PSYC 337
LEARNING:
An Introduction
02.03.2022
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives

Gain a general/overall idea of what the course is about

Understand course rubrics/ expectations of students/lecturer

Understand basic definitions of learning

Differentiate between learning, knowledge & performance

Be able to explain why animals are used in learning experiments
Course Overview
General Overview

Psyc 337 discusses interesting & important aspect of psychology: Learning!
The course is designed to:

Help us understand the concept of learning and its relevance

Help us know about psychological experiments that help explain how we learn

Update us with the different theoretical viewpoints concerning learning

Help us understand how principles of learning can be applied in everyday life to
understand, explain, predict and control behaviour
General Overview
Expected Learning Outcomes:

Demonstrate understanding of learning & awareness of the different ways in which
learning has been defined over the years & across disciplines.

Differentiate between learning, knowledge & performance

Explain various theoretical approaches to the study & understanding of learning

Explain the concept of cognitive maps, verbal learning procedures, & transfer of
learning.

Demonstrate how learning theories can be applied in therapeutic interventions for
problem behaviours

Discuss the relevance of learning principles in your own life situations and those of
General Overview
Plagiarism Policy:
Plagiarism in any form is unacceptable and shall be
treated as a serious offence. Appropriate sanctions, as
stipulated in the plagiarism policy, will be applied when
students are found to have violated the policy. ALL
students are expected to familiarize themselves with the
contents of the Policy.
Please see: http://www.ug.edu.gh/aqau/policies-guidelines

General Overview
Assessment and grading:

Interim Assessment 60% (2 tests)

End of Semester exam 40%

IA & Exam formats will be communicated at a later date
Grading Scale:

Refer to undergraduate handbook
Points to note:

Course content may be modified in the course of the semester where necessary

Please check department notice board for tutorial times and please attend tutorials.
General Overview
Class Norms:

All students will participate in class
Classroom manners:

Mind your language

Respect everyone’s views/ opinions

Endeavour not to be late to class

Please mute your phones
General Overview
Students with special Needs:

Contact Office of Disability Support Services

The Counselling and Career Center can also help

You are welcome to speak to the lecturer for any assistance
they can provide
General Overview
Course Delivery Schedule & required reading
Check the course syllabus
READING
Spielman, R. (2014). Psychology – 2e. (2nd. Ed.) New York:
OpenStax
Available online at :
https://openstax.org/details/books/psychology-2e
• Recommended Textbooks
Defining Learning






So what is learning?
Think of how a child goes from just giggling to using complex
language
Or reflect on how you became a bicycle rider
These scenarios are different but occur through the process of
learning
Some psychologists believe that all human behaviours are learnt
In order to understand these behaviours, we must understand
what learning is and how it occurs
Defining Learning


For centuries, psychologists and scholars in other disciplines have been
interested in how humans and other organisms learn
This interest ties in with our quest to understand and influence behavior.
However:


There continues to be challenges in establishing a single, universally
accepted definition of learning
Over the years, various scholars have given their ideas of how the
concept of learning can be defined:
Defining Learning
Hall (2003):
“Learning refers to the process by which an animal
(human or non-human) interacts with its environment
and becomes changed by this experience so that its
subsequent behavior is modified”
2. Breedlove et al, (2007)
“The process of acquiring new and relatively
enduring information, behavior patterns or
ability characterized by modification of behavior
as a result of practice, study or experience
Mazur (2013):
“Learning is a process of change
that occurs as a result of an individual’s experience”
Psyc Central (2018):
“…Learning can be defined as the
process leading to a relatively permanent
behavioral change or potential behavioural change…”
See: Baron et al (2015). Embracing multiple definitions of
learning. for a list of other definitions given by scholars from
different discipline.
Defining learning

The most commonly used definitions of learning in psychology:
Mayer (2009)
“Learning is a relatively permanent change in a person’s knowledge or behavior
due to experience”
Or
Lahey (2012).
“any relatively permanent change in behaviour brought about through experience”

The various definitions show certain key characteristics or components of
learning that scholars agree on.

These components or characteristics are often referred to as attributes of
learning
Attributes of learning
1. Learning is a process:
Learning occurs over time and follows a process and is not a
single event. It begins from somewhere. E.g. One event and
continues before actual learning occurs
2. Change due to learning is long-term, not short-term
The phrases “enduring” and “relatively permanent” used in the
definitions mean that the change that occurs during learning lasts
longer compared to other changes in the individual that are not a
result of learning. eg,. injury, fatigue, illness, mood swings &
changes that occur automatically in response to external events,
like shivering when it’s cold & sweating when it’s hot.
Attributes of learning
3. The learning process may not be directly observable:
The actual learning process may not be directly observable
because the acquisition and storage of information are internal
processes. The organism learns alright but we see no change in
behaviour immediately until it is required.
4. Experience causes the change
The change in behavior is not evident/ does not occur until the
individual goes through a prior experience. Therefore, the cause
of the change is the learner’s experience in the environment
rather than fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or
physiological intervention.
Attributes of learning
5. The change in behavior desirable/ undesirable:
Learning results in a change in behavior. This change may be
intentional or unintentional and could be for better or for
worse. The new behavior could be a desirable one or an
undesirable one. Eg. Vomiting after eating a food and
feeling disgusted on seeing that food after this episode
Home work:
Search for other attributes of learning
Relevance of learning
Class activity:
• In the next 5 minutes write down five points
explaining why learning is important to human life
• Now lets discuss your points
Learning, knowledge, performance
Learning, knowledge, performance
Learning:
The process through which behavior is changed due to
experience.
Knowledge:
Information obtained through experience that is stored in
the brain
Performance:
Actions demonstrated with the aid of the information
obtained through experience and stored in the brain
Approaches to the study of learning
Approaches to studying learning


Different psychologists have used different approaches to
study learning based on their orientation
Three of such approaches are:
 Behavioural Approach

Cognitive Approach

Biological/Neuropsychological Approach
Approaches to studying learning
Behavioral Approach:
 Earliest approach to studying how organisms learn
 Believe learning occurs through stimulus-response
mechanism
 Emphasizes relationships between :



Observable Behaviors
The antecedent stimuli that precede behavior
The consequences that follow the behavior
Methodological approach:
 Animal/human experimentation and observation
Approaches to studying learning



Cognitive approach:
Focuses on the role of cognition in the stimulus-response
mechanism
Believe that cognitive interpretation of stimuli produces
eventual learnt behaviour
Argues that organisms form mental/internal representation of
stimuli, process it, before exhibiting a changed or unchanged
behaviour
Methodological approach:
 Animal/human experimentation with cognitive inference

Approaches to studying learning
Biological/ Neuropsychological approach:
 Focuses on underlying biological basis for learning and
memory.

The goal here is to discover the biological events/processes
that take place to produce learning
Eg. Changes that occur in the nervous system when
learning occurs
Methodological approach:
Brain imaging techniques, surgical procedures using mainly
animals
Using animals to understand
learning
Animals and the study of learning

Animals have been the main experimental subjects in learning experiments

This is because of Practical and Ethical reasons:
Practical Reasons:

Darwin’s theory of evolution:




Human beings evolved from animals
The genetic heritage, history, and environmental experiences of animals can be easily
controlled and manipulated.
Humans have a higher tendency to alter their behaviour when they know they are in an
experiment.
Studying how animals learn can help identify principles that can be applied to human
learning.
Animals and the study of learning

Structure & functions of the central nervous system:

There is scientific evidence showing that the structure and functions of the CNS are
similar in humans and some animals.
Mora-Bermúdez et al (2016):
Cytoarchitecture, cell type composition, and neurogenic gene expression
programs are remarkably similar between humans and chimpanzees


A large degree of difference between humans and chimps is down to
cell numbers and structural sizes
This means that brains of some animals function similar to that of
humans and can be used to understand brain mechanisms underlying
learning in humans.
Animals & the study of learning

Frans de Waal (2005):
"We are apes in every way, from
our long arms and tailless bodies
to our habits and temperament."

For their own sakes/ to understand them better:
Studying animals helps psychologists understand animal learning and
behavior
 Helps understand their needs to help improve their wellbeing
e.g. studies involving dogs have helped improve their co-existence with
humans in a friendly environment and animal studies help zoo keepers to know
how to handle them.

Raging debate: why do sharks attack humans? Mistaken identity or
threat perception ?
Animals and the study of learning

Cost of research:
All research come at a cost in terms of resources and logistics.
Using animals instead of humans could be cheaper in this
regard.

Ethical Reasons:

To avoid causing harm to humans through experimentation

Certain research procedures involve a significant risk of harm to
participants. E.g. testing the effects of a new drug on learning. To avoid
causing harm to humans, animals are used as an alternative.
 Minimal ethical requirements
Using animals require less ethical requirements than using humans. Eg. There is
no need for informed consent.

