The Most Commonly Used
(educator)
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A
1. aban | don
(abandons, abandoning, abandoned)
A. VERB If you abandon a place, thing, or person, you
leave the place, thing, or person permanently or for a
long time, especially when you should not do so.
 He claimed that his parents had abandoned him.
 The road is strewn with abandoned vehicles.
 COLLOCATIONS :
abandon a child / baby
an abandoned building/ warehouse/ mine/ quarry/
vehicle / car
hastily / abruptly / temporarily abandon someone /
something.
 SYNONYMS : desert, leave
B. VERB If you abandon an activity or piece of work, you
stop doing it before it is finished.
 The authorities have abandoned any attempt to
distribute food.  The scheme's investors, fearful of
bankruptcy, decide to abandon the project.
 COLLOCATIONS :
abandon an attempt / effort
abandon a project / plan / idea
 ANTONYMS : continue, persevere
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2. ab | stract
(abstracts)
NOUN An abstract of an article, document, or speech is a
short piece of writing that gives the main points of it.
 [+of] Many scientists only have enough time to read the
abstracts of papers.
 [+of] Some indexes also have abstracts or summaries of
articles.

COLLOCATIONS :
an abstract of something
an abstract of a paper / article
read / write / review / submit an abstract
 SYNONYMS : summary, précis
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3. academy
(academies)
A. Schools and colleges, especially those specializing in
particular subjects or skills, sometimes have academy,
as part of their name. If you want to be a musician, you
go to the Royal Academy of Music. .. he experience as a
police academy instructor.
B. Academy appears in the names of some societies
formed to promote and maintain standards in a
particular field … the American Academy of
Psychotherapists. The British Academy of Film and
Television Arts.
aca | dem ic
A. ADJECTIVE Academic is used to describe things that
relate to the work done in schools, colleges, and
universities, especially work which involves studying
and reasoning rather than practical or technical skills.
 Their academic standards are high.
 the start of the last academic year.
 The author has settled for a more academic
approach.
B. ADJECTIVE Someone who is academic is good at
studying.  The svstem is failing most disastrously
among less academic children.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
academic standards / excellence / ability / freedom
academic research / work / staff / life
an academic qualification / achievement / career
an academic journal / institution / study / subject
the academic year
 PHRASES :
academic and vocational
academic and professional
 SYNONYM : scholarly
aca |dem| ical|ly
ADVER  He is academically gifted.
 scholarships for those who excel academically.
 COLLOCATIONS :
academically gifted / talented / bright / brilliant
excel / succeed / perform / achieve academically
struggle academically
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4. ac|cess
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you have access to building
or other place, you are able or allowed to go into it.
 Fewer than one in ten secondary schools have
wheelchair access.
 [+to] Scientists have only recently been able to gain
access to the area.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you have access to something
such as information or equipment, you have the
opportunity or right to see it our use it.
 [+ to] a Code of Practice that would give patients
right of access to their medical records
 households with internet access.
 COLLOCATIONS :
access to something / somewhere
access to information / funds
gain / give / grant / allow / provide access
deny / restrict / block access
fast / high-speed / instant / easy / direct / free access
public / wheelchair access
internet / broadband / wireless access
 SYNONYM : entry, entrance
C. VERB If you access something, especially information
held on a computer, you succeed in finding or obtaining
it.
 You've illegally accessed and misused confidential
security fiels.
 a service that allows users to access the internet on
their phones.
 COLLOCATIONS :
access data / information
access the internet
access a file / site / network / service
instantly/ easily / remotely / illegally access something
ac | ces | sible
1. ADJECTIVE If a place or building is accessible to
people, it is easy for them to reach it or get into it. If an
object is accessible, it is easy to reach.
 [+ to] The Centre is easily accessible to the general
public.
 The premises are wheelchair accessible.
2. ADJECTIVE If something is accessible to people, they
can easily use it or obtain if.
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 [+ to] The legal aid system should be accessible to
more people.
 This device helps make virtual reality a more usable
and accessible technology.
 COLLOCATIONS :
accessible to / for someone
easily / readily / publicly accessible
wheelchair accessible
an accessible area / location
make something accessible
 ANTONYM : inaccessible
ac | com | mo | da | tion
(accommondations)
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Accommodation is the buildings or
rooms where people live or stay. [BRIT; in AM, use
accommodations].
 The building provides accommodation for 80 students
 The price includes flights and hotel accommodation.
 Rates are higher for deluxe accommodations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
provide / offer / rent / book / find accommodation
hotel/ holiday/ temporary / overnight accommodation
self-catering / B & B / half-board accommodation
residential / student accommodation
rented accommodation
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5. accommodate
(accommodates, accommodating,
accommodated)
A. If a building or space can accommodate someone or
something, it has enough room for them.
 The school in Poldown was not big enough to
accommodate all the children.
 The CD-ROMS will accommodate the words of all
English poets from 600 to 1900.
B. To accommodate someone means to proved them with a
place to live or stay .. a hotel built to accommodate
guests for the wedding of King Alfonso.. Students are
accommodated in homes nearby.
C. If something is planned or changed to accommodate a
particular fact or situation, it is planned or changed in
such as way as to take this fact or situation into account.
The
roads
are
built
to
accommodate
gradual
temperature changes.. The way what American history
is taught may change in order to accommodate some
more of those cultures.
D. If you do something to accommodate someone, you do
it with the main purpose of pleasing or satisfying them.
He has never put an arm around his wife to
accommodate photographers .. He's already altered
several of the proposals in his economic plan to
accommodate demands of special interests.
E. If you accommodate to something new, you change
your behavior or ideas so that you are able to deal with
it; [FORMAL] Something new, you change you
behavior or ideas so that you are able to deal with it; a
formal use. Some animal and plants species cannot
accommodate to the rapidly changing conditions . She
walked slowly to accommodate herself to his pace.
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6. ac | com | pa | ny
(accompanies, accompanying,
accompanied)
A. VERB If you accompany someone, you go somewhere
with them. [FORMAL]
 Ken agreed to accompany me on a trip to Africa.
 The Prime Minister, accompanied by the governor,
led the President up to the house.
accumulate in the body / lungs / brain / atmosphere
accumulate wealth / debt / wisdom / knowledge
accumulated losses
an accumulated deficit.
evidence / fluids / toxins accumulate
 SYNONYMS : gather, amass
 COLLOCATIONS :
ac | cu | mu | la | tion
accompanied by someone
accompanied by a bodyguard / adult / escort
 SYNONYMS : escort
B. VERB If one thing accompanies another, it happens or
exists at the same time, or as a result of it. [FORMAL].
 This voloume of essays was designed to accompany
an exhibition in Cologne.  Wakefield's paper was
accompanied by a critical commentary.
 COLLOCATIONS :
accompanied by something
accompanied by a photograph / caption / commentary
accompany a text / illustration / article
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7. ac | cu | mu | late
(accumulates, accumulating,
accumulated)
VERB When you accumulate things or when they
accumulate, they collect or are gathered over a period of
time.
 Households accumulate wealth across a broad spectrum
of assets.  [+in] Lead can accumulate in the body unitl
toxic levels are reached.
 COLLOCATIONS :
accumulate in something
(accumulations)
advance and the
 [+of] technological
accumulation of scientific knowledge.
 [+ of] an accumulation of fluid in the lungs
 No economy can sustain such a colossal rate of capital
accumulation.
NOUN
 COLLOCATIONS :
the accumulation of something
the accumulation of wealth / capital / fluid /
knowledge
cause / prevent / increase / reduce accumulation
 SYNONYM
: increase
 ANTONYMS : reduction, decrease
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8. ac | cu | rate
Accurate information, measurements, and
statistics are correct to a very detailed level. An accurate
instrument is able to give you information of this kind.
 Accurate diagnosis is needed to guide appropriate
treatment strategies.
 a quick and accurate way of monitoring the amount of
carbon dioxide in the air.
ADJECTIVE
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 COLLOCATIONS :
historical / mathematical / unerring / pinpoint
reasonably / historically / scientifically / factually
accurate
accurate information / figures
an accurate description / measurement / diagnosis /
prediction
 SYNONYM : precise, exact, correct
 ANTONYMS : inaccurate, incorrect
accurancy
an accurancy rate / level
 PHRASE
: speed and accurancy
 SYNONYM : exactness, precision, correctness
 ANTONYMS : inaccuracy, vagueness
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9. achieve
ac | cu | rate | ly
ADVER  The test can accurately predict what a bigger
explosion would do.  The costs of each part of the
process can be measured fairly accurately.
 COLLOCATIONS :
accurately describe / measure / perceive something
determine / predict something
cause / prevent / increase / reduce accumulation
 SYNONYM : precisely, exactly, correctly
 ANTONYMS : inaccurately, incorrectly
ac | cu | ra | cy
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN
(achieves, achieving, achieved)
VERB If you achieve a particular aim or effect, you
succeed in doing it or causing it to happen, usually after a
lot of effort.
 There are many who will work hard to achieve these
goals.
 We have achieved what we set out to do.
