PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
Session 11
Psychoanalysis
Session Outline
Introduction, p. 2
11.1 Antecedent influences to Psychoanalysis, p. 3
11.2 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), p. 3
11.3 Main ideas of Psychoanalysis, p. 6
11.4 Strengths of Psychoanalysis, p. 14
11.5 Criticisms of Psychoanalysis, p. 15
Summary, p. 15
Learning Outcomes, p. 15
Review Questions, p. 16
References, p. 16
Introduction
Welcome to Session Eleven – Psychoanalysis. This session belongs to Unit Two of PLU
4306, Schools of Thought in Psychology. Today, psychology is understood by many people
as the science of Sigmund Freud who with a cigar on his hand listened to clients speak while
lying on a couch. This misconception illustrates the popularity and impact of psychoanalysis
on psychology. As Freud himself once said, the three main revelations that shaped the human
civilization include the findings of Copernicus, Darwin, and Freud. In comparison to other
schools of thought that we have discussed previously, psychoanalysis was not founded as a
science and was not established within the confines of universities. Psychoanalysis was a
product of psychiatry and medicine, and was intended as a solution for mental illness. “From
its beginnings, psychoanalysis was distinct from mainstream psychological thought in goals,
subject matter and methods. Its subject matter is psychopathology, or abnormal behaviour, an
area relatively neglected by other schools of thought. Its primary method is clinical
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
2
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
observation rather than controlled laboratory experimentation. And psychoanalysis deals with
the unconscious, a topic virtually ignored by other systems of thought” (Schultz & Schultz,
2004).
11.1 Antecedent influences to Psychoanalysis
Even though psychoanalysis was Sigmund Freud’s theory, many of his concepts were
borrowed from conceptions of the mind that already existed during his time. The main
contributors to Psychoanalysis were the theories of the unconscious mind, the work of
Charles Darwin and contemporary research and knowledge on psychopathology.
Theories of the unconscious mind were first prominent by the early 18th century philosopher
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz, through his Theory of Monadology (Schultz & Schultz, 2004).
Leibnitz defined a monad as a physical entity similar to an atom, but mental in nature. Thus, a
monad is similar to a perception. He believed that monads had different levels of
consciousness. Lesser degrees of consciousness were called petites perceptions and the
conscious acknowledgement of these entities was known as apperception. Almost a century
later, Leibnitz’s ideas were reformed by Johann Friedrich Herbart who argued that ideas below
a specific threshold of consciousness would be ‘unconscious’. An idea is perceived only when
it rises to the level of consciousness. For an idea to rise to this level, however, it must be
compatible with ideas that already occupy the conscious level of the mind. The next
intellectual whose ideas are consistent with Freud’s is Fechner. He suggested that the mind is
like an iceberg. With increased discussion on the topic of the unconscious in the academic
circles, it soon become one of the most interesting topic of interest.
11.2 Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Sigmund Freud, commonly known as the father of psychoanalysis, was born in then Moravia.
As the eldest of a very large family, Freud was immensely adored and loved by his mother
and these sentiments seemed to have been reciprocated. Freud both loved and feared his
father, because of his authoritarian nature. One of Freud’s later theories, known as the
‘Oedipus Complex’, was derived out of this love for his mother and fear for his father. The
autobiographical nature of the presented theories is one of the reasons scholars criticize
psychoanalysis.
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
3
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
Image 11.1: Young Freud and his Father
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/58/Sigmund_Freud_as_a_child_with_his
_father.jpg
Moving to Vienna around the age of four, provided the educational background that Freud
received. It is at the University of Vienna, as a medical student, that was exposed to Darwin’s
theory of evolution, philosophy, and the use of cocaine. After opening a private practice
Freud married Martha Bernays, with whom he had six children.
Young Freud became acquainted with the physician Josef Breuer who at times acted as a
father figure to him. The two physicians regularly discussed their patients with one another,
and it is during such a conversation that the case of Anna O was discussion. This case was
instrumental in the founding of Psychoanalysis. “Anna O suffered from severe hysterical
complaints including paralysis, memory loss. The symptoms first appeared when she was
nursing her dying father, who had always pampered her. It was said that she felt for him a
kind of passionate love” (Schultz & Schultz, 2004).
Breuer treated Anna through hypnosis. Under a hypnotic trance, Breuer instructed Anna to
relive the disturbing experience of nursing her dying father. This experience seemed to
reduce her symptoms. But with time, Anna developed a condition clinically known as
‘transference’ today. Transference is the process by which the client begins to consider the
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
4
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
therapist as a significant person (a parent or lover) in the client’s life. In the case of Anna, she
transferred the love she felt for her father to Breuer and because of this emotional attachment
Breuer eventually stopped treating Anna. Anna’s case is important to the development of
psychoanalysis because it introduced Freud to the cathartic method or the talking cure.
In 1885, Freud had the opportunity to work with Charcot for a brief period of time. It is
during this time that Freud was initially exposed to the idea that sexual base caused hysterical