Animals and the study of learning
HAVE A NICE DAY
PSYC 337: LEARNING
THEORIES OF LEARNING:
The Behavioural Theory
Dr. Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1. Explain the behaviorist understanding of learning
2. Familiarize ourselves with the theory of classical
conditioning
3. Study Ivan Pavlov’s experiment
4. Understand elements and basic features of classical
conditioning
Review of lecture 1






Define learning
Attributes of learning
Relevance of learning
Learning, Knowledge and performance
Approaches to learning
Animals and the study of learning
Behavioral Theory of
Learning
Behavioral learning theory
• Behaviourism is one of the earliest and most dominant
schools in psychology
• Early Behaviorists included: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner,
Edward Thorndike, Ivan Pavlov (google them!)
• Behaviorists believe that every behavior is a response to
environmental stimuli or events
• Thus, behavioral learning theories generally define learning
by focusing on observable behaviours and discounting any
mental activity.
• Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new
behaviour. (Pritchard, 2005: 7)
Behavioral learning theory
Key behaviorist arguments:

Behaviour that is followed by a reinforcing consequence will
continue or strengthen.

Behaviour that is followed by a punishing consequence will
decrease or weaken.

Behaviour that is not reinforced will simply disappear
Behavioral learning theory


The behaviourists’ idea of learning is often called learning by association.
Through research (mainly experiments), they demonstrated how
organisms learn by forming associations between stimuli, or between a
response and its consequences.
To the behaviorist:
Learning occurs when an organism forms an association between a
stimulus, the organism’s response and the consequence of the response.
The behaviorist view is represented by two main theories of learning:
1.
Classical conditioning
2.
Operant/instrumental conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Classical conditioning


Classical conditioning is one of
the forms of learning explained
by behaviorist theory.
This form of learning was
accidentally discovered by
Russian physiologist & Nobel
Laureate Ivan P. Pavlov while
studying gastric
secretion/digestion in dogs.
Ivan Petrovic Pavlov (1849 – 1936)
Classical conditioning




Pavlov was interested in understanding the role of saliva in
digestion.
He surgically implanted tubes in the cheeks of his dogs.
This allowed him to measure the amount of saliva produced
when food was placed in the dog’s mouth.
He soon realized that the dogs started salivating to other things,
including:



The sight of food
The sound of rattling dishes
His mere presence or that of his colleagues.
Classical conditioning
• Pavlov concluded that this salivation behaviour was the
result of learning and named it the conditioned reflex.
• This is defined as:
“A learned involuntary response” (Wood, Wood, & Boyd,
2005).
• To test this, he set up a series of experiments using bells,
tones, buzzers, lights, metronomes, geometric shapes &
electric shocks.
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov’s Experiment
Pavlov’s experiment






Pavlov’s famous experiment took place at his lab in Leningrad, Russia
He paired the sound of a bell to the dog’s meat powder.
To begin, he rang a bell, which at first did not elicit any response from
the dogs.
Immediately after he rang the bell, he placed meat powder on the dog’s
tongue, which caused salivation.
This sequence was repeated many times.
Eventually, the dog began to salivate when it heard the bell alone
(without the meat powder!).
Classical conditioning



So, the dog had learnt something, which is that the
sound of the bell implies the arrival of food.
In essence, it had formed an association between
two stimuli – the bell and the meat powder.
It had also responded to both stimuli by salivating,
first as a reflex and then as a learned response or
conditioned reflex/response.
Classical conditioning

•
•
In summary:
The key issue in CC is the formation of association
between/among stimuli which originally/initially may have
nothing in common.
occurs through a stimulus-response
mechanism when an organism learns to respond to a
stimulus in a particular way after that stimulus has been
paired with another one over a period of time.
Learning here
Classical conditioning
Wood et al., (2003):
“A type of learning through which an organism learns to
associate one stimulus with another”
Davis & Palladino, (2005):
“Learning that occurs when two stimuli – a conditioned
stimulus (originally a neutral stimulus) and an
unconditioned stimulus – are paired and become
associated with each other”
Key Elements in Classical
Conditioning
Elements in Classical Conditioning

A stimulus is “any event or object in the environment to
which an organism responds” (Wood et al., 2005).
In CC, there are three (3) types of stimuli:



Unconditioned Stimulus (eg meat)
Neutral stimulus (eg. bell that elicits no response)
Conditioned stimulus (bell that elicits salivation)
and three (3) types of responses:



Unconditioned response (salivation at the meat)
Neutral/No response (no reaction at sound of bell)
Conditioned response(salivation at sound of bell)
Classical conditioning





Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) – A stimulus that naturally evokes
a particular response (eg. the meat powder).
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not elicit a desired response
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) – A previously Neutral Stimulus (NS)
that now evokes a particular response after having been paired
with an unconditioned stimulus (eg. the bell) over time.
Unconditioned Response (UCR) – An unlearned, inborn reaction
to an unconditioned stimulus (eg. salivation to the meat powder).
Conditioned Response (CR) – A learned response to the CS that
occurs after UCS-CS pairing (eg. salivation to the bell).
Classical conditioning
So classical conditioning actually works this way:
Step 1. BEFORE CONDITIONING
Food (UCS) = Saliva (UCR)
Bell (NS) =
No Response (NR)

Step 2. DURING CONDITIONING
Bell (NS) + Food (UCS) = Saliva

Step 3. AFTER CONDITIONING
Bell (CS) = Saliva (CR)
Importance of Classical
Conditioning
Classical conditioning




Classical conditioning is important because it helps us
understand some forms of human behavior
It can be applied in various life settings for behavior
modification eg. In student behavior management and
classroom management in schools
It also demonstrates that emotional reactions such as fear can
be learnt.
This was demonstrated in the Little Albert Experiment by
John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920.
Classical conditioning: Little Albert




Loud noises made
little Albert cry
Fluffy objects
however got no
response from him
Loud clanging
sound was paired
with fluffy object
over time
Soon, Albert began
to cry on seeing the
fluffy object
Basic Features of Classical
Conditioning
Features of Classical Conditioning





Acquisition – Process in which organism gradually learns to associate two
stimuli and respond to this association.
Stimulus Generalization – “Occurrence of responses to stimuli that are
similar to a CS” (Davis & Palladino, 2005).
Discrimination – “Occurrence of responses only to a specific CS” (Davis
& Palladino, 2005).
Extinction - “In classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual
disappearance of the CR as a result of repeated presentation of the CS
without the UCS” (Wood et al., 2005).
Spontaneous Recovery – “The reappearance of an extinguished response
(in a weaker form) when an organism is exposed to the original CS following
a rest period”. This is also known as Reacquisition.
Factors influencing classical
conditioning
Factors influencing CC
Some factors can influence the acquisition of classically conditioned
response. Five of these are:
1. Sequence of NS-UCS Presentation :
–
A stronger conditioning occurs when the NS is
presented first and remains till the UCS is presented.
This sequence is known as forward conditioning.
– Alternatively, the UCS could be presented first
followed by the NS. This is called backward
conditioning and this produces a weaker
conditioning.
Factors influencing CC
2.
–
–
3.
–
–
Number and consistency of NS-UCS Pairings
Generally, the greater the number of pairings, the stronger the
conditioned response (CR).
However, in real life events only one pairing is enough to
classically condition taste aversion or a strong emotional response
to cues associated with some traumatic event (e.g. floods, rape).
Strength/Intensity of the UCS
If the NS is paired with a very strong UCS, the conditioned
response (CR) will be stronger and will be acquired more rapidly.
If the NS were paired with a weaker UCS, the Conditioned
Response (CR) will be weaker.
Factors influencing CC
4. How reliably the NS predicts the UCS –
For the association in CC to occur, the NS must reliably predict the
occurrence of the UCS, i.e. the CS must be informative in
predicting the UCS.
5. The temporal relationship between the NS and the UCS




Conditioning takes place fastest if the NS occurs shortly
before the UCS
Conditioning takes place more slowly or not at all when the
two stimuli occur at the same time or far apart in time
The ideal time between the presentation of the NS and UCS
is about ½ second
This varies depending on the type of response being
conditioned and the nature and intensity of the CS and UCS.
Factors influencing CC
NOTE:
 The temporal relationship between the NS and the
UCS and how it affects classical conditioning is known
as the Contiguity Theory.