 COLLOCATIONS :
achieve a goal / objective / aim
achieve success / fame / independence / peace
achieve something easily / finally
achieve academically
 SYNONYM : accomplish, manage
 ANTONYMS : fail
 [+of] We cannot guarantee the
accuracy of these figures.  Weapons that could fire with
accuracy at targets 3,000 yards away
 COLLOCATIONS :
the accuracy of something
the accurancy of a measurement / diagnosis / test
the accuracy of information / figures
guarantee/ ensure / measure accuracy
achieve | ment
(achievements)
NOUN  Reaching this agreement so quickly was a great
achievement.
 [+of] Only the achievement of these goals will bring
lasting peace.
 COLLOCATIONS :
achievement of something
achievement of a goal / objective
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a great / lifetime / crowning achievement
a sporting / academic / educational / artistic
achievement
 SYNONYM : accomplishment, success
 ANTONYMS : failure
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10. ac | knowl | edge
(acknowledges, acknowledging,
acknowledged)
A. VERB If you acknowledge a fact or a situation, you
accept or admire that it is true or that it exists.
[FORMAL]
 [+that] It is widely acknowledged that transferring
knowledge in a classroom environment is very
inefficient.
 Belatedly, the government has acknowledged the
problem.
 There is an acknowledged risk of lung cancer from
radon.
B. VERB If someone's achievements, status, or qualities
are acknowledged, they are known about and
recognized by a lot of people, or by a particular group
of people.
 [+as] Davies is now widely acknowledged as one of
the world's leading virtual reality artists.
 Some of the clergy refused to acknowledge the new
king's legitimacy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
acknowledge someone as something
acknowledge the existence / importance of something
acknowledge the need for something
acknowledge difficulties
acknowledge a fact / contribution / mistake / debt /
risk
pubilicly / readily acknowledge
widely / universally acknowledged
a president / government / official acknowledges
C. VERB If you acknowledge the source of some
information in a piece of academic writing, you state
clearly where the information came from.
 Every time you borrow the words, facts, or ideas of
others, you must acknowledge the source.
 COLLOCATIONS : acknowledge a source
 RELATED WORDS : reference, cite
ac | knowl | edge | ment
(acknowledgements)
also acknowledgement
A. NOUN An acknowledgement is a statement or action
which recognizes that something exists or is true.
 [+that] The President's resignation appears to be an
acknowledgment that he has lost all hope of keeping
that country together.
 [+of] This is a clear acknowledgement of the need to
improve corporate government.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an acknowledgement of something
an acknowledgement of a fact / need
make an acknowledgement
a public / official / tacit / formal acknowledgement
 SYNONYM : recognition
B. PLURAL NOUN The acknowledgements in a book are
the section in which the author thanks all the people
who have helped him or her.
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 In the acknowledgements, Weis lists five people who
acted as research assistants.
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11. ac | quire
(acquires, acquiring, acquired)
A. VERB If you acquire something, you buy or obtain it for
yourself, or someone gives it to you. [FORMAL]
 General Motors acquired a 50 % stake in Soab for
about $ 400m.
 efforts to acquire nuculear weapons.
B. VERB If you aquire something such as a skill or a habit,
you learn it or develop it through your daily life or
experience.
 Their sleeping brains were continuing to process the
newly acquired information.
 Piaget was convinced that children acquire
knowledge and abilities in stages.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a company/purchaser/shareholder acquires something
acquire a stake / share
acquire land / property / assets / wealth
acquire a skill / habit / reputation
acquire knowledge
newly / recently acquired
 PHRASE : an acquired taste
 ANTONYM : lose
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12. a | dapt
(adapts, adapting, adapted)
A. VERB If you adapt to a new situation or adapt yourself
to it, you change your ideas or behavior in order to deal
with it successfully.
 [+to] We will hae to be prepared to adapt to the
change.
 [+to] They have had to adapt themselves to a war
economy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adapt to something
adapt to change
adapt readily / quickly
difficulty / problems adapting to something
 SYNONYM : adject, acclimate, become accustomed
B. VERB If you adapt something, you change it to make it
suitable for a new purpose or situation.
 [+for] Shelves were built to adapt the library for use
as an office.  [+for] a specially adapted toilet for
people with disabilities.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adapt something for a purpose / someone
specially / skillfully adapted
adapt a technology / technique / method
ad | ap | ta | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN ADAPTATION is the act of
changing something or changing your behavior to make it
suitable for a new purpose or situation.
 Most living creatures are capable of adaptation when
compelled to do so.
 SYNONYM : adjustment, modification
adapt | able
ADJECTIVE If you describe a person or animal as
adaptable, you mean that they are able to change their
ideas or behavior in order to deal with new.
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13. ad | equate
ADJECTIVE If something is adequate, there is enogh of it
or it is good enough to be used or accepted.
 One in four people worldwide are without adequate
homes.
 [+ to-inf] The old methods weren't adequate to meet
current needs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adequate for something
adequate for a purpose / task / need
adequate protection / provision / compensation /
resources
perfectly / quite / barely / hardly adequate
 SYNONYM : sufficient
 ANTONYMS : inadequate
ad | equate | ly
ADVERB  Many students are not adequately prepared
for higher education. Traditional analysis methods
cannot deal adequately with these highly complex systems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
respond / function adequately
adequately deal with something
adequately trained / compensated / funded /
protected / prepared
 SYNONYM : sufficiently
 ANTONYMS : inadequately
ad | equa | cy
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Adequacy is the quality of being
good enough or great enough in amount to be acceptable.
 [+ of] Several studies point to a real cause for concern
over the adequacy of the diet eaten by British children.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the adequacy of something
assess / examine / evaluate the adequacy of something
 SYNONYM : sufficiency
 ANTONYMS : inadequacy
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14. ad | ja | cent
ADJECTIVE If one thing is adjacent to another, the two
things are next to each other.
 plans to redevelop the railways station and adjacent
land.  [+to] surveys to monitor toxin levels in the areas
adjacent to the incineractors.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adjacent to something
a site / area adjacent to something
an adjacent building / neighbourhood
adjacent land
 SYNONYMS : neighbouring, near
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15. ad | just
(adjusts, adjusting, adjusted)
A. VERB When you adjust to a new situation, you get used
to it by changing your behavior or your ideas.
 [+to] We are preparing our fighters to adjust
themselves to civil society.  [+ to] I felt I had adjusted
to the idea of being a mother very well.
B. VERB If you adjust something, you change it so that it is
more effective or appropriate.
 To attract investors, Panama has adjusted its tax and
labour laws.  The clamp can be adjusted to fit any
tyre size.  seasonally adjusted figures.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
adjust to something
adjusted for something
adjusted for inflation / height / age
adjust figures / rates
adjust something to reflect / fit something
seasonally / periodically / automatically / manually
adjusted
adjusted accordingly
 SYNONYMS : adapt, change, shift
ad | just | ment
(adjustments)
NOUN  [+to] Compensation could be mode by
adjustments to taxation.  [+for] Investment is up by 5.7
% after adjustment for inflating.  [+to] A technician
made an adjustment to a smoke machine at the back of the
auditorium.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an adjustment to / in / for something
adjustment for inflation / age / height
a structural / seasonal / slight / minor adjustment
make / require / need an adjustment
 SYNONYMS : adaptation, change
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16. ad | min | is | tra | tion
(administrations)
A. VERB  When you administrate a company or an
organization, you manage the affairs of that company or
organization.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Administration is the range of
activities connected with organizing and supervising the
way that an organization or institution functions.
 Too much time is spent on administration.
 a master's degree in business administration.
 [+of] Standards in the administration of justice have
degenerated.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the administration of something
the administration of a state / region / program
business / university administration
an administration fee / cost / official / policy
 SYNONYMS : management, organization, regulation
C. NOUN You can refer to a country's government as the
administration; used especially in the United States.
 O'Leary served in both the Ford and Carter
administratons.
 He urged the administration to come up with a
credible package to reduce the budget deficit.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the previous / current / incoming administration
the Republican / Democrat administration
the Nixon / Clinton / Bush / Obama administration
 SYNONYM : government
ad | min | is | tra | tive
ADJECTIVE  Other industries have had to sack
managers to redeuce administrative costs.  The project
will have an administrative staff of 12.
 COLLOCATIONS :
administrative costs / expenses / staff / management
an administrative system / structure / procedure
an administrative assistant / officer
an administrative task / duty / error
 SYNONYMS :
bureaucratic, organizational, secretarial, clerical
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17. adult
(adults)
A. NOUN An adult is a mature, fully developed person.
 Children under 14 must be accompanied by an adult.
 The course is suitable for teenagers and young
adults.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a young / healthy / responsible adult
become an adult
 PHRASE : an adult and child
 SYNONYM : grown up
 RELATED WORDS : child, teenager, adolescent
B. ADJECTIVE Adult means relating to the time when
you are an adult, or typical of adult people.
 I've lived most of my adult life in London.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adult life
the adult population
adult education / learners / literacy
18. ad | vo | cate
(advocates, advocating, advocated)
A. VERB If you advocate a particular action or plan, you
recommend it publicly. [FORMAL]
 Mr Williams is a conservative who advocates fewer
government controls on business.
 the tax policy advocated by the Opposition.