behaviour. Upon his return from Vienna Freud became dissatisfied with hypnosis as a
therapeutic technique and instead developed the technique of ‘free association’. This new
method required patients to lie on a couch and speak whatever came to his or her mind,
without interference from the therapist. During the session, no eye contact was maintained
between client and therapist. The therapist then attempted to piece together clients’
statements in an attempt to interpret the underlying dynamics that caused the free
associations.
Image 11.2: Sigmund Freud
Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/sigmund-freud-doctor-neurologist-400399/
With the information he uncovered from clients using free association, Freud claimed that
“his patients revealed childhood seductions, with the seducer usually an older relative, often
the father. Freud asserted that these seduction traumas were the cause of adult neurotic
behaviour” (Schultz & Schultz, 2004).
In his final years, Freud suffered enormously due to a mouth cancer and subsequent surgeries.
With Hitler gaining power, Psychoanalysis was declared as an unholy approach to
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
5
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
understanding human behaviour and even amidst much dislike, Freud had to move to
England where in 1939 he requested his physician to put him to rest by an overdose of
morphine because he was unable to bear the growing pain from his cancer.
11.3 The main ideas of Psychoanalysis
Levels of consciousness – the topographical model
Image 11.3: Structural Iceberg
Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Structural-Iceberg.svg
Freud divided the personality into three main parts as the unconscious, preconscious and the
conscious. This is known as the topographical model.
The thoughts that you are currently aware of at a given moment are known as the
‘consciousnesses. “This material changes constantly as new thoughts enter your mind and
pass out of awareness” (Burger, 2011). As illustrated on the figure, what we are consciously
aware is only the tip of the iceberg. Most of our personality lies below our level of
consciousness. It is possible to bring thoughts to consciousness if one wanted to, “this large
body of retrievable information makes up the preconscious” (Burger, 2011). For example
‘what did you have for dinner last night? What is the name of your neighbour?
Psychoanalytically speaking, what is most useful and what occupies the biggest portion of the
mind is the unconscious. “This is material to which you have no immediate access.
According to Freud, you cannot bring unconscious thoughts into consciousness except under
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
6
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
certain extreme situations. Nonetheless, this unconscious material is responsible for much of
your everyday behaviour” (Burger, 2011).
Oedipus and Electra complexes
Named after the Greek legend of Oedipus, Freud described the Oedipus complex as “the
unconscious desire of a boy of 4 or 5 years for his mother and the desire to replace or destroy
his father” (Schultz & Schultz, 2004).
You can find out more about Oedipus through this link:
https://www.greekmythology.com/Myths/Mortals/Oedipus/oedipus.html
The father is unconsciously viewed as a threat to the boy’s desire for his mother. According
to Freud children of this age usually develop sexual attraction towards parents of the opposite
sex and begin to perceive the same sex parent as a threat. With a boy, this is known as the
Oedipus complex and with a girl this is known as the Electra complex. One must also keep in
mind that most of the theoretical aspects proposed by Freud.
The structure of the mind
In addition to the topographical model of the mind, Freud proposed the structural model of
the mind consisting of three components known as id, ego and super- ego. Consider the
following scenario, Amith is sitting in the classroom listening to a lecture when he starts to
feel hungry. Suddenly one part of his mind says “open your lunchbox and eat at this very
moment”, where as another part would say “no, no if you do so you will be punished by the
teacher. This is against the rules”. Finally Amith compromise between the two thoughts and
waits for five minutes till the lunch break and has his lunch. In this scenario, the part of one’s
mind driven by selfish and primal desires is known as the id. At the time of birth, till the age
of two, a child’s mind only consists of id impulses. According to Freud, the id is driven by
the pleasure principle and requires instant gratification. As shown in Figure 3, the id is
believed to reside completely in the unconscious. A person with an overpowering id, tends to
be driven by basic primal instincts.
In Amith’s example the second voice that stood for what is right and wrong is known as the
super ego. This component is driven by the morality principle and begins to develop after 5
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
7
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
years of age. “The superego represents society’s and, in particular, the parent’s values and
standards. The super ego places more restrictions on what we can and cannot do” (Burger,
2011). If a person breaks the moral code then the super ego will attack the person with guilt.
People with weak super egos tend to have less restrain in doing socially deviant acts such as
stealing. People with too strong a super ego, on the other hand, would have impossible moral
standards and would strive for perfection.
The part of the mind that compromises between the id and the super ego is known as the ego.
Driven by the reality principle, develops from two years of age. The ego tries to satisfy the id
impulses in a manner that is acceptable to the super ego (social standards). Inability to find a
balance between the id and super ego, results in anxiety and stress. In a healthy individual, a
strong ego controls the interactions between the id and the super ego.
Activity 11.1
Identify the dominant structure of the mind for the following scenarios – id, ego or superego
 A baby who is hungry crying until he/she was fed