The temporal relationship can be manipulated in a
number of ways, including:

Simultaneous conditioning – This involves the presentation
of the NS and UCS together at the same time. So, the
onset and offset of the two are the same. There is hardly
any conditioning in this process due to overshadowing.
– Temporal conditioning – Here, no NS is presented.
What rather happens is that the UCS is presented
repeatedly with a constant time interval between
presentations. Eventually, the organism produces a
CR just before each occurrence of the UCS. Thus time
becomes the CS.
– Trace conditioning – This is the opposite of backward
conditioning. Here, the onset and offset of the NS
occurs before the UCS is presented. This makes it
more difficult for a CR to be formed. If formed at all,
the CR is weak.
PSYC337: Psychology of Learning
Classical & Operant Conditioning
Ernest Darkwah (PhD)
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1. Explain other forms of Classical Conditioning
2. Discuss application of classical conditioning in
everyday life settings
3. Develop understanding of operant conditioning
as theory of learning
4. Understand elements and basic components of
operant conditioning
Review of Lecture 2





Explain behavioral learning theory
Explain classical conditioning as a learning theory
What are some elements in classical conditioning
Why is classical conditioning important
State five factors that can influence classical
conditioning and show how the influence occurs
Other forms of classical conditioning
Other forms of conditioning

Higher-order/ Second-order
conditioning:

The pairing of a Neutral Stimulus
(NS) with a Conditioned Stimulus
(CS) in order to turn the NS into a
CS eliciting the same response as
the CS with which it was paired.

the conditioning here occurs not by
pairing the NS with a UCS, but by
pairing it with a stimulus that has
already been conditioned to
produce a response.

The conditioning process here is
extended by one more step
UCS
Other forms of conditioning
• Counter-conditioning:
The process of eliminating a CR by
pairing the CS with a different UCS
for a response that is stronger than
the CR and that cannot occur at the
same time as the CR.
• Also often called desensitization
and used for behavior
modification
•
Often used on pets or children
to change their attitude or
emotional response to a
stimulus
Other forms of conditioning

Aversive Conditioning

a form of conditioning in which
the subject is simultaneously
exposed to a stimulus (particular
behavior) and discomfort, as a
result of which he starts
associating the two and stops
the said behavior.

Here the idea is to replace a
positive response to a harmful
stimulus with a negative
response
Applications of classical conditioning
Applications of Classical Conditioning –
Behaviour modification
1. In rehabilitation therapy for alcohol and drug addiction





Therapists expose patients to alcohol mixed with or paired with
a substance that produces discomfort
After sometime, patients stay away from alcohol because the
smell of it elicits a response of discomfort from their system
In drug rehabilitation therapy, individuals develop a craving
when they come close to cues (bars, corners, some specific
persons etc.) who they associate with the drug.
So the therapists treat them by ensuring they stay away from
such cues
This kind of therapy is called aversion therapy
Applications – Behaviour modification
• Aversion therapy is a type of behavior therapy
in which an aversive stimulus is paired with a
harmful or socially undesirable behaviour
until the behaviour becomes associated with
pain or discomfort, thereby reducing its
possibility of recurrence
• Some forms of punishment are examples of
aversive conditioning
Applications – Behaviour modification
2. Bedwetting:
• An alarm bell with a pad is attached or put
under the child whilst he is asleep.
• The bell rings whenever any moisture reaches
the pad. The child then wakes up.
• A time comes when the child wakes up as soon
as his bladder is full.
Applications – Behaviour modification
3. Systematic Desensitization –
 Often a counter-conditioning process



A behaviour therapy that is based on classical conditioning
and used to treat fears/ phobias.
Clients are trained in deep muscle relaxation
They are then made to confront a graduated series of
anxiety-producing situations (real or imagined) until they
can remain relaxed while confronting even the most feared
situation.”
Applications of classical conditioning Business/ advertising
Business/advertisement:

Situations and objects (goods and services) are often paired with
something or someone attractive and desirable (e.g. models,
football stars, actors, e.t.c.)

Over time, people respond positively to the product as they would
respond to the desirable person or object.

The idea is to get people to associate the product with the
desirable person and eventually respond positively to the product
Applications of CC - Business

CELEBRITY SALES
Applications of CC -Mood
Mood and feelings:
 You like a particular person or respond positively to
him/her
 Any time you sit in that person’s car, a particular song is
playing
 Over time, you react positively to that song anytime you
hear it playing even if that specific person is not there.
If, for example, that person dies,
 Anytime you hear the song you may become moody or
sad.
Operant Conditioning
Learning through consequences
Operant conditioning




Learning also comes from anticipating/experiencing the
consequences of our actions.
Imagine that you whistled at a dog, and it attacked you.
Would this behavior of whistling be repeated the next time
you see a dog? Probably not!
This is the basis of the learning theory called Operant
Conditioning
Operant conditioning is also often known as Instrumental
learning or instrumental conditioning
Operant conditioning




The key argument in operant conditioning is that the organism/
individual is not a passive recipient of stimulus-response processes but
rather actively engages/ operates with the environment before learning
occurs.
In contrast to classical conditioning, the idea in operant conditioning is
that the individual’s behavior is governed by the anticipated
consequences rather than automatic response elicited by a stimulus.
Simply put, an organism first acts (operates) in a way and the
consequences of that action determines the change that will occur in the
behavior
The organism/ individual becomes ‘conditioned by its operation’
Operant conditioning
Definitions:
Wood et al., (2005):
“A type of learning in which the consequences of behaviour are manipulated in order to increase
or decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an entirely new response”
Skinner (1937):
“Behaviour controlled by its consequences”
Staddon, (2003):
In practice, operant conditioning is the study of reversible behavior maintained by reinforcement
schedules.

Operant Conditioning is credited to the works of two
American behaviorists Edward L. Thorndike and B. F.
Skinner.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904 – 1990)
Edward Lee Thorndike (1874 – 1949)
Operant conditioning

Thorndike believed that trialand-error learning is the basis
of most behavioural changes.
Wood et al., (2005):
 Trial-and-error learning occurs
when a response is associated
with a successful solution to a
problem after a number of
unsuccessful responses.”
Operant conditioning



Thorndike came to this
conclusion through numerous
experiments.
His best-known experiment is
the one in which he placed
hungry cats in wooden boxes
fastened closed with a latch
This became famously known
as the puzzle box experiment
The puzzle box Experiment
The puzzle box experiment




He placed hungry cat in a
wooden box fastened with a
latch
He placed food right outside the
door
The cat had to open the door to
get the food
He observed:

The cats paced around and
scratched the walls trying to get to
the food
The puzzle box experiment





The cat performed all sorts of actions until it accidentally stepped
on the latch and the door opened
Thorndike repeated this routine several times
Eventually, as soon as the cat was placed in the box, it would go
straight to the latch and step on it to open the door
Thorndike concluded that the other responses/ behaviours
(pacing and scratching) which did not help open the door were
gradually dropped (weakened and disappeared) by the cat
Only the response/ behavior(stepping on the latch) that led to
opening the door was repeated and strengthened
The puzzle box experiment



Thorndike called the behaviour/response which the cat
repeated the Instrumental Response.
This is because it is instrumental in producing
reinforcement (i.e. the food reward)
Thus operant conditioning is sometimes referred to as
Instrumental conditioning because it emphasizes that
behaviours that are instrumental in achieving
reinforcement are the ones that are learnt.
Operant Conditioning
Based on the numerous experiments, Thorndike formulated
three (3) laws of learning:
1. The Law of Effect – “The consequence, or effect, of a
response/behaviour will determine whether that response
or behaviour will be repeated under similar circumstances
in the future.

In essence, the law states that responses closely followed
by pleasant consequences are strengthened while those
followed by unpleasant consequences are weakened.
Operant Conditioning
2. The Law of Exercise – This law states that repeated
practice of a stimulus-response association is
strengthened. In effect, practice makes perfect.

Thorndike later retracted this statement, arguing that



pure exercise or practice alone did not have a benefit
only rewarded exercises produced learning.
In effect, practice with feedback makes perfect (or
produces learning).
Operant Conditioning
3. The Law of Readiness – This law states that an
individual learns better if the individual is physically and
psychologically prepared.