 COLLOCATIONS :
advocated by someone
advocate reform / legislation / violence
openly / strongly / publicly advocate
long advocated
 SYNONYM : advance
 ANTONYM : oppose
B. NOUN An advocate of a particular action or plan is
some one who recommends it publicly. [FORMAL]
 [+of] He was a strong advocate of free market
policies and a multi-party system.
 [+of] The advocates of active citizenship are hostile
to such institutionalized apathy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
adult | hood
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Adulthood is the state being an
adult.  Most people catch the illness before they reach
adulthood.
 COLLOCATIONS :
early / young adulthood
an advocate of something
an advocate of reform / privatization / independence
a leading / strong / passionate / staunch advocate
a privacy advocate
 SYNONYMS : supporter, proponent
 ANTONYM : opponent
reach adulthood
 RELATED WORDS : childhood, adolescence
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ad | vo | ca | cy
NOUN [FORMAL]  [+of] the party advocacy of reform
 His advocacy helped persuade the Royal Society to back
the project.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
advocacy of something
advocacy of reform / rights
strong / passionate adocacy
 SYNONYM : support
 ANTONYM : opposition
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19. af | fect
(affects, affecting, affected)
VERB If something a effects a person or thing, it
influences them or causes them to change in some way.
 Nicotine from cigarettes can adversely affect the heart.
 More than seven million people have been affected by
drought.  The new law will directly affect thousands of
people.
 COLLOCATIONS :
badly / adversely / directly affect
seriously / severely / greatly affect
affect the outcome/ quality/ performance of something
affect people / everyone
 SYNONYM : influence, impact
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20. ag | gre | gate
ADJECTIVE An aggregate amount or score is made up of
several smaller amounts or scores added together.
 The rate of growth of GNP will depend upon the rate of
growth of aggregate demand.
 a total of 57 investments with an aggregate value of
$1.47 billion.
 COLLOCATIONS :
aggregate demand / supply / infomce
an aggregate score / result / value
 SYNONYMS : total, combined
 ANTONYM : individual
Aggregate is also a noun.  earlier estimates of the
monetary aggregates.
 COLLOCATIONS : monetary aggregates
 SYNONYMS
: total, sum
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21. aid
(adids, aiding, aided)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Aid is money, equipment, or
services that are provided for people, countries, or
organizations who need them but cannot provide them
for themselves.
 [+to] regular flights carrying humanitarian aid to
Cambodia.
 They have already pledged billions of dollars in aid.
 food aid convoys
 COLLOCATIONS :
aid to / for someone
provide / distribute / deliver aid
humanitarian / food / foreign / emergency aid
an aid package / convoy / worker / agency
B. VERB To aid a country, organization, or person means
to provide them with money, equipment, or services that
they need.
 US. efforts to aid Kurdish refugees
 a charitable organization that has spent millions
aiding pharmaceutical research.
C. VERB To aid someone means to help or assist them.
[WRITTEN]  [in] a software system to aid managers
in advanced decision - makig.
 The hunt for her killer will continue, with police
aided by the army and air force.
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 COLLOCATIONS
aid someone in something
aided by someone
 SYNONYMS : help, assist
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22. al | be | it
ADVERB You use albeit to introduce a fact of comment
which reduces the force or significance of what you have
just said. [FORMAL]
 Charles's letter was indeed published, albeit in a
somewhat abbreviated form.
 A growing body of evidence, albeit circumstantial, links
aluminium with Alzheimer's disease.
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23. al | lo | cate
(allocates, allocating, allocated)
VERB If one item or share of something is allocated to a
particular person or for a particular purpose, it is given to
that person or use for that purpose.
 [+to] Tickets are limited and will be allocated to those
who apply first.
 [+for] The 1985 federal budged allocated $7.3 billion
for development programmes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
allocate something for / to something/ someone
allocate money / funding / resoures / tickets / seats
randomly / automatically allocate something.
 SYNONYMS : assign, allot
al | lo | ca | tion
(allocations)
NOUN  [+ for] The aid allocation for Pakistan was still
under review.  Town planning and land allocation had to
be coordinate.  [+of] greater efficiency in the allocation
of resources.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the allocation of something
the allocation of resources / funds / shares /
responsibility
asset / resource / aid / land / budge / ticket allocation
 SYNONYM : distribution
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24. al | ter
(alters, altering, altered)
VERB If something alters or if you alter it, it changes.
 Little had altered in the village.
 attempts to genetically alter the caffeine content of
coffee plants.
 COLLOCATIONS :
alter the course / outcomes of something
alter the composition / balance / structure of something
alter the facts / perceptions / wording
radically / fundamentally / structurally / genetically
alter something
 SYNONYMS : change, adapt
al | tera | tion (alternations)
NOUN An alternation is a change in or to something.
 [+to] Making some simple alternations to your diet will
make you feel fitter.
 [+in] an alternation in hormone balance which causes
blood sugar levels to fall.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an alternation in / of / to something
make / propose an alteration
require / undergo alteration
a structural / genetic alteration
a minor / major / necessary / significant alteration
 SYNONYM : change
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25. al | ter | na | tive
(alternatives)
A. NOUN An alternative is something you can use or do
instead of something else.
 [+to] New ways to treat arthritis may provide an
alternative to painkillers.
 This requipment is very expensive and we need to
find a cheaper alternative.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an alternative of something
provide / offer an alternative
seek / consider / find an alternative
a good / viable / cheap / safe alternative
B. ADJECTIVE An alternative plan or offer is one that
you can use or do instead of the one you already have.
 There were alternative methods of travel available.
 They had a right to seek alternative employment.
 SYNONYM : other, alternate, different
al | ter | nat | tive | ly
ADVERB You use alternatively to introduce a suggestion
or to mention something different to what has just been
stated.
 Allow about eight hours for the drive from Calais.
Alternatively, you can fly to Brive.
…………………………………………………………………
26. am | bigu | ous
ADJECTIVE If you describe something as ambiguous,
you mean that it is unclear or confusing because it can be
understood in more than one way.
 This agreement is very ambiguous and open to various
interpretations.  The Foreign Secretary's remarks clarify
an ambiguous statement issued earlied this week.
 COLLOCATIONS :
deliberately / somewhat / highly ambiguous
remain / seem ambiguous
an ambiguous relationship / position / result / phrase /
statement
ambiguous language / wording
 SYNONYM : vague, unclear, obscure
 ANTONYMS : clear, unambiguous
am | bigu | ous | ly
ADVERB  an ambiguously worded document  Zaire's
national conference on democracy ended ambiguously.
 SYNONYMS : unclearly, uncertainly
 ANTONYM : unambiguously
am | bi | gu | ity (ambiguities)
NOUN If you say that there is ambiguity in something, you
mean that it is unclear or confusing, or it can be understood
in more than one way.
 [+about] There is considerable ambiguity about what
this part of the agreement actually means.
 [+of] the ambiguities of language.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ambiguity in / of / about something
clarify / resolve / remove ambiguity
deliberate / legal / taxtual ambiguity
 SYNONYM : vagueness
 ANTONYM : clarity
…………………………………………………………………
28
27
27. amend
(amends, amendin, amended)
VERB If you amend something that has been written such
as a law or something that is said, you change it in order to
improve it or make it more accurate.
 The president agreed to amend the constitution and
allow multi-party elections.
 the amended version of the Act.
 COLLOCATIONS :
amend a law / act / bill / plan / treaty
amend legislation
amend the constitution
parliament / government amends something
amend | ment
(amendments)
NOUN An amendment is a section that is added to a law
or rule in order to change it.
 [+to] In the United States, press freedom is entrenched
in the first amendment to the U.S Constitution.
 hundreds of amendments proposed by private members.
 Parliament gained certain right of amendment.

COLLOCATIONS :

an amendment to something
propose / draft / introduce / table an amendment
approve / adopt / pass / back an amendment
a constitutional / proposed / balanced / budget
amendment
the first / second amendment
SYNONYMS : alteration, change, correction
…………………………………………………………………
28. anal | ogy
(analogies)
NOUN If you make or draw an analogy between two
things, you show that they are similar in some way.
 [+between] It is probably easier to make an analogy
between the courses of the planets, and two trains
travelling in the same direction.
 [+with] The term "social capital" was coined by
analogy with the conventional use of the word capital to
mean financial assets.
 COLLOCATIONS :
by analogy
an analogy between things
by analogy with something
make / draw / use an analogy
a false / appropriate / useful / obvious analogy
 SYNONYMS : comparison, similarity, resemblance
analo | gous
ADJECTIVE If one thing is analogous to another, the two
things are similar in some way. [FORMAL]
 [+to] Marine construction technology like this is very
complex, somewhat analogous to trying to build a bridge
under water.
 [+to] a new conflict situation analogous to the one on
the Korean peninsula.
