Central Ameri-
ca.
She came t o Canada because she had heard t h a t work was a v a i l a b l e here.
Unable t o f i n d work on h e r own i n Toronto, she contacted a f e l l o w countryman
who found h e r a job working seven days a week f o r below t h e minimum wage.
At
t h i s time h e r plans were t o work i n Canada u n t i l s h e could make enough money
t o s e t h e r s e l f up i n h e r own business i n h e r home town.
However, a f t e r a re-
t u r n v i s i t she r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e r e was i n f a c t no f u t u r e f o r h e r t h e r e .
Not
only were t h e f a c t o r i e s foreign-owned, but t h e r e t a i l o u t l e t s were a l s o f o r eign c o n t r o l l e d .
She t h u s r e t u r n e d t o Canada with h e r c h i l d r e n t o pessimist-
i c a l l y await consideration of h e r a p p l i c a t i o n f o r landed immigrant s t a t u s .
1
The experience of many Chinese immigrants t o B r i t i s h Columbia over one
hundred y e a r s ago is being repeated by new immigrants t o Canada today.
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