Thorndike believed that readiness is an important
condition of learning because satisfaction or frustration
depends on an individual’s state of readiness. E.g.
when a person is hungry, sleepy etc, this will affect
learning.
Operant conditioning
The Skinner Box
The Skinner Box



Thordike’s work served as the
basis for Skinner’s experiments
Like Watson, he believed that
the causes of behaviour are in
the environment.
Even our thoughts, feelings, or
perceptions are shaped and
determined by environmental
forces.
The Skinner Box



For his own experiments,
Skinner designed an apparatus
which is now commonly known
as the Skinner box.
The Skinner box is a
soundproof chamber typically
equipped with a lever/bar and
a dispenser.
So the animal has to press the
lever to get food or water from
a dispenser.
The Skinner Box
SKINNER BOX
Speaker
Pellet
dispenser
Signal
lights
Lever
Dispenser
tube
Food cup
Electric grid
To shock
generator
The skinner box
The Skinner box was a much
improved apparatus than the
puzzle box

It allowed the experimenter to
manipulate the experimental
situation to test various learning
outcomes such as :



ratio of responses to food deliveries
the time interval between responses
that would produce food.
The skinner box



Skinner also invented a device called a cumulative
recorder.
The cumulative recorder is attached to the Skinner
box and automatically logs the animal’s responses
(i.e. bar pressing).
The results sheet, known as a cumulative record,
shows the rate of responding in a series of Operant
Conditioning trials.
The skinner box
Operant Conditioning

In the Skinner box, the animal put inside is conditioned to press the
lever to get food through the process of shaping. (Wood et al., 2005):
Shrestha (2017):
 “Shaping is an operant conditioning procedure that involves reinforcing
behaviors that are closer to the target behavior in order to gradually
get the subject to perform the target behaviour
In other words, shaping involves successive approximations:
The step-by-step procedure of reinforcing different behaviors (that are
close to the ultimate behaviour) until the ultimate behavior is achieved.


Eg. Clapping for a child who takes one step, clapping more when he
takes 2 steps and continuing until the child finally learns to walk.
Reading
• Follow the link below to read a chapter on
operant conditioning:
https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/c872/4a12fb
c671366ec3b09ac3bfd94da1f60183.pdf
HAVE A NICE DAY
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
Operant Conditioning
Basic Components
Dr. Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Discuss some basic components of Operant
conditioning: Reinforcement and punishment
2.
Discuss the various forms of reinforcement and
punishment
3.
Develop understanding of some factors that can
influence operant conditioning
Basic components of operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning


Operant Conditioning has 1 key concept: Reinforcement.
To understand its basic components, it is necessary to
understand this concept of reinforcement:
Wood et al., (2005):
“Reinforcement is any event that follows a response and
strengthens or increases the probability that the response will
be repeated”


Reinforcement can strengthen both desirable and
undesirable social behaviour
Operant conditioning



In order for reinforcement to occur, there is the need for a
reinforcer:
A reinforcer is anything that follows a response and strengthens it
or increases the probability that it will occur again (Wood et al.,
2005).
Reinforcers fall into 2 broad categories:

primary reinforcer: A reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for
survival and does not depend on learning. Eg. food

Secondary reinforcer – “A reinforcer that is acquired or learned
through association with primary reinforcers. Eg. Money

Secondary reinforcers gain their reinforcement power because they
can help to acquire a primary reinforcer
Operant conditioning

Reinforcement can be positive or negative
Positive reinforcement
Any pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a
response and increases the probability that the response
will be repeated.
Negative reinforcement
“The termination of an unpleasant condition after a
response, which increases the probability that the
response will be repeated.”
Operant conditioning

Reinforcement can be used in 2 broad ways:
continuously or partially
Continuous Reinforcement
Reinforcement that is administered after every desired
or correct response. It is the most effective method of
conditioning a new response.
Partial reinforcement
A pattern of reinforcement in which some but not all
correct responses are reinforced.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Operant conditioning






Partial reinforcement can be administered according to a
schedule. This is often called Schedules of reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement can be fixed or variable
Fixed reinforcement means that the reinforcement is done
in a fixed manner.
Variable reinforcement means that the manner in which
the reinforcement is done can vary.
There are two types of fixed reinforcement schedules
And there are two types of variable reinforcement
schedules:
Operant conditioning

Therefore in total schedules of reinforcement come
in 4 basic types:
1. Fixed-ratio schedule – In this schedule a reinforcer
is given after a fixed number of correct
responses/behaviours.”

E.g.: An FR8 schedule means that reinforcement will
be given after every 8 correct responses.
Operant conditioning


Fixed-interval schedule – In this schedule, a
reinforcer is given after a fixed time interval eg.
giving a break after every two hours of lecture.
E.g.: An FI15 schedule means that reinforcement is
given after 15 minutes or 15 hours or 15 days,
depending on whatever time frame is being used.
Operant conditioning



Variable-ratio schedule – A schedule in which the
number of responses that has to occur before
reinforcement is given can vary.
That is, a reinforcer is given after a varying
number of responses, based on an average ratio
Eg. A VR15 schedule means that an average of 15
responses are required for 1 reinforcer but
reinforcement can occur for 10, 20 or 45 responses.
Operant conditioning


Variable-interval schedule – In this schedule the time
interval within which reinforcement is given for a
correct response can vary.
E.g.: A VI90 schedule means that on average a
reinforcement can be given after 90 seconds (or
minutes/hours) but reinforcement can also occur after
45, 120, 75, or 105 seconds.
Basic Features of Operant Conditioning
Features of operant conditioning



Like Classical conditioning, operant conditioning also
has some basic features
These features are identical to those of classical
conditioning
The features in both learning theories explain how
learning can occur and disappear
Features of operant conditioning
The features include:
1. Stimulus Generalization –
 The tendency for similar stimuli to elicit the same response
(Lahey, 2005).

It occurs when the subject/individual reacts the same way to
one stimulus and another stimulus that looks like the first stimulus
2. Stimulus Discrimination –
 The tendency for responses to occur more often in the presence
of one stimulus than others” (Lahey, 2003).

It involves the ability to distinguish between one stimulus and
another stimulus that looks similar
Application – Behaviour modification
3. Extinction –
In operant conditioning, the weakening and eventual
disappearance of the conditioned response as a result
of the withholding of reinforcement (Wood et al., 2005).
4. Spontaneous recovery:
This can also occur in operant conditioning
A rat whose bar pressing has been extinguished may
press the bar again a few times when returned to the
Skinner box.
Operant conditioning vs classical conditioning
Feature
Classical conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Acquisition
Through associating of events
(CS signals the coming of UCS)
Through associating a behavior
and its consequence
Response
Involuntary (reflex)
Voluntary (operates on the
environment)
Role of the learner
Passive (only responds to
stimuli)
Active (initiates an action and
learns from consequence)
Extinction
The CR decreases when CS is
repeatedly presented without
UCS
Responding decreases when
reinforcement stops
Cognitive process
Organisms develop an
expectation that the CS signals
the coming of UCS
Organisms develop an
expectation that some
behaviours will be reinforced
and others will be punished.
Factors influencing operant
conditioning
Operant conditioning
1.

The Magnitude of Reinforcement
As the magnitude of reinforcement increases, acquisition
of a response is faster, rate of responding is higher, and
resistance to extinction is greater.
E.g.: When drug addicts are given cash incentives to
abstain from taking drugs, they are likely to do so when
the amount is great.
Operant conditioning
2. The Immediacy of Reinforcement
 When reinforcement is immediate, responses are
conditioned more effectively. The longer the delay in
reinforcement, the slower the acquisition of a response.


E.g.: Little learning occurs in animals with delay of
reinforcement .
In humans, delayed reinforcement is no match for
immediate reinforcement in producing learning.
Operant conditioning
3. The Level of Motivation of the Learner

A highly motivated learner practices more and therefore
learns faster.

E.g.:

Skinner used rats that had had no food for 24 hours

pigeons that were maintained at 75-80% of their
normal body weight to maximize motivation in his
experiments.
Punishment
Punishment
Punishment
 Another common type of consequence to behaviour is
punishment. According to Wood et al. (2005), this is
defined as:


It refers to the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the
application of an unpleasant stimulus, in order to
reduce the probability of a behavior occurring again.
It is the opposite of reinforcement.
Punishment

Like reinforcement, punishment can also be positive or
negative:
Positive punishment
Here a response/behavior is followed by the presentation
of an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the occurrence of
the response.

Negative punishment
Here, a response is followed by the removal of a pleasant
stimulus to decrease the occurrence of the response.

Punishment

1.
2.
1.
Due to its nature, punishment can have some serious
disadvantages:
Punishment indicates that a behaviour is inappropriate but
does not necessarily help people develop appropriate
behaviours.
The punished individual often becomes fearful and
angry/hostile towards the punisher instead of respectful and
understanding
The punished individual might want to retaliate or at least
avoid or escape from the punisher and the punishing situation.
Punishment
4. Punishment frequently leads to aggression as those who
administer physical punishment may become models of
aggressive behaviour.
By demonstrating aggression as a way of solving problems
and discharging anger, they teach children especially, that it
is a good way to solve problems.
Punishment
Alternatives to punishment
 Remove the rewarding consequences of undesirable
behaviour.