 COLLOCATIONS :
analogous to something
a manner / situation / process / position is analogous
somewhat / closely / roughly / directly analogous
 SYNONYM : similar
 ANTONYM : different
…………………………………………………………………
30
29
29. ana | lyse
(analyses, analyzing, analysed)
A. VERB If you analyse something, you consider it
carefully or use statistical methods in order to fully
understand it. [in AM, use analyze]
 McCarthy was asked to analyse the data from the
first phase of trials of the vaccine.
 [+ what] This book teaches you how to analyse what
is causing the stress in your life.
B. VERB If you analyse something, you examine it using
scientific methods in order to find out what it consists
of. [in AM, use analyze]
 Thompson and her colleagues analysed the samples
using the antibody test.
 They had their tablets analysed to find out whether
they were getting the real drug or not.
 COLLOCATIONS :
analyse data / statistics / results / trends
analyse a sample
analyse something critically / carefully / scientifically
 SYNONYMS : examine, study, inspect, investigate
analy | sis (analyses)
NOUN  The main results of the analysis are summarized
below.  [+of] This involves mathematical analysis of
data from astronomy.  [+of] an analysis of President
Bush's domestic policy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
analysis of something
analysis of data / samples
undertake / conduct / perform an analysis
a statistical / technical / chemical / forensic /
scientific analysis
a detailed / thorough / comparative / objective
analysis
analyses indicate / show / suggest something
 SYNONYMS :
examination, study, investigation, inspection
ana | lyst
(analysts)
NOUN An analyst is a person whose job is to analyse a
subject and give opinions about it.
 Political analysts have warned of a resurgence of
violence.
 Analysts are predicting total sales for the year to reach
500 million.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a political / news analyst
a securities / market / industry analyst
analysts survey / predict / expect / forecast things
…………………………………………………………………
30. an | nual
A. ADJECTIVE Annual events happen once every year.
 the Labout Party's annual conference
 In its annual report, UNICEF says at least 40,000
children die every day.
B. ADJECTIVE Annual quantities or rates relate to a
period of one year.
 The electronic and printing unit has annual sales of
about $80 million.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an annual conference / event
an annual holiday / celebration
annual fees / costs / sales / profits
an annual income / salary / budget
 SYNONYM : yearly
32
31
an | nual | ly
ADVERB  El Salvodor produces 100,000 tons of refined
copper annually.
 Companies report to their shareholders annually.
 SYNONYM : yearly
…………………………………………………………………
31. an | tici | pate (anticipates, anticipating, anticipated)
VERB If you anticipate an event, you realize in advance
that it may happen and you are prepared for it.
 Surveyors anticipate further price declines over coming
months.  [+that] It is anticipated that the equivalent of
192 full-time jobs will be lost.
 [+that] Officials anticipate that rivalry between leaders
of the various drug factions could erupt into full scale war.
 COLLOCATIONS :
anticipate a decline / slowdown / surge / advance /
reaction / widely anticipated
 SYNONYM : expect
an | tici | pa | tion
PHRASE If someone is done in anticipation of an even, it
is done because people believe that event is goint to
happen.
 Troops in the Philippines have been put on full alert in
anticipation of trouble during a planned general strike.
 the company's ability to constantly renew itself in
anticipation of future technology trends.
 SYNONYMS :
in advance of, in expectation of, in preparation for
…………………………………………………………………
32. ap | par | ent
A. ADJECTIVE An apparent situation, quality, or feeling
seems to exist although you cannot be certain that it
does exist.
 the apparent government lack of concern for the
advancement of science.
 There are two reasons for this apparent
contradiction.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an apparent contradiction / lack
an apparent failure / inability
an apparent reason / attempt
 SYNONYM : seeming, supposed
 ANTONYM : actual
B. ADJECTIVE If something is apparent to you, it is clear
and obvious to you.
 It has been apparent that in other standard have held
up well.
 [+that] It will be readily apparent from Fig. 1080
that there is a link between the monetary side of the
economy and the real economy.
 [+from] The shrinkage of the tissue is not
immediately apparent.
 COLLOCATIONS :
apparent to someone
apparent from something
readily / immediately / increasingly apparent
 SYNONYMS : clear, obvious
 ANTONYM : unclear
…………………………………………………………………
34
33
33. ap | pend
(appends, appending, append)
VERB When you append something to something else,
especially a piece of writing, you attach it or add it to the
end of it, a formal word.
 Violet appended a note at the end of the letter …
 It was a relief that his real name hadn't been appended
to the manuscript.
…………………………………………………………………
34. ap | pre | ci | ate
VERB If you appreciate a situation or problem, you
understand it and know what it involves.
 Those arguing the case often do not appreciate the
difference between and island nation and a continental
one.
 [+that] It is essential to appreciate that addictive
behavior can compromise energy levels.
 COLLOCATIONS :
appreciate the importance / significance of something
appreciate the seriousness / extent of something
appreciate a fact
fully apreciate
 SYNONYM : acknowledge, recognize
 COLLOCATIONS :
appreciation of something
appreciation of the importance / significance of
something
appreciation of the need for something
show appreciation
 SYNONYMS : grasp, understanding
…………………………………………………………………
35. ap | proach
(approaches, approaching, approached)
A. VERB When you approach a task, problem, or situation
in a particular way, you deal with it or think it in that
way.
 The bank has approached the issue in a practical
way.  Employers are interested in how you approach
problems.
 COLLOCATIONS : approach a task / issue / problem
 SYNONYMS
: tackle, address
B. NOUN Your approach to a task, problem, or situation
is t`e way you deal with it or think about it.
 [+to] We will be exploring different approaches to
gathering information.  The programme adopts a
multidisciplinary approach.
ap | pre | cia | tion
(appreclations)
NOUN An appreciation of a situation or problem is an
understanding of what it involves.
 [+of] They have a stronger appreciation of the
importance of economic incentives.  [+of] The WTO
showed a deeper appreciation of the need for
environmental exemptions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an approach to something
adopt / take / prefer an approach
a pragmatic/ cautious/ different / innovative approach
 SYNONYMS : methodology, procedure, technique
…………………………………………………………………
36
35
36. ap | pro | pri | ate
ADJECTIVE Something that is appropriate is situatble or
acceptable for a particular situation.
 [+to] Dress neatly and attractively in an outfit
appropriate to the job.
 The teacher can then take appropriate action.
 COLLOCATIONS :
appropriate to / for something
appropriate to / for a purpose / occasion / task
appropriate action / treatment / punishment
an appropriate measure / response
deem / consider something appropriate
wholly / entirely / perfectly / highly appropriate
 SYNONYMS : suitable, acceptable
 ANTONYM : inappropriate
ap | pro | pri | ate | ly
ADVERB  Dress appropriately and ask intelligent
questions.  It's entitled, appropriately enough,." Art for
the Nation".
 COLLOCATIONS :
respond / act / dress / behave appropriately
appropriately named / titled
 SYNONYMS : suitably, acceptably
 ANTONYM : inappropriately
…………………………………………………………………
37. ap | proxi | mate
(approximates, approximating,
approximated)
A. ADJECTIVE An approximate number, time, or
position is close to the correct number, time, or position,
but is not exact.
 The approximate cost varies from around £ 150 to £
250.
 The times are approximate only.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an approximate cost / value / price / age / height / size
an approximate guide / definition / location
 SYNONYM : rough
 ANTONYMS : exact, precise
B. VERB If something approximates to something else, it
is similar to it but is not exactly the same.
 [+to] Something approximating to a fair outcome
will be ensured.
 By about 6 weeks of age, most babies begin to show
something approximating a day / night sleeping pattern.
 COLLOCATIONS :
approximate to something
closely / roughly approximate
ap | proxy | mate | ly
ADVERB  Approximately $ 150 million is to be spent on
improvements.  Each session lasted approximately 30 to
40 minutes.
 SYNONYMS : roughly, about, around
 ANTONYMS : exactly, precisely
…………………………………………………………………
38. ar | bi | trary
ADJECTIVE If you describe an action, rule, or decision as
arbitrary, you think that it is not based on any principle,
plan, or system. It often seems unfair because of this.
 Arbitrary arrests and detention without trial were
common.
 a seemingly arbitrary deadline.
38
37
 COLLOCATIONS :
B. NOUN The area of a surface such as a piece of land is
an arbitrary arrest / imprisonment / execution
the amount of flat space or ground that it covers,
an arbitrary limit / deadline / distinction / code
measured in square units.
seemingly / purely arbitrary
 The islands cover a total area of 625.6 square
 SYNONYMS : random unfounded
kilometers.
 ANTONYMS : logical, reasonable
 The house was large in area, but it did not have
many rooms.
ar | bi | trari | ly
ADVERB  The victims were not chosen arbitrarily.
 It would be wrong arbitrarily to exclude any particular
groups of people from consideration.
 COLLOCATIONS : choose / select / decide arbitrarily
 SYNONYMS : randomly, unreasonably
…………………………………………………………………
.
39. area
(areas)
A. NOUN An area is a particular part of a town, a country,
a region, or the world.
 the large number of students in the area.  60 years
ago half the French population still lived in rural areas.
 All the agricultural areas around this town are
completely gone.