When a friend invites you to a birthday party a day before a job interview, you decide not to attend it
thinking that there will be more parties and that the interview is more important.

After you work hard on your homework, your friend asks you for your answers. You tell her that she
may have the answers, but only if she promises to do her own homework next time.

You really love lollipops. You see a small child holding a lollipop in the street. You grab it and run
away.

You see a person getting bullied and calls the law authority to handle the problem.
Instinct theory
Freud believed that all our behaviours are governed by psychic forces known as instincts.
Basically there are two instincts: the life instinct (Eros) and the death instinct (Thanatos).Eros
is a life and pleasure enhancing force which is considered to be sexual in nature. The sexual
drive is not only applicable to erotic actions but to any action seeking to gain pleasure.
Thanatos is one’s desire to return to the stability of inorganic matter. The death instinct can
be expressed internally (self-destruction) or externally (aggression towards others).
Anxiety
With the id, ego and superego pulling one’s mind in three different directions, the ego begins
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
8
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
to experience much anxiety, which may be divided into three types object anxiety, neurotic
anxiety and moral anxiety.
Defense Mechanisms
According to Freud, when faced with anxiety, in order to prevent our mind being
overwhelmed with anxiety, ego employs variety of defense mechanisms.
Table 11.1: Different defense mechanisms (Gross, 2009)
Defense mechanism
Description
Repression
Displacement
Denial
Example
Forcing a distressing memory out of
A five year old repressing
consciousness and making it
its incestuous desire for the
unconscious.
opposite sex parent.
Transferring feelings from the true
Frustration caused by
target onto a harmless, substitute
problems at work expressed
target.
as domestic violence.
Refusing to acknowledge some
Refusing to accept that your
aspect of reality.
partner has broken up with
you.
Rationalization
Finding an acceptable excuse for
In the Aesop’s fable, the fox
some really quite unacceptable
decides he did not want the
behaviour
grapes because they were
sour, when in reality he was
unable to reach them high
on the vine
Reaction formation
Consciously feeling the opposite of
Going out of your way to be
one’s true feelings.
nice to someone you truly
dislike.
Sublimation
A form of displacement in which a
Playing sport to redirect
socially acceptable activity is found
aggressive urges.
for expressing some unacceptable
impulse.
Projection
Displacing your own unacceptable
‘I hate you’ become ‘you
feelings onto someone else.
hate me’
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
9
PLU4306 – Unit III
Regression
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
Reverting to behaviour
The elder child trying to
characteristic of an earlier stage of
imitate the behaviours of the
development.
younger sibling to get
attention.
Activity 11.2
Find the matching defense mechanism used in the following scenarios.
1.
Thilina is a shop owner and a thief. At his store, he automatically accuses of stealing anyone who looks
suspicious. This is an example of what defense mechanism?