Rather, give attention to more appropriate behaviours.
Use positive reinforcement to make good behaviour
more rewarding.
Punishment
Making Punishment Effective
 Punishment can be useful in certain instances if we
ensure that it is effective.
 Research has shown that 3 factors influence its
effectiveness:
1. Timing/immediacy
 Punishment must be applied during the problem
behaviour or as soon as possible afterwards. The
longer the delay, the less effective the punishment is.
Punishment
2. Intensity/severity
 Ideally, the intensity of punishment should match the
seriousness of the problem behaviour.
3. Consistency
 Punishment must be applied consistently for it to be
effective. Ignoring the problem behaviour one day and
punishing it the next day will produce little or no results.
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
Operant Conditioning:
Dr.
Application
Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Demonstrate how Reinforcement compares to
punishment
2.
Demonstrate instances in real life where operant
conditioning can be applied
Test questions



Explain how learning occurs through classical
conditioning
Explain how the association between the NS and the
UCS be made stronger in classical conditioning
Explain how classical conditioning can be applied in
one real life circumstance
Reinforcement vs Punishment
Punishment vs Reinforcement




Punishment and reinforcement are two ways through which
behaviourists believe learning occurs
These two concepts have some notable differences and
similarities.
For eg. Punishment can be positive or negative and so can
reinforcement
However positive and negative punishment are used for
purposes that are different and opposite to positive and
negative reinforcement
Reinforcement vs Punishment
Punishment and Reinforcement

When we use reinforcement and punishment continuously,
certain cues become associated with them

So the organism learns what each cue signals.

Such a cue is known as a discriminative stimulus

A discriminative stimulus is a stimulus that signals whether
a certain response or behaviour is likely to be
rewarded, ignored, or punished
Punishment and Reinforcement

Reinforcement and punishment have the power to generate 3
kinds of learning in both animals and humans:
1. Escape learning
 Learning to perform a behaviour because it prevents or
terminates an aversive event. This reflects the power of
negative reinforcement.
2. Avoidance learning –
 Learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive
consequences or phobias.

This depends on two types of conditioning, classical and
operant.
Punishment and Reinforcement
3. Learned helplessness
 A passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned
through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable
aversive events.


The initial experiment on learned helplessness was
conducted by Overmier and Seligman (1967) using dogs.
It’s synonymous to giving up : when an organism begins to
accept that there is no way to avoid or escape an aversive
event or situation
Applications of Operant Conditioning
Applying Operant conditioning

1.

Like Classical conditioning, operant conditioning
principles can be applied in real life situations in many
ways:
Animal training
To get an animal to perform a trick, the trainer first
trains it to perform a simple act that is similar to its
natural behaviour and then gradually shapes the animal
to perform more complex behaviours.
Operant conditioning
2. Biofeedback –
 The use of sensitive equipment to give people precise
feedback about internal physiological processes so that
they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over
them

Used to regulate heart rate, control asthma,
migraines/tension headaches, gastrointestinal disorders,
stroke, sexual dysfunctions e.t.c.
Operant conditioning
3. Breaking bad habits
 One can learn to conquer bad habits by means of
reinforcement, using a simple 3-step method (Azrin & Nunn,
1973 cited in Kalat, 2002):
1.
Become more aware of your bad habit by isolating it from the
chain of normal activities. Then imagine the habit in
association with something repulsive.
2.
Provide your own reinforcement for not engaging in the bad
habit. For this to work you need to choose a reinforcer that
you find very rewarding and use scheduling.
3.
Do something incompatible with the bad habit.
Operant conditioning
4. Behaviour modification:
 A method of changing behaviour through a
systematic program based on the learning principles
of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or
observational learning
 Also known as Applied Behaviour Analysis, it’s often
used by institutions such as schools, prisons, and
mental hospitals.
Operant conditioning

In schools, for example, there are 3 important uses of
Applied Behaviour Analysis or behaviour modification.
These include:
1.
2.
3.
Increasing desirable behaviour.
Using prompts and shaping.
Decreasing undesirable behaviour.
Operant conditioning
1. Increasing desirable behaviour.
 This requires the use of 5 Operant Conditioning
strategies, including:
A.
B.
Choosing Effective Reinforcers – This can be done by
finding out about a student’s reinforcement history, wants
that are not frequently gotten, and perception of the
reinforcer’s value.
Making the Reinforcement Contingent and Timely – The
student must perform the behaviour to get a reward and
must be rewarded immediately afterwards.
Operant conditioning
c.
Using the best Schedule of Reinforcement – Start with
continuous reinforcement so the behaviour is learnt rapidly
then use partial reinforcement which works better to
maintain the behaviour.
d.
Contracting – This involves putting reinforcement
contingencies in writing.


Simply, it is a written agreement between the teacher and student
with input from both of them.
A contract should have “if…then” statements, be signed and dated by
both teacher and student, and witnessed by another student.
Operant conditioning
e. Using Negative Reinforcement effectively – Negative
reinforcement means removing unpleasant stimuli to
increase behaviour.
Operant conditioning
2. Using Prompts and Shaping
 A prompt works on the principle of discrimination.
It is defined as:
“an added stimulus or cue that is given just before a
response and increases the likelihood that the response
will occur” (Santrock, 2001).


Prompts can be verbal (e.g. instructions, hints, notices) or
visual (e.g. accepted signs for ‘keep quiet’ or ‘speak
louder’).
Operant conditioning
3. Decreasing Undesirable Behaviour
 Here, Applied Behaviour Analysts suggest that teachers
should do the following:


Use differential reinforcement – The teacher reinforces
behaviour that is appropriate or incompatible with what
the child is doing.
E.g.: Praising a child for using the right hand to call the
teacher’s attention and not the left hand.
Operant conditioning



Terminate reinforcement – This involves withdrawing
positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate
behaviour.
Remove desirable stimuli – This involves 2 strategies i.e.
time-out (taking the student away from positive
reinforcement) and response cost (taking a positive
reinforcer away from a student).
Present aversive stimuli – The most common types of
aversive stimuli used by teachers are verbal reprimands.
This is most effective when the teacher is near the student
and when it is used with a nonverbal reprimand (e.g. a
frown).
Operant conditioning
Application of Operant
Conditioning in Business
 Raffles and Draws are often
based on operant
conditioning

Eg. Scratch and win
promotions, lotteries etc.
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
Social/Observational Learning
Theory
Dr. Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Explain Social learning as a theory of learning
2.
Discuss observational learning as a type of social
learning
3.
Discuss Bandura’s experiment into observational
learning
4.
Discuss processes involved in observational
learning
Social Learning Theory:
Learning from others
Social learning



Like classical and operant conditioning theories, social
learning also follows behaviourist traditions and beliefs
It is based on the belief that behavior change (learning)
is orchestrated by the environment
The main argument in this theory is that individuals learn
through their interactions with others within their social
context
Social learning theory


The theory was propounded by
Canadian-American Psychologist
Prof. Emeritus Albert Bandura
Bandura felt that previous
theories (classical & operant
conditioning) did not provide
sufficient explanation of
learning
Albert Bandura

He argued that these theories
do not explain how a child
acquires new behaviours simply
by watching and copying others
Social learning theory




Badura believed that sometimes we learn new behaviours
simply by watching others and copying them.
Thus, the social environment is the key factor behind
learning and not just simply stimulus associations.
Badura’s theory is often seen as a bridge between
learning theories and cognitive theories because it
emphasizes attention, memory and motivation.
An expansion of this theory by Bandura himself, resulted in
the creation of the Social-Cognitive Theory
Social learning theory





Think of how you learnt to dance azonto?
You probably saw another person making the moves and
copied the basic moves by observing carefully.
According to Bandura, a child does not have to be rewarded
herself before learning a behaviour.
Just seeing someone else being rewarded for a behaviour is
enough for the child to want to learn that behaviour
This type of learning where individuals watch and imitate other
people’s behaviours is what Bandura called Observational
learning.
Observational Learning:
Learning from how others do it
Observational Learning

Observational Learning is defined as:
Learning by observing the
behaviour of others and
the consequences of that behaviour;

In other words, observational learning is learning by imitation.

It is also often known as modeling.

Observational learning can also be vicarious.