 COLLOCATIONS :
in / throughout an area
the area around / near / outside somewhere
a small / large area
a rural / urban / remote / residential area
the local / surrounding area
the affected / specific / whole / main area
 SYNONYMS : region, district
 COLLOCATIONS :
the area of something
in area
the surface / total area
cover an area of x
 SYNONYM : size
C. NOUN You can use area to refer to a particular subject
or topic or to a particular part of a larger, more general
situation or activity.
 Immigration is a politically sensitive area.
 [+of] Awards were presented to writers in every
area of the arts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an area of something
an area of science / research
an area of interest / concern / disagreement
someone's area of expertise / responsibility
a grey / sensitive area
 SYNONYMS : subject, topic, field
…………………………………………………………………
40
39
40. as | pect
(aspects)
NOUN An aspect of something is one of the parts of its
character or nature.
 [+of] Climate and weather affect every aspect of our
lives.
 [+of] a framework covering different aspects of
telecommunication and information technology.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an aspect of something
an aspect of life / culture / society / nature / every
aspect
various / all / different / other aspects
a positive / negative / important / key aspect
a financial / spiritual / technical aspect
cover / examine / explore an aspect
 SYNONYMS : angle, feature
…………………………………………………………………
41. as | sem | ble
(assembles, assembling, assembled)
A. VERB When people assemble or when someone
assembles them, they come together in a group, usually
for a particular purpose such as a meeting.
 There wasn't even a convenient place for students to
assemble between classes.
 [+in] Thousands of people assembled in a stadium in
Thokoza.
 He has assembled a team of experts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assemble in / at somewhere
assemble for something
assemble for a meeting / ceremony / occasion
a crowd / team assembles
delegates / guests / workers assemble
 SYNONYMS : gather, meet, congregate
B. VERB To assemble something means to collect it
together or to fit the different parts of it together.
 He is assembling evidence concerning a murder.
 a firm which assembles components into a finished
product.
 COLLOCATIONS :
hastily / hurriedly assemble something
assemble a collection / array / fleet
assemble a bomb / kit
 ANTONYMS : disassemble, dismantle
as | sem | bly (assemblies)
A. NOUN An assembly is a large group of people who
meet regularly to make decisions or laws for a particular
region or country.
 the campaign for the first free election to the
National Assembly
 COLLOCATIONS :
elect / convene / dissolve an assembly
a regional / national / legislative assembly
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The assembly of a machine,
device, or object is the process of fitting its different
parts together.
 [+of] For the rest of the day, he worked on the
assembly of an explosive device.
 car assembly plants.
41
 COLLOCATIONS :
the assembly of something
an assembly plant / line
assembly instructions
 SYNONYMS : construction, manufacture
…………………………………………………………………
42. as | sess
(assesses, assessing, assessed)
VERB When you asses a person, thing, or situation, you
consider them in order to make a judgment about them.
 Our correspondent has been assessing the impact of the
sanctions.
 The test was to assess aptitude rather than academic
achievement.
 [+whether] It would be a matter of assessing whether
she was well enough to travel.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assess the damage / impact / risk / progress
assess a situation
assess objectively / independently / accurately /
properly
 SYNONYM : evaluate, judge, test
as | sess | ment
(assessments)
NOUN  [+of] There is little assessment of the damage to
the natural environment.
 Everything from course learning material to final
assessment is completed via the Web.
 [+by] He was remanded to a mental hospital for
assessment by doctors.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assessment of something
assessment by someone
assessment of a situation
42
risk / damage assessment
undergo / conduct / complete an assessment
a frank / objective / accurate / detailed assessment
a blunt / gloomy / initial / preliminary assessment
a psychiatric/ psychological / environment assessment
 SYNONYM : evaluation, test, appraisal
…………………………………………………………………
43. as | sign
(assigns, assigning, assigned)
A. VERB If you assign a piece of work to someone, you
give them the work to do.
 [+to] The task is sometimes jointly assigned to
accounting and engineering departments.
 Workers felt forced to work late because managers
assigned them more work than they could complete in a
regular shift.
 When teachers assign homework, students usually
feel an obligation to do it.
B. VERB If you assign a particular function or value to
someone or something, you say they have it.
 [+to] Under Mr.Harel's system, each business must
assign a value to each job.
 Assign the letters of the alphabet their numerical
values. - A equals 1, B equal 2, etc.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assign something to someone / something
assign a task / chore / duty
assign homework
assign a value / score / meaning / role
 SYNONYMS : allot, allocate
…………………………………………………………………
43
44. as | sist
(assists, assisting, assisted)
A. VERB If you assist someone, you help them to do a job
or task by doing part of the work for them.
 [+with] The family decided to assist me with my
chores.  Dr Amid was assisted by a young Asian
nurse.
B. VERB If you assist someone, you give them
information, advice, or money.
 [+in] The public is urgently requested to assist
police in tracing this man.
 [+with] Foreign Office officials assisted with
transport and finance problems.
C. VERB If something assists in doing a task, it makes the
task easier to do.
 [+in] a chemical that assists in the manufacture of
proteins
 [+in] an increasing number of techniques to assist
people in creating successful strategies.
 Salvage operations have been greatly assisted by the
good weather conditions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assisted by someone / something
as | sign | ment
(assignment)
NOUN in assignment is a task or piece of work that you
are given to do espiecially as part of your job or studies.
 The assessment for the course involves written
assignments and practical tests.
 His first overseas assignment was in Ghana.
44
 COLLOCATIONS :
a writing / written / work / homework assignment
a special / overseas assignment
a tough / challenging / temporary assignment
 SYNONYMS : coursework, test, task, job
…………………………………………………………………
45. as | sume
(assumes, assuming, assumed)
VERB If you assume that something is true, you imagine
that it is true, sometimes wrongly.
 [+that] It is a misconception to assume that the two
continents are similar.
 [+to-inf] If mistakes occurred, they were assumed to be
the fault of the commander on the spot.
 COLLOCATIONS :
wrongly / mistakenly / automatically / safely assume
something
widely assumed
 SYNONYMS : presume, expect
 ANTONYM : doubt
…………………………………………………………………
46. as | sure
(assures, assuring, assured)
A. VERB If you assure someone that something is true or
will happen, you tell them that it is definitely true or
will definitely happen, often in order to make them less
worried.
 [+that]Russia has assured us that it maintains robust
command and control arrangement for its nuclear
weapons.
 [+that] Assure yourself that the assertion of your
paper is both clear and worth supporting.
46
45
 [+of] Government officials recently assured Hindus
of protection.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assure someone of something
assure the public
 SYNONYM : reassure
B. VERB To assure someone of something means to make
certain that they will get it.
 [+ of] Henry Vill's Weish ancestry assured him of the
warmest support in Wales.
 a retraining programe to assure laid off employees
new work.
 A level of self-containment renders us immune to
criticism or disapproval thus assuring our serenity of
mind.
 COLLOCATIONS :
assure someone of something
assure the victory / success of something
assure the discretion of someone
 SYNONYM : guarantee
as | sur | ance (assurances)
NOUN If you give someone an assurance that something
is true or will happen, you say that it is definitely true or
will definitely happen, in order to make them feel less
worried.
 [+that] He would like an assurance that other forces
will not move into the territory that his forces vacate.
 [+of] He will have been pleased by Marshal Yazov's
assurance of the armed forces' loyalty.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an assurance of something
an assurance of safety / security / support / loyalty
obtain / seek / give / receive assurance
satisfactory / repeated / written assurance
 SYNONYM : guarantee
…………………………………………………………………
47. at | tach
(attaches, attaching, attached)
A. VERB If you attach something to an object, you join it
or fasten it to the object.
 [+to] The gadget can be attached to any vertical
surface.
 For further information, please contact us on the
attached form.
B. VERB in computing, if you attach a file to a message
that you send to someone, you send it with the message
but separate from it.
 [+to]It is possible to attach executable program files
to e-mail.
 COLLOCATIONS :
attach something to something
attach a rope / wire / cord / device
attach a file / chart / form
firmly / securely / permanently / physically attach
something
 SYNONYM : connect
 ANTONYM : detach
48
47
at | tach | ment
(attachments)
A. NOUN An attachment is a device that can be fixed onto
a machine in order to enable it to do different jobs.
 [+for] Some models come with attachments for
dusting.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an attachment for something
a camera / hose / shower attachment
 SYNONYMS : fixture, fitting, part
B. NOUN An attachment is a document or file that is added
to another document or an email.
 [+to] Justic Fitzgerald included a 120-page
discussion paper as an attachment to the annual report.
 When you send an e-mail you can also send a sound
or graphic files as an attachment.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an attachment to something
send something as an attachment
open an attachment
 SYNONYMS : appendix, supplement
…………………………………………………………………
48. at | ain (attains, attaining, attained)
VERB If you attain something, you gain it or achieve it,
often after a lot of effort. [FORMAL]
 the best way to attain the objectives of our strategy.
 Business has yet to attain the social status it has in other
countries.