Repression

Reaction Formation

Denial

Projection

Sublimation
2.
Karen decides to go out and party the whole week before her midterm exams instead of studying. She
fails her midterm, and tells her parents that she failed it because she was sick and was not getting
enough sleep. This is an example of what defense mechanism?

Rationalization

Sublimation

Denial

Repression

Reaction Formation
3.
Instead of taking out his anger on others, Saman plays the saxophone when he gets really angry. This
is an example of what defense mechanism?

Repression

Sublimation

Denial

Reaction Formation

Projection
4.
Nethmi blocks her bad memories of high school bullies from her mind. This is an example of what
defense mechanism?

Denial

Reaction Formation
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
10
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis

Projection

Repression

Sublimation
5.
Aravinda’s favourite uncle passes away after a long battle with illness, but he refuses to believe that it
happened. This is an example of what defense mechanism?

Denial

Reaction Formation

Sublimation

Repression

Projection
6.
Gihani is angry with Manel, but eventually she becomes friends and is nice to him. This is an example
of what defense mechanism?

Reaction Formation

Denial

Rationalization

Sublimation

Projection
(Psyc. Defense Mechanisms, n.d.)
Psychosexual stages
Freud believed that the adult personality is heavily influenced by the first few years of a
child’s life. Thus, he believed that each child progresses through a series of developmental
stages known as psychosexual stages. Each stage is characterized by a primary erogenous
zone. “Freud maintained that children face specific challenges as they pass through each
stage and that small amounts of psychic energy are used up resolving these challenges.
….some children have a difficult time moving through a particular stage (or for a few, find a
stage excessively satisfying and wish to remain there). The result is referred to as a fixation,
the tying up of psychic energy… the adult is said to express behaviours characteristic of the
stage at which the energy is fixated” (Burger, 2011). The psychosexual stages are as follows,
1. Oral stage – (birth till 18 months of age). The primary source of pleasure or the erogenous
zone for the stage is centered on the mouth, lips and the tongue. The main reason for this
is that at this stage the child derives pleasure from sucking at the mother’s breast. If the
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
11
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
child has problems succeeding this stage, he/she will develop an oral personality where as
adults they will smoke, drink excessively and bite his or her nails.
Image 11.4: Oral stage
Source: https://www.maxpixel.net/Breast-feeding-Motherhood-The-Birth-Of-Mother-Child1582978
2. The anal stage – (1 to 3 years of age). This is the stage when parents toilet train the
children. Thus the erogenous zone is the anal region. Excessive gratification in this stage
leads to messiness, sloppiness and unregulated self-expression. In the other extreme
results in orderliness, stinginess and obstinacy.
Image 11.5: Toilet training child
Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/child-sitting-potty-training-316211/
3. The phallic stage – (3 to 6 years of age). In this stage children derive pleasure from
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
12
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
manipulating their genitals. They show curiosity about their own and other’s bodies. It is
at this stage that certain individuals develop Oedipus and Electra complexes.
Image 11.6: Phallic stage
Source: https://www.maxpixel.net/Nature-Soap-Bubbles-Kids-Daughter-Summer-Baby-Dad3369549
4. The latency stage – (6 and puberty). Sexual and libidal impulses are repressed at this
stage. Impulses are redirected through school work and hobbies. Children seems to be
uninterested in their opposite sex peers at this stage.
Image 11.6: Peer interaction
Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attachment_theory#/media/File:Children_marbles.jpg
5. Genital stage – (after puberty) Initiated with puberty the children will now look to
separate from the parents and develop a relationship with a person of the opposite sex.