Vicarious learning occurs when individuals observe the
behaviours of others and learn from the consequences of those
behaviours.
Observational Learning
In Observational learning:
 The individual who demonstrates a behaviour or whose
behaviour is imitated is referred to as a model:


The effectiveness of a model is related to his/her status,
competence, and power.
The age, sex, attractiveness, and ethnicity of the model are
also important factors for modelling to occur
Observational Learning




To illustrate how observational learning occurs, Bandura
performed several classic experiments.
The famous one is the Bobo Doll experiment.
It was meant to test the effects of observational
learning on children’s aggressive behaviour.
The premise was that watching TV programs depicting
aggression and violence, even cartoons, taught children
to be aggressive.
Observational Learning
Group 1 – Children individually observed an
adult model punching, kicking, and hitting a 5foot, inflated plastic Bobo doll with a mallet,
while uttering aggressive phrases.
Group 2 – Children observed a
nonaggressive model who ignored the Bobo
doll and sat quietly assembling Tinker Toys.
Control Group – Children were placed in the
same setting with no adult present.
Later each child was observed through a oneway mirror.
Observational Learning
Results showed that:
 Children exposed to the aggressive model imitated
much of the model’s behaviour.
 They also engaged in significantly more non-imitative
aggression.
 Those who observed the nonaggressive model showed
less aggressive behaviour than the control group.
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
Observational Learning

Another study compared the degree of aggression in
children following 3 different exposures:
 An
aggressive model in a live situation.
 A filmed version of the same situation.
 A film depicting an aggressive cartoon character using the
same aggressive behaviours in a fantasy-like setting.

The Control Group had no treatment.
Observational Learning
Results showed that:
 Compared to the control group, children exposed to
the aggressive models used significantly more
aggression.

Of the 3 experimental conditions, exposure to humans
on film portraying aggression was the most influential
in eliciting and shaping aggressive behaviour.
Observational Learning
These experiments point to 2 important facts:
 There is a distinction between learning and performance:

A child might not make a response after observing a
behaviour but may still have acquired the modeled response
in a cognitive form.

Observational learning occurs whether it is reinforced or not
– Bandura believes that reinforcement is not always
necessary for observational learning to take place.
Observational Learning



However, whether learned behaviour will actually be
performed depends largely on whether the observed
models are rewarded or punished:
Vicarious reinforcement – Observed reinforcement of
the behaviour of a model, which also increases the
probability of the same behaviour in the observer.
Vicarious punishment – Observed punishment of the
behaviour of a model, which also decreases the
probability of the same behaviour in the observer.
Observational Learning
Critics argued that the experiment:
 Was unethical and morally wrong as the children were trained
to be aggressive.

Possibly had long-term effects on the children.

Manipulated the children to respond to the aggressive model.

Only showed the children playing, not aggressing.

Seems artificial.

Is flawed because viewing violence on TV rather leads to a
decrease in aggression (Catharsis Effect) [Feshbach & Singer,
1971].
Observational Learning
 According
to Bandura (1977; 1986), observational
learning is not a simple automatic reflex-like reaction to
models.
is rather a chain of events that involves 4 key processes
including:
1. Attention
2. Retention
3. Motor reproduction
4. Motivation
 It
Observational Learning
1. Attention
 One must attend to what a model is doing or saying in order
to imitate him or her.



The observer pays attention to the model’s behaviour and the
consequences of that behavior.
By paying attention s/he perceives the most critical features of
the model that s/he wants to imitate.
Attention paid to the model depends on factors such as the
model’s attractiveness, engaging personal qualities, prestige,
his/her age, race, sex, religious beliefs, political attitudes, and
general similarity to the observer
Observational Learning
2. Encoding
 One must encode what is seen or heard and retrieve it later.



The observer creates internal images or linguistic descriptions of
the model’s actions, in order for the behaviour to be retained.
If there is no retention the observer will not remember the
behaviour, and learning will not take place.
The easier it is for a viewer to create such mental
representations, the better the behaviour will be learned and
remembered.
Observational Learning
3. Motor Production
 One must practice to perfect the steps in reproducing a
behaviour.


Attention and retention are necessary conditions but the
observer must also have the motor ability to reproduce the
behaviour that is being modeled.
S/he should be able to reproduce some approximation of the
model’s movements.

Otherwise there will be no learning.

Practice helps improve motor performance.
Observational Learning
Motivation
 This final process involves being motivated to learn and carry out the
behaviour that has been reproduced.




Motivational factors, that is reinforcement, ensures that the modeled
behaviour will be performed.
Performance will depend on an observer’s expectation for reinforcement
either directly or vicariously.
The motivation to imitate and act depends in good part on the
consequence that befalls a model.
One is more likely to imitate a model’s actions if s/he is rewarded or
reinforced, than if they are punished.
Modes of Observational
Learning
Observational Learning
 There
are 4 ways through which people learn from
observation (Wood et al., 2005):
1. Modeling Effect
2. Elicitation Effect
3. Inhibitory Effect
4. Disinhibitory Effect
Observational Learning
Modelling Effect
 The modeling effect refers to learning a new
behaviour from a model through the acquisition
of new responses.
 So,
learning how to solve math problems, for
example, is done through the modeling effect.
 So
is learning how to cook, wash, drive.
Observational Learning
Elicitation effect
 The elicitation effect refers to exhibiting a
behaviour similar to that shown by a model in an
unfamiliar situation.
 Sometimes,
you already have some skill but then
find that the skill is not adequate to deal with a
much more complex situation.
 In
such an instance, you might have to watch
what someone much more skilled than you does
so you copy.
Observational Learning
Inhibitory Effect
 The inhibitory effect refers to suppressing a
behaviour because a model is punished for displaying
the behaviour.
 This
is the kind of observational learning we are
displaying when we slow down upon seeing another
driver receiving a ticket.
 When
school children see a classmate punished for
misbehaving, the experience has a tendency to
suppress that behaviour in all of them.
Observational Learning
Disinhibitory Effect
 The disinhibitory effect refers to displaying a previously
suppressed behaviour because a model does so without
receiving punishment.
 For
example, adolescents may lose whatever resistance
they have to drinking, drug use, or sexual activity.
 Especially
when they see or hear about peers or
characters in movies or TV shows engaging in these
behaviours without experiencing any adverse
consequences.
Application of
Observational Learning
Observational Learning
Parenting – children are likely to copy all
behaviours modelled by parents.
Workplace – For example, apprenticeship,
medical students (surgery), pilots, training
programs in organizations.
Media and Learning – educational videos,
computers, toys (effects could be positive or
negative so care must be taken).
Observational Learning
Treatment of phobias – Observing people play with a
feared animal will make someone with a phobia for
the animal more likely to approach it:
 For example, in a study, children with dog phobias
were able to lose their fear by watching another
child called Fearless Peer repeatedly walk up to a
dog, touch it, pet it and eventually play actively
with it (Bandura, Grusec, & Menlove, 1967).
Observational Learning


Therapy – A therapist can model appropriate
behaviour and thereby teach it to a client deficient in
such skills.
Self-regulation – “Rewarding or punishing one’s own
behaviour” (Slavin, 2006):

Self-regulation strategies can be used by students to
monitor and regulate their own behaviour so that it
becomes a habit.
HAVE A NICE DAY
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
Cognitive Learning Theory
Dr.
Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Explain Cognitive learning as a theory of learning
2.
Discuss Cognitive information processing model
3.
4.
Discuss Tolman’s experiment on cognitive learning
Discuss the concept of cognitive maps
Cognitive Learning Theory:
Learning through thinking
Cognitive learning Theory



classical and operant conditioning theories explain
learning as stimulus-response/ consequence mechanisms
Observational learning simply argues that we learn by
watching and imitating
Some psychologists argue that although these positions
are true, almost all learning processes including
conditioning processes involve some form of mental
processing.
Cognitive learning Theory




These mental processes may include mental images,
perceptions, expectations.
Eg. The association between the NS and UCS in classical
conditioning is developed through the organism’s
expectation that a particular NS will be followed by a
particular UCS
That is, the organism mentally links the two objects which
leads to a particular response
Over time, this mental association becomes automatic in
the individual/ organmism
Cognitive learning Theory


Simply put, individuals actively cognitively
process environmental events and the
outcome of this cognitive/mental processing
determine the learning that takes place
This is the foundation argument of the
Cognitive Learning Theory.
Cognitive learning Theory
According to the Cognitive learning theory:



It is not enough to say that people make responses
because there is an assumed link between a stimulus and
a response…
or
Due to a past history of reinforcement for a response.
Instead people and even animals develop an
expectation that they will receive a reinforcer upon
making a response.
Cognitive learning Theory



Cognitive theorists therefore insist that the study of
learning should include the study of cognitive
processes.
Cognitive processes refer to mental processes such as
thinking, knowing, problem solving, remembering, and
forming mental representations.
Cognitive learning is therefore the study of the mental
processes that underlie the whole learning process.
Cognitive learning Theory

There are 3 instances of cognitive learning:

Place Learning

Latent Learning

Insight Learning
Cognitive learning Theory
1. Place Learning
 This concept is credited to the
work of Edward C. Tolman
(1886-1959).