 COLLOCATIONS :
attain enlightenment / perfection
attain status / rank / goal / objective
at | tain | ment
(attainments)
NOUN  [+of] the attainment of independence
 their educational attainments
 COLLOCATIONS :
the attainment of something
the attainment of a goal
educational / academic attainments
 SYNONYMS : achievement, success
 ANTONYM : failure
…………………………………………………………………
49. at | ti | tude
(attitudes)
NOUN Your attitude to something is the way that you think
and feel about it, especially when this shows in the way
you behave.
 [+towards]the general change in attitude towards
people with disabilities.
 [+to] Being unemployed produces negative attitudes to
work.
 prevailing cultural attitudes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an attitude to / towards / about something
adopt / maintain / change an attitude
a negative / positive / hostile attitude
a progressive / liberal / prevailing attitude
 SYNONYM : outlook, opinion, point of view
…………………………………………………………………
50. at | trib | ute
(attributes, attributing, attributed)
A. VERB If you attribute something to an event or
situation, you think that it was caused by that event or
situation.
50
49
 [+to]Women tend to attribute their success to
external causes such as luck.
 [+to] The rising death toll is attributed largerly to
the growing number of elderly people, who are
especially vulnerable to the flu.
B. VERB If you attribute a particular quality or teature to
someone or something, you think that the have got it.
 [+to] the tendency to attribute more positive
characteristics to physically attractive people.
C. VERB If a piece of writing, a work of art, or a remark is
attributed to someone, people say that they wrote it,
created it, or said it.
 [+to] This, and the remaining frescoes, are not
attributed to Giotto.
 [+to] The article incorrectly attributed some quotes
to evangelist Billy Graham.
 COLLOCATIONS :
attribute something to something / someone
attribute a success / rise / increase
attribute a quality / characteristic
incorrectly / falsely / wrongly attribute
party / largely / directly attributed
 SYNONYMS : ascribe, assign, accredit
…………………………………………………………………
51. author (authors)
A. NOUN The author of a piece of writing is the person
who wrote it.
 [+of] Jill Phillips, authorof the book "Give Your
Child Music"
 COLLOCATIONS : the author of something
 SYNONYM : writer
B. NOUN An author is a person whose job is writing
books.
 Haruki Murakami is Japan's best-selling author.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a best selling / award-winning author
a famous author
 SYNONYMS : writer, novelist
…………………………………………………………………
52. author | ity
(authorities)
A. PLURAL NOUN The authorities are the people who
have the power to make decisions and to make sure that
laws are obeyed.
 The authorities decided to cancel the elections.
 The prison authorities have been criticized for not
acting more quickly.
 COLLOCATIONS :
prison / airport / immigration / military authorities
the Chinese / Russian / French authorities
 SYNONYM : officials
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Authority is the right to
command and control other people.
 The judge had no authority to order a second trial.
 [+ over] The court has no authority over the matter.
 COLLOCATIONS :
authority over something
have authority
C. NOUN Someone who is an authority on a particular
subject knows a lot about it.
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51
 [+on] He's universally recognized as an authority on
Russian affairs.
54. avail | able
ADJECTIVE If something you want or need is available,
 COLLOCATION : an authority on something
you can get it.
 SYNONYM : expert
 all the available evidence suggests
…………………………………………………………………
 There is a lot of information available on this subject
53. auto | mate
 The drug is widely available.
(automates, automating, automated)
VERB To automate a factory, office, or industrial process
 [+for] The studio is available for private use.
means to put in machines which can do the work instead of
 COLLOCATIONS :
people.
available of something
 an initiative that involved automating a manual process
available from / through / via / in somewhere
 a self-service, fully automated programme.
widely / freely / radily / easily available
 COLLOCATIONS :
currently / immediately available
automate a system / process / task / function
commercially / publicly / generally available
fully / highly / completely / entirely automated
the available information / evidence / spae / resources
 SYNONYM : mechanize
make something avilable
 PHRASE : available on request
auto | ma | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN 
 SYNONYM : accessible
In the last ten years
automation has reduced the work force here by half.
avail | abil | ity
 [+of]the automation of everybody business transactions
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  There is very limited
 COLLOCATIONS :
availability of trained and skilled resources.
the automation of something
 [+of] the easy availability of guns
increase automation
 COLLOCATIONS :
factory / design / office / marketing automation
the availability of something
automation savings / equipment/ software/ technology
easy / limited / widespread availability
 SYNONYMS : mechanization, industrialization
…………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………
54
53
55. aware
B
ADJECTIVE If you are aware of something, you know
about it.  [+of] People need to be more aware of the
dangers of drug use.
 Staff were not fully aware of his problems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
aware of something
fully / well aware
 ANTONYM : unaware
aware | ness
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of/about] There has been an
increasing awareness of environmental issues.
 We need to raise public awareness of the disease.
 COLLOCATIONS :
awareness of / about something
increase / raise / promote / heighten awareness
an increasing / growing / heightened awareness
public awareness
environmental / political awareness
…………………………………………………………………
56. be | half
PHRASE If you do something on someone's behalf, you do
it for that person as their representative. The form in
someone's behalf is also used, mainly in American
English.
 She made an emotional public appeal on her son's
behalf.  [+of] Secret Service Officer Robin Thompson
spoke on behalf of his colleagues.
 COLLOCATIONS :
on / in someone's behalf
on behalf of someone
on behalf of a client / constituent
on behalf of the victim / plaintiff / defendant
 SYNONYMS : interest, sake, part
…………………………………………………………………
57. ben | efit
(benefits, benefiting or benefitting,
benefited or benefitted)
A. NOUN the benefit of something is the help that you get
from it or the advantage that results from it.
 [+of] the benefits of this form of therapy
 For maximum benefit, use your treatment every day.
 [+to] I hope what I have written will be of benefit to
someone else.
 This remarkable achievement took place without the
benefit of modern telecommunications.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the benefit of something
of benefit to someone
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55



B.
maximum / potential / additional benefit
health / economic / financial / social benefit
reap the benefit of something
bring / provide benefit
PHRASE : the benefit of hindsight
SYNONYMS : advantage, profit
ANTONYM : disadvantage, drawback
VERB If your benefit from something or if it benefits
you, it helps you or improves your life.
 [+from] Both sides have benefited from the talks.
 a variety of government programs benefiting children.
 COLLOCATIONS :
benefit from something
greatly / directly / personally / financially benefit
someone
 SYNONYMS : profit, gain, help
ben | efi | cial
ADJECTIVE  [+to] vitamins which are benefical to our
health.  Using computers has a beneficial effect on
children's learning.
 COLLOCATIONS :
beneficial to / for something/ someone
a beneficial effect / arrangement
mutually / hugely / highly / particularly benefical
 SYNONYMS : helpful, positive, valuable
 ANTONYMS : detrimental, negative
…………………………………………………………………
58. bias
(biases, biasing, biased)
A. NOUN Bias is a tendency to prefer one person or thing
to another, and to favour that person or thing.
 [+against] Bias against women permeates every
level of the judicial system.
 There were fierce attacks on the BBC for alleged
political bias.
B. NOUN Bias is a concern with or interest in one thing
more than others.
 [+towards] The Department has a strong bias
towards neuroscience.
 COLLOCATIONS :
bias against / towards something
show / display / perceive / allege bias
eliminate / avoid bias
political / racial / cultural / gender bias
 SYNONYMS : prejudice, favour
C. VERB To bias someone means to influence them in
favour of a particular choice.
 We mustn't allow it to bias our teaching.
bi | ased
ADJECTIVE  [+against] He seemed a bit biased against
women in my opinion.
 [+towards] University funding was tremendously biased
towards scientists.
 examples of inaccurate and biased reporting
 politicaly biased allegations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
biased against someone / something
biased in favour of / towards someone / something
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57
biased reporting / coverage / research / advice
a biased opinion / sample / referee / judge
racially / culturally / politicially biased
heavily biased
 SYNONYM : prejudiced
 ANTONYM : impartial
…………………………………………………………………
59. bond
(bonds)
A. NOUN A bond between people is a strong feeling of
friendship, love, or shared beliefs and experiences that
unites them.
 [+between] The experience created a very special
bond between us.
 [+that] the bond that linked them.
B. NOUN A bond between people or groups is a close
connection that they have with each other, for example
because they have a special agreement.
 [+between] the strong bond between church and
nation.
 [+with] The republic is successfully breaking its
bonds with Moscow.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a bond between people
a bond with someone / something
a bond of something
a bond of affection / friendship / trust / love
forget / strengthen a bond
a strong / healthy bond
 SYNONYMS : tie, connection, linke attachment.
C. NOUN A bond between two things is the way in which
they stick to one another or are joined in some way.
 [+with] The glue may not create a bond with some
plastics.
 [+between] The molecule contains four carbon
atoms arranged in a ring with a triple bond between
two of them.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a bond with something
a bond between things
a bond between atoms
a strong / weak bond
 SYNONYM : attachment
…………………………………………………………………
60. brief
(briefer / briefest)
ADJECTIVE Something that is brief lasts for only a short
time, or does not contain too many details.
 She once made a brief appearance on television.