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
13
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
Image 11.7: Genital stage
Source: https://pixabay.com/photos/couple-love-feelings-seaside-2300099/
Dream analysis
Freud considered dreams to be the “royal road to the unconscious”. Freud’s most famous
publication on this subject is the 1990 publication of ‘The Interpretation of Dreams’. Freud
believed that dreams were manifestations of unfulfilled unconscious desires. According to
him, every dream has two levels: the manifest content and the latent content.
Freudian Slip
The typical slips of the tongue are where a person supposedly by accident says something
inappropriate or wrong. For example, a women may accidently call her husband by her
father’s name. According to Freud, these slips do not occur coincidentally, but rather due to
some unconscious desire.
11.4 Strengths of Psychoanalysis
Even though most of the psychoanalytic theories were not experimental in nature, they paved
way for future experimental endeavors. Although highly criticized, psychoanalytic theories
still influence Psychology to such an extent that still the world recognized psychology only in
terms of Freud’s contribution.
Psychoanalysis offered two novel insights to the study of the mind and treating mental
illnesses. The first of which is the idea of the unconscious, instincts, childhood experiences.
Hence psychoanalysis introduced the notion that trauma at an early age can cause a lifetime
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
14
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
of problems. This has meant that children’s emotional needs important to address. The
second insight is that talking about problems with a professional can help relieve symptoms.
This has positively contributed to increase the reputation of psychotherapy in the general
community.
11.5 Criticisms of Psychoanalysis
Freud is criticized for the over emphasis placed on the contribution of the unconscious,
sexual desires and childhood experiences. For him almost all the problems stemmed from
those three reasons. Furthermore the concepts proposed by psychoanalytic theorists are not
empirically validated and considered unscientific because most of the theories are
autobiographically derived from Freud’s own life experiences.
Summary
Sigmund Freud was the founder of psychoanalysis and the psychodynamic approach to
psychology. This school of thought emphasized the influence of the unconscious mind on
behaviour. Freud’s theories on the topographical and structural levels of the mind, dream
analysis, psychosexual stages are still influential in therapy and teaching. Much of these
theories have been derived from Freud’s own work and is criticized for the lack of scientific
validity. But without doubt Freud can be considered as the most influential theorist in
Psychology.
Learning Outcomes
At the end of the session, students should be able to:

Locate the background to Psychoanalysis

Explore Freud’s contribution to psychology

Examine the main principles of Psychoanalysis

Revise the strengths and weaknesses of the psychoanalytic school of psychology
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
15
PLU4306 – Unit III
Session 11: Psychoanalysis
Review Questions
1. What are the factors that lead to the founding of the psychoanalytic school of thought?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………….………………………………………………………………
2. Identify the main theoretical principles forwarded by Sigmund Freud on the mind and
human development
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………….…………………………………………………………
3. What are strengths and limitations of the psychoanalytical school of thought?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
References
Burger, J. (2011). Introduction to Personality (8th ed.). Canada: Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
Gross, R. (2009). Psychology : the science of mind and behaviour. London: Hodder Arnold.
Psyc. Defense Mechanisms. (n.d.). Retrieved from ProProfs Quiz Maker:
https://www.proprofs.com/quiz-school/story.php?title=practice-psy-exam-1
Schultz, D., & Schultz, S. (2004). A History of Modern Psychoology (8 ed.).
Thomson/Wadsworth.
Copyright © 2021, The Open University of Sri Lanka
16