He developed this theory of
learning which combines the
advantages of stimulus-response
theories and cognitive theories.
He used mazes in his
experiments (Tolman, 1946) and
the subjects were rats.
Edward Chance Tolman (1886 - 1959
Cognitive learning
Tolman’s Experiment :
• The experiment was to
demonstrate how
people learn about
places
• He placed rats in a
maze and observed
how the rats came to
learn their way out to
reach food
Rats in a Maze
Cognitive learning Theory
 Based on his findings, Tolman believed that:
 The rats had learned a cognitive map of
where the food was located relative to the
starting point.
A cognitive map refers to:
 “a mental representation of a spatial
arrangement such as a maze” (Wood et al.,
2005).
Cognitive learning Theory
2. Latent Learning
 “Learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement
and is not demonstrated until the organism is motivated
to do so” (Wood et al., 2005).

To support this position, Tolman and Honzik (1930)
conducted a classic experiment.
Cognitive learning Theory

To demonstrate latent learning, Tolman and
Honzik(1930) conducted a classic experiment:





One group of Rats were placed in mazes to run and were
rewarded with food
Another group were placed in the maze and run
unrewarded
Group two were observed to be very slow.
Later rewards were introduced to group 2
They run faster immediately and even became faster than
group one.
Cognitive learning Theory
From this experiment Tolman concluded that:
 the rats had learned to form a cognitive map.


They only showed evidence of this after being given a
reason to do so through reinforcement.
This was referred to as Latent Learning: Meaning
learning that occurs in the absence of an obvious
reward. (Hidden Learning)
Cognitive learning Theory
3. Insight Learning




This concept is credited to the work of a
German Gestalt theorist by name
Wolfgang Köhler (1887 – 1967).
It is a form of cognitive learning that
involves sudden recognition of previously
unseen relationships.
It is also known as Discovery Learning.
Köhler developed this theory in the 1940s
based on his numerous experiments using a
chimpanzee named Sultan.
Wolfgang Köhler (1887 – 1967).
Cognitive learning Theory

Kohler’s Experiment
Cognitive learning Theory

According to Köhler the chimpanzee learned because of a
cognitive change, a new insight that it had developed
about the problem.
Wood et al., (2005):
Insight refers to



“the sudden realization of the relationship between two
elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution
apparent.”
Köhler’s insight learning received a lot of criticisms from
other psychologists, even some cognitive theorists.
Cognitive learning Theory

The critics argued that insight learning results only after a
“mental trial-and-error” process which involves the
following steps:

Envisage a course of action.

Mentally simulate its results.


Compare it with the imagined outcome of the other
alternatives.
Then settle on the course of action most likely to aid
complex problem solving and decision-making (Klein,
1993).
Cognitive Learning:
Applications
Cognitive learning Theory
Cognitive Learning:
Applications
Cognitive learning Theory
Examples of cognitive therapies include:



Cognitive Restructuring – Assumes that a person’s way of
perceiving the world and his/her self-defeating
behaviours are as a result of faulty/maladaptive
assumptions or irrational beliefs
E.g.: I must be loved and approved of by everyone
whose love and approval I seek.
The focuses of CR is to change these.
Cognitive learning Theory



Rational-Emotive Therapy – Developed by Albert
Ellis, it attempts to restructure a person’s belief
system into a more realistic, rational and logical set
of views.
Rational-Emotive therapists openly challenge
patterns of thoughts that appear to be
dysfunctional.
E.g.: How does failing an exam mean that you are
no good?



Cognitive-Beahviour therapy - Devised by Aaron
Beck, its basic goal is changing people’s logical
thoughts about themselves and the world.
Beck believed that irrational thoughts and faulty
assumptions can lead to emotional disorders.
Cognitive Therapy has been successful in treating
depression.
Read:
15 styles of cognitive distortions
HAVE A NICE DAY
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
VERBAL LEARNING
Dr. Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Explain Verbal learning as a theory of learning
2.
Discuss types of Verbal Learning
VERBAL LEARNING
Verbal learning Theory



If you had a list of hundred words to memorize and
reproduce later, how would you go about it?
So far, the learning theories we have discussed explain
how we learn behaviours in general
Some other learning theories such as verbal learning
theory specifically explains how we learn verbal
material or words.
Verbal learning Theory



Verbal learning is the process of acquiring, retaining,
and recalling of verbal material.
At its most basic level, it can be defined as a process
of building associations between a stimulus and a
response, with both of them being verbal.
At a broader level, verbal learning includes the
processes of organizing the stimulus material by the
learner and the related changes in the learner’s
behavior.
Verbal learning Theory



In simple terms, Verbal Learning is commonly
used to describe the memorization and
retention of lists of words.
It is concerned with what happens when we
learn word sequences, word combinations and
word contexts.
It emphasizes the acquisition and retention of
such items, to describe the basic conditions
underlying the learning.
Verbal learning Theory

In essence, verbal learning draws on both the
Behavioural and Cognitive perspectives:


Behavioural perspective – involves the use of
stimulus and response, association learning.
Cognitive perspective – involves some
rehearsal, elaboration, and mental
imagery.
Verbal learning Theory



Verbal Learning theory is often
attributed to the work of
German Psychologist Herman
Ebbinghaus in the 1880s
He conducted a remarkable
series of experiments using
himself as the subject.
The procedure involved learning
a list of words in sequence until
he could remember them very
well.
Ebbinghaus in the 1850-1909
Verbal learning Theory




In his initial experiment, Ebbinghaus used words made
of three-letter syllables that he referred to as
“nonsense syllables”.
A “Nonsense Syllable” is a collection of letters that
have no obvious meaning.
A typical nonsense syllable is a three-letter
consonant-vowel-consonant combination to form a
word.
This is called a TRIAGRAM e.g. JEK, MOR, MEZ, etc.
VERBAL LEARNING PROCEDURES
Verbal Learning Procedures

Verbal learning procedures include the
following:




Serial learning
Free recall
Paired associate learning
Verbal Discrimination
Verbal Learning Procedures
1. Serial Learning:
Here, a list of words is learned and reproduced in
the order or sequence in which they occur on the list.
 A typical example is the learning of a password
In other examples:
 one may be asked to learn and recall:
 The English Alphabets or a list of months of the year.
 Nonsense syllables.
Verbal Learning Procedures
Glanzer and Dolinsky (1965):
There are 2 common methods in serial learning.
1. Serial Recall – The learner is instructed to
reproduce the entire list after each
presentation.
So the learner repeats the items in
same order as it was presented.
the
Verbal Learning Procedures
2. Serial Anticipation – The learner is
instructed to name the next item before it
appears.
So the first item is presented, then time is
given for the learner to anticipate what
the following item will be.
A–C–E-
Verbal Learning Procedures
Measuring Serial Learning:
 In serial learning, lists of words are presented for
participants to learn in what is called study trials



Study trials are also known as presentation trials.
This is alternated with test trials where the participants
attempt to recall the lists.
Learning is then measured by:
1.
counting correctly recalled items at each serial position.
Verbal Learning Procedures
2.
3.


Counting the number of errors made.
Checking the speed of recall or performance.
Serial learning can be affected by the position of
each item within the list.
It has been found that the first and the last items
are learned quicker and with fewer errors, than
the middle items.
Verbal Learning Procedures
This phenomenon is known as the serial position effect.
 The Serial Position Effect is the theory that the
position of an item in a list has the tendency to affect
recall of that item.
 This is often described by 2 principles:

Primacy effect:
 Enhanced recall of the first items in the list.
Recency effect:
Enhanced recall of the last items in the list.
Verbal Learning Procedures

These principles can be represented by a bow-shaped
or U-shaped curve when plotted on a graph. This curve
can also be inverted.
Verbal Learning Procedures
Verbal Learning Procedures
No. of Errors
The Serial Position Effect
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
No. of Errors
0
2
4
6
Serial Position of the Item
8
10
Verbal Learning Procedures
2. Free Recall:



In free recall, the recall of a list of words learned
is free.
It means that the learner has the freedom to recall
the items that had been presented earlier in the
study trial in any order in the test trial.
The ordering/sequence of the items is therefore
unimportant.
Verbal Learning Procedures




In a free recall situation, the learner tends to group the
items to be recalled.
This is done even if there is no obvious basis for
categorization.
This aids rapid learning than when items are not
categorized.
Even though recall can be done in any order, the serial
position effect (primacy & recency) can also occur here.
Verbal Learning Procedures
3. Paired-Associate Learning:
 Mary Whiton Calkins was the
psychologist who described this
method of verbal learning in the
1890s.
 She was a student of William James.