 During her brief reign, Mary had over 300 of her own
subjects burnt alive.
 a systematic yet brief history of Sufism.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a brief appearance / conversation / speech
a brief pause / period / respite / visit
a brief statement / description / history / report
relatively / mercifully brief
 SYNONYM : advance
 ANTONYM : oppose
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59
brief | ly
 There are four basic alternaties; they are
described briefly below.  Briefly no less than nine of our
agents have passed information to us.
C
ADVERB

COLLOCATIONS :
62. ca | pable
ADJECTIVE If a person or thing is capable of doing
appear / speak / describe / pause
briefly
…………………………………………………………………
something, they have the ability to do it.
61. bulk
 [+of] The kitchen is capable of catering for several
QUANTIFIER The bulk of something is most of it.
 [+of] The bulk of the text is essentially a review of these
original documents.
 [+of] The vast bulk of imports and exports are carried
by sea.
 Bulk is also a pronoun.  They come from all over the
world, though the bulk is from the Indian subcontinent.
 from 1992 the bulk came from Bosnia.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the bulk of something
the bulk of the population / funding
the vast / main / overwhelming bulk
constitute / form / comprise the bulk
provide / supply the bulk
------------------------------------------------------------------------
 [+of] He appeared hardly capable of conducting a
coherent conversation.
hundred people.
 [+of] a man capable of murder
 COLLOCATIONS :
capable of something
capable of cruelty / greatness
look / seem / prove capable
perfectly / physically / fully capable
 SYNONYM : able
 ANTONYM : incapable
ca | pa | bil | ity
(capabilities)
NOUN If you have the capability or the capabilities to do
something, you have the ability or the qualities that are
necessary to do it.
 People experience differences in physical and mental
capability depending on the time of day.
 The standards set four years ago in Seoul will be far
between the athletes' capabilities now.
 COLLOCATIONS :
collaborative / technological / technical capability
organizational / analytical / intellectual capability
wireless / processing / manufacturing capability
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61
 SYNONYMS : ability, functionality
 ANTONYM : inability
…………………………………………………………………
63. ca | pac | ity
(capacities)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The capacity of something
such as a factory, industry, or region is the quantity of
things that it can produce or deliver with the equipment
or resources that are available.
 [+in] the amount of spare capacity in the economy.
 Bread factories are working at full capacity.
B. NOUN The capacity of a piece of equipment or a
building is its size, power or volume.
 [+of] an aircraft with a bomb-carrying capacity of
454 kg  [+of] Each stadium had a seating capacity of
about 50,000.
 COLLOCATIONS :
capacity in / of something
increase / reduce / limit something's capacity
spare / full capacity
a limited / excess capacity
production / storage / generating / fuel capacity
a crowd / audience / building / stadium capacity
 PHRASE : filled to capacity
 SYNONYM : ability, size
…………………………………………………………………
64. cat | ego | ry
(categories)
NOUN If people or things are divided into categories,
they are divided into groups in such a way that the
members of each group are similar to each other in some
way.
 [+of] This book clearly falls into the category of
fictionalized autobiography.
 The tables were organised into six different categories.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a category of something
in / into a category
fall into a category
a different / broad / general category
a product category
 SYNONYMS : class, classification
cat | ego | rize (categorizes, categorizing, categorized)
VERB If you categorize people or things, you divide them
into sets or you say which set they belong to . [in BRIT,
also use categorise]
 Lindsay, like his films, is hard to categorise.
 [+as] Make a list of your child's toys and then
categorise them as sociable or antisocial.
 [V-ing] new ways of categorizing information.
 COLLOCATIONS :
categorize something as something
hard / difficult to categorize
 SYNONYM : classify
…………………………………………………………………
65. cease
(ceases, ceasing, ceased)
A. VERB If something ceases, it stops happening or
existing. [FORMAL]
 At one o'clock the rain ceased.
 Six years on, his February depressions have ceased.
B. VERB If you cease to do something, you stop doing it.
[FORMAL]
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63
 [+ to-inf] The Church has almost ceased to exist in
a challenge to something
Albania.
present / pose / accept / face / meet a challenge
C. VERB If you cease something, you stop it happening or
working. [FORMAL]
a serious / real / major / great challenge
a legal challenge
 The Tundra Times ceased publication this week.
 SYNONYMS : question, test, confrontation
 [+v-ing] A small number of firms have ceased
C. VERB If you challenge ideas or people, you question
trading.
their truth, value, or authority.
 COLLOCATIONS :
 Democratic leaders have challenged the president to
hostilities cease
sign the bill.
cease an activity
 [+on] I challenged him on the hypocrisy of his
cease production / operations / trading
political attitudes.
cease immediately / abruptly / altogether
cease to exist / function / operate
 ANTONYM : begin
 COLLOCATIONS :
challenge someone on / about something
challenge a notion / assumption / decision
successfully / seriously challenge something
66. chal | lenge
(challenges, challenging, challenged)
A. NOUN A challenge is something new and difficult
which requires great effort and determination.
 SYNONYM : question
…………………………………………………………………
67. chan | nel
(channels)
 I like a big challenge and they don't come much
NOUN A channel is a television station.
bigger than this.
 the proliferating number of television channels in
 The new government's first challenge is the economy.
America
B. NOUN A challenge to something is a questioning of its
 the presenter of Channel 4 News
truth or value. A challenge to someone is a questioning
 COLLOCATIONS :
of their authority.
a television / satellite / cable / digital channel
 [+to] The demonstrators have now made a direct
watch a channel
challenge to the authority of the government.
change channels

[+to] Paranormal dreams pose a challenge to
current scientific conceptions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
 SYNONYM : station
…………………………………………………………………
66
65
68. chap | ter
(chapter)
NOUN A chapter is one of the parts that a book is divided
into. Each chapter has a number, and sometimes a title.
 Chromium supplements were used successfully in the
treatment of diabeters (see Chapter 4).
 the theory proposed in the previous chapter.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a new / introductory / opening / closing chapter
the next / preceding / previous chapter
…………………………………………………………………
69. chart
(charts, charting, charted)
A. NOUN A chart is a diagram, picture, or graph which is
intended to make information easier to understand.
 Male unemployment was 14.2 % compared with
5.8% for women (see chart on next page).
 The chart below shows our top 10 choices.
 see note at bar chart
 COLLOCATIONS :
a bar / flow / pie chart
a chart shows / illustrates / suggests something
 SYNONYMS : diagram, graph
B. VERB If you chart the development or progress of
something, you observe it and record or show it. You
can also say that a report or graph charts the
development or progress of something.
 One GP has charted a dramatic rise in local
childhood asthma since the M25 was built nearby.
 This magnificent show charts his meteoric rise from
"small town" country singer to top international Rock
idol.
 COLLOCATIONS :
chart something's course / progress
chart something's rise / decline
 SYNONYM : record
…………………………………………………………………
70. chemi | cal
(chemicals)
A. ADJECTIVE Chemical means involving or resulting
from a reaction between two or more substances, or
relating to the substances that something consists of.
 chemical reactions that cause ozone destruction
 the chemical composition of the ocean
 soliders exposed to chemical weapons
 COLLOCATIONS :
a chemical reaction / agent
the chemical compositon of something
chemical weapons / warfare
B. NOUN Chemicals are substances that are used in a
chemical process or made by a chemical process.
 The whole food chain is affected by the over-use of
chemicals in agriculture.
 a spillage from a chemicals factory
 COLLOCATIONS :
dangerous / toxic / hazardous chemicals
synthetic / organic chemicals
a chemicals factory / plant
chemi | cal | ly
ADVERB  chemically- treated foods
 The medicine chemically affects your physiology.
 COLLOCATION :
chemically treated / altered / induced
…………………………………………………………………
68
67
71. cir | cum | stance
PLURAL NOUN The circumstances of a particular
situation are the conditions which affect what happens.
 Recent opinion polls show that 60 percent favor
abortion under certain circumstances.
 [+of]The strategy was too dangerous in the explosive
circumstances of the times.
 I wish we could have met under happier circumstances.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the circumstances to something
under particular circumstances
certain/ similar / different / exceptional circumstances
 SYNONYM : conditions
…………………………………………………………………
72. cite
(cites, citing, cited)
VERB If you cite something, you quote it or mention it,
especially as an example or proof of what you are saying.
[FORMAL]
 She cites a favourite poem by George Herbert.
 The author cities just one example.
 [+as] How can we account for the data cited as
evidence for that theory ?
 [+as] Spain was cited as the most popular holiday
destination.
 COLLOCATIONS :
cited as something
cited as proof / evidence / justification
cite a source / example / statistic / case
cite a report / study / passage / poll
a report / article / author / analyst cites something
 SYNONYMS : quote, mention
…………………………………………………………………
73. civ | il
ADJECTIVE You use civil to describe things that related
to the people of a country and their rights and activities,
often in contrast with the armed forces.
 civil unrest
 the U.S civil aviation industry
 a United Nations covenant on civil and political rights.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the civil service
a civil servant
civil society / law / liberties / rights
civil war / unrest / disobedience
civil aviation
…………………………………………………………………
74. clari | fy
(clarifies, clarifying, clarified)
VERB To clarify something means to make it easier to
understand, usually by explaining it in more detail.