In this form of learning, two items
labeled stimulus and response (S-R),
are presented for study.
One had to learn the correspondence
between them.
Mary Whiton Calkins 1863-1930
Verbal Learning Procedures



Paired –associate learning is often used to understand
how people encode and retrieve newly formed
associations among stimuli.
In a typical study using paired-associate learning, people
are asked to learn unrelated word pairs (e.g., stove –
letter).
At a later time point, memory for those pairs is typically
tested by having them either recall one of the words in
response to the word it was paired with during encoding
Verbal Learning Procedures
Paired-Associate Learning
Stimulus
Response
Azumah
Experiment
Appiah
Kaneshie
Table
knock
UTAG
FUSSAG
Alarm
Bag
Verbal Learning Procedures
Test Yourself:
Stimulus
Azumah
Appiah
Table
UTAG
Alarm
Response
Experiment
Kaneshie
Knock
FUSSAG
Bag
Verbal Learning Procedures
4. Verbal Discrimination:

This is simply discriminating along some dimensions of
words as stimuli.
Verbal discrimination procedures include:



Simultaneous discrimination – This is where two verbal
items are presented and the learner chooses one of them
by naming it or pointing at it.
The learner is then told whether or not the choice is correct.
Eg. In a multiple choice test.
Verbal Learning Procedures

Successive discrimination – A learner might be given
items one at a time and be instructed to respond ‘yes’
or ‘no’ to each item.
Alternatively, the learner might be instructed to sort a
deck of cards with verbal items printed on them into
two or more piles.
eg,. Table
Kaneshie
Bag
Knock

Verbal Learning Procedures




Visual Search :
This type is said to occur in a situation where someone
is instructed to find verbal items in a list or a text. Eg.
Searching your grade in a grade list
One actually uses the eyes in the search.
Experiments in visual search differ in the sense that
they are usually concerned with speed and accuracy
rather than with the acquisition or control of stimulus
items.
Verbal Learning Procedures





Verbal Recognition
This is a special type where the discrimination is
between new and old items.
The learner is given an initial list to study in the study
trial.
Later s/he is given another list with both new items and
items from the initial list.
Then s/he is asked to identify or recognize the items
from the initial list by pointing at, naming, or
underlining them.
VERBAL LEARNING APPLICATION
Verbal Learning Application




The application of verbal learning is through
Mnemonics.
Mnemonic devices are various schemes, strategies, or
procedures used to aid encoding and retrieval of
verbal items.
A simple example is using the first letters of a list of
words/items to form an acronym.
Mnemonics work because there is a list of cues that the
to-be-recalled items are associated with during study
and that can be used to guide retrieval.
Verbal Learning Application

There are various types, including the:

Keyword Mnemonic –




This was first developed to assist learning foreign language
vocabulary.
It is when a person uses what a word sounds like to visualize
something memorable that will help them later recall the
meaning of that word
Narrative-chaining Method – This refers to connecting a
string of unrelated words through a made-up story.
Peg-word System – This uses number and imaged pegs on
which to attach the target items.
Verbal Learning Application
Peg-word system
HAVE A NICE DAY
Psyc 337: Psychology of Learning
FACTORS AFFECTING VERBAL
LEARNING
Dr. Ernest Darkwah
DEPARTMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY
Lecture objectives
1.
Discuss some factors that can influence verbal
learning
FACTORS AFFECTING VERBAL LEARNING
Test yourself






What is the serial position effect in verbal learning
Describe how higher-order conditioning occurs
In classical conditioning “spontaneous recovery” refers
to…
Differentiate between the behavioural and cognitive
approaches to learning
What is the main goal of the neuropsychological
approach to the study of learning
Differentiate between classical and operant conditioning
theories of learning
Test yourself

Explain the three major laws of learning formulated
by Thorndike.
Factors affecting verbal learning
Class activity:
 In 5 Minutes discuss with the person next to
you:
If you had a list of hundred words to memorize
and reproduce later, what could affect your
ability to memorize the words
Factors affecting


So far, researchers have established that verbal
learning is one of the most common types of
learning in humans
Like all other types of learning, there are certain
key factors that can affect (enhance/ inhibit) verbal
learning ability.
Factors affecting verbal learning
1. Inter-trial

interval
Verbal learning occurs through several study trials and
test trials
Study trial: here the list of words is presented to the subjects to
memorize. It is also referred to as the Presentation Trial
 Test Trial: Here subjects are asked to recall the list presented in
the study trial either serially or freely


The time interval allowed between the study and test
trials can significantly affect the effectiveness verbal
learning
Factors affecting verbal learning



Too Little time for study trial, for instance, may
affect the encoding process and reduce the
amount of words subjects may encode.
A long interval between the study trial and the
test trial may risk decay and also reduce recall
ability
Decay: Refers to the fading of memory due to
the passage of time
Factors affecting verbal learning
2. Stimulus Meaningfulness & Familiarity



Meaningfulness refers to the extent to which the words
on a list make sense to the subjects memorizing them
Verbal learning theory holds that words that are
meaningful are easier to encode and recall as
compared to words that are meaningless
Ebbinghaus found that as the meaningfulness of the items
in the serial list increases, the list requires fewer trials to
learn.
Factors affecting verbal learning



In free recall experiments, it has been found that
meaningfulness is positively related to the amount
recalled.
Stimulus familiarity refers to the extent to which a
subject in a verbal learning experiment has already
been exposed to a stimulus (word) appearing on the
list.
Research shows that, the more familiar a subject is to a
stimulus the higher the recall potential for that stimulus
Factors affecting verbal learning
3. Massed repetitions versus distributed repetitions
 Verbal learning research over the years has shown that
distributed repetition of stimuli allow for better
encoding and recall than massed repetition of stimuli.
This is also called the Spacing Effect


Massed repetition refers to repeating something or
stimuli over and over to the subject without pausing
Distributed repetition means periodic breaks are
observed between study trails.
Factors affecting verbal learning

In essence:

repeating something after four days will
create higher levels of memory retrieval than
repeating it after two days

Similarly, a repetition interval of one day will
produce more remembering than a repetition
interval of half a day
Factors affecting verbal learning
4. Frequency:
 Learning and retention is also influenced by the
frequency with which particular words are encountered.


Verbal learning experiments have shown that subjects
recall items which they frequently heard or seen better.
Further research has also shown that the frequency with
which words have been experienced determines their
availability as responses in new memory connections.
Factors affecting verbal learning
5. Serial Position (primacy versus recency):
 This is the view that verbal learning (serial learning)
can be affected by the position of each item within the
list.


It has been found that the first and the last items are
learned quicker and with fewer errors, than the middle
items.
This is known as the primacy & recency effects
Factors affecting verbal learning
6. Similarity


Researchers have observed that there is a close
relationship between similarity and generalization
This is the view that when we associate a stimulus
to a response and we learn this association, there
is a tendency for us to give this response to a
stimulus that is similar to the initial stimulus.
Factors affecting verbal learning
7. Imagery and concreteness:
 The role of imagery in learning is an important one. When
we learn verbal material, we may do so by forming
images of it.




The image arousing capacity of the verbal material is
important in verbal learning.
Concrete words are those which generate images easily.
Abstract words, on the other hand do not easily or not at
all generate images.
Thus, it is easier to learn words which are concrete.
Factors affecting verbal learning
8. Motivation



Remember the saying “Where there is a will
there is a way” ?
This saying holds true for verbal learning as
well.
Motivation “the drive or will” to do something
plays a significantly important role in verbal
learning.
Factors affecting verbal learning



Researchers have shown that when subjects have a critical
reason to (or a reason that is important to them) to learn
and recall verbal material, their learning is more effective.
Verbal learning research has also shown that motivational
instructions serve as an incentive and subjects are thereby
motivated to do better.
However, not all studies have born positive results on the
role played by motivation in verbal learning. Harley and
Weiner found that verbal learning is least influenced by
the magnitude of reinforcement.
Factors affecting verbal learning
9. Memory Capacity & Savings Score
 This has to do with the subject’s individual ability to learn
and the pace of the subject’s learning ability.


The measure of the estimated percentage learning/
retention in verbal learning is called the Savings Score
The Savings score was developed by Herman Ebbinghaus
to measure the amount of nonsense syllables he was able
to learn and recall in an experiment.
Factors affecting verbal learning



After learning a list, he would wait a period of time (the
retention interval) and see if he could recite the list
without an error.
If he missed anything, he would practice the list until he
met the criterion again (relearning).
He then compared the number of trials it took him to
learn the list with the number of trials it took him to
relearn it, using the following formula:
Number of Trials to Learn – Number of Trials to Relearn
Number of Trials to Learn
X 100
NB: Multiplying by 100 makes the score a per cent
 For example, suppose it took you 12 trials to learn
a list.
 Then after 24 hours of retention interval, it took you
4 trials to relearn it. The savings score would be
_____ ?
Factors affecting verbal learning
12 – 4
12
X 100
= 67%

This means that 67% of the original information was
retained during the interval between learning and
testing.
HAVE A NICE DAY