[FORMAL]
 It is important to clarify the distinction between the
relativity of values and the relativity of truth.
 A bank spokesman was unable to clarify the situation.
 [+what] you will want to clarify what your objectives
are.
 COLLOCATIONS :
clarify a position / situation / remark / distinction
clarify the meaning of something
a statement / amendment clarifies something
legislation / guidelines clarify something
clarification
69
clar | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The clarity of something such as
a book or argument is its quality of being well explained
and easy to understand.
 the ease and clarity with which the author explains
difficult technical and scientific subjects
 [+of] our need as social scientists to strive for clarity of
analysis.
 COLLOCATIONS :
clarity of something
clarity of thought / vision / purpose / focus
clarity of argument / expression / analysis / structure
bring / lend / introduce clarity to something
provide / enhance / increase clarity
startling / exceptional / absolute clarity
 PHRASES : clarity and distinctness
…………………………………………………………………
75. classic
A. ADJECTIVE A classic example of a thing or situation
has all the features which you expect such a thing or
situation to have.
 The debate in the mainstream press has been a class
example of British hypocrisy -- His first two goals were classic cases of being in the
right place at the right time.
 It was a classic of interrogation: first the bully, then
the kind one who offers sympathy.
B. ADVERB A classic film, piece of writing, or piece of
music is of very high quality and has become a standard
against which similar things are judged …
70
 the classic children's film Huckleberry Finn. -- a classic study of the American penal system.
 The record won a gold award and remains one of the
classics of modern popular music … a film classic.
C. A classic is a book which is well-known and considered
to be of a very high literary standard.
 As I grow older, I like to rereal the classic regularly.
D. ADJECTIVE Classic style is simple and traditional and
is not affected by changes in fashion.
 Wear classic clothes which feel good and look good.
 These are classic designs which will fit in well
anywhere.
…………………………………………………………………
76. clause
(clauses)
A. NOUN A clause is a section of a legal document.
 [+in] He has a clause in his contract which entitles
him to a percentage of the profits.
 a complaint alleging a breach of clause 4 of the
code.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a clause in something
a breach / violation / amendment of clause
violate / invoke / amend / abolish a clause
a clause stipulates / states / specifies something
a clause permits / guarantees / prevents something
a contractual / opt-out clause
B. NOUN in grammar, a clause is a group of words
containing a verb. Sentences contain one or more
clauses. There are finite clauses and non-finite clauses.
 In both cases it is the subordinate clause which is the
governing sentence.
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71
 A subordinate or dependent clause cannot stand by
itself but must be connected to another clause.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a main / relative / subordinate clause
a dependent / independent / restrictive clause
a finits / non-finite clause
…………………………………………………………………
77. code
(codes)
A. NOUN A code is a set of rules about how people
should behave or about how something must be done.
 Article 159 of the Turkish penal code
 [+of] Finance ministers agreed to set up a code of
conduct on business taxation.  local building codes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a code of something
a code of conduct/ practice/ ethics/ honour / behavior
a dress code
a penal / criminal / moral / ethical code
 SYNONYMS : rules, laws
B. NOUN A code is any system of signs or symbols that
has a meaning.
 It will need different microchips to reconvert the
digital code back into normal TV signals.
 COLLOCATION : a binary / numeric / digital code
…………………………………………………………………
78. co | her | ent
ADJECTIVE If something is coherent, it is well planned,
so that it is clear and sensible and all its parts go well with
each other.
 He has failed to work out a coherent strategy for
modernizing the service.
 The President's policy is perfectly coherent.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a coherent strategy / policy / plan
a coherent vision / approach
a coherent presentation / narrative / theory / critique
intellectually / perfectly coherent
 SYNONYM : cohesive
 ANTONYM : muddled
co | her | ence
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  The campaign was widely
criticized for making tactical mistakes and for a lack of
coherence.  The three interlocking narratives achieve an
overall coherence.  The anthology has a surprising sense
of coherence.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the coherence to something
lack / possess / achieve coherence
lend / bring coherence to something
stylistic / thematic / logical / structural coherence
 PHRASES :
a sense of coherence
coherence and consistency
 SYNONYM : cohesion
…………………………………………………………………
79. co | in | cide
(coincides, coincidling, coincided)
A. VERB If one event coincides with another, they happen
at the same time.
 [+with] Although his mental illness had coincided
with his war service it had not been caused by it.
 The beginning of the solar and lunar years coincided
every 13 years.
73
B. VERB If the ideas or interests of two or more people
coincide, they are the same.
 a case in which public and private interests coincide
 [+with] He gave great encouragement to his
students, especially if their passions happened to
coincide with his own.
 COLLOCATIONS :
coincide with something
broadly / conveniently / frequently coincide
rarely coincide
co | in | ci | dence
(coincidences)
NOUN A coincidence is when two or more similar or
related events occur at the same time by chance and
without any planning.
 It is, of course, a mere coincidence that the author of
this piece is also a pathologist.
 It is no coincidence that so many of the romantic poets
suffered from tuberculosis.
 COLLOCATIONS :
by coincidence
pure / mere / sheer / no coincidence
a happy / remarkable / strange coincidence
co | in | ci | dent | al
ADJECTIVE Something that is coincidental is the result of
a coincidence and has not been deliberately arrange.
 Any resemblance to actual persons, places or events is
purely coincidental.
 [+that] I think that it is not coincidental that we now
have arguably the best bookshops in the world.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
timing is cincidental
purely / entirely coincidental
…………………………………………………………………
80. col | lapse
(collapses, collapsing, collapsed)
A. VERB If a building or other structure collapses, it falls
down very suddenly.
 A section of the Bay Bridge had collapsed.
 [V-ing] Most of the deaths were caused by landslides
and collapsing buildings.
B. VERB If something, for example a system or institution,
collapses, it fails or comes to an end completely and
suddenly.
 [+under] His business empire collapsed under a
massive burden of debt.
 [V-ing] The rural people have been impoverished by
a collapsing economy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
collapse under something
a regime / economy / system collapses
 SYNONYM : fail
…………………………………………………………………
81. col | league
(colleagues)
NOUN Your colleagues are the people you work with,
especially in a professional job.
 Female academics are still paid less than their male
colleagues.
 In the corporate world, the best sources of business are
your former colleagues.
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75
 COLLOCATIONS :
a senior / junior colleague
a former / close colleague
male / female colleagues
a work / professional colleague
 SYNONYM : co-worker
…………………………………………………………………
82. com | mence (commences, commencing, commenced)
VERB When something commence or you commence it, it
begins. [FORMAL]
 [+at] The academic year commences at the beginning
of October.
 They commenced a systematic search.
 The company commenced work on its expansion project
in 1994-95.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commence at / in / on a time.
commence proceedings / operations / work
…………………………………………………………………
83. com | ment
(comments, commenting, commented)
A. VERB If you comment on something, you give your
opinion about it or you give an explanation for it.
 [+on] Stratford police refuse to comment on whether
anyone has been arrested.
 "I'm always happy with new developments", he
commented.
 [+that] Stuart comented that this was very true.
 COLLOCATIONS :
comment on something
comment on a rumour / allegation / report / matter /
incident
refuse to comment
comment publicly / directly
 SYNONYM : remark, state, explain
B. NOUN A comment is something that you say which
expresses your opinion of something or which gives an
explanation of it.
 He made his comments at a news conference in
Amsterdam.
 [+about] There's been no comment so far from
police about the allegations.
 [+on] A spokesman declined comment on the matter.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a comment on / about something
a comment from someone
make a comment
a public / written / brief comment
 PHRASE : no comment
 ANTONYM : statement
…………………………………………………………………
84. com | mis | sion
(commissions, commissioning,
commissioned)
A. VERB If you commission something or commission
someone to do something, you formally arrange for
someone to do a piece of work for you.
 The Ministry of Agriculture commissioned a study
into low-input farming.
 [+ to-inf] You can commission them to paint
something especially for you.
 specially commissioned reports.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commissioned by someone
commission a study / report / survey
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77
commission research
commission a composer / architect
 Commission is also a noun.
 [+ to-inf] He approached John Wexley with a commission
to write the screenplay of the film.
 [+ to-inf] Armitage won a commission to design the war
memorial.
B. NOUN Commission is a sum of money paid to a
salesperson for every sale that he or she makes. If a
salesperson is paid on commission, the amount they
receive depends on the amount they sell.
 The salesmen work on commission only.
 [+ for] He also got a commission for bringing in new
clients.
4. NOUN A Commission is a group of people who have been
appointed to flind out about something or to control
something.
 [+ to-inf] The authorities have been asked to set up a
commission to investigate the murders.
 the Press Complaints Commission
 COLLOCATIONS :
set up / appoint a commission
a complaints / independent commission
a special / electoral commission
…………………………………………………………………
85. com | mit
(commits, committing, committed)
A. VERB If someone commits a crime or a sin, they do
 COLLOCATIONS :
something illegal or bad.
on commission
a commission for something
C. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If a bank or other company
charges commission, they charge a fee for providing a
service, for example for exchanging money or issuing
an insurance policy.
 [+ on] Travel agents charge 1 per cent commission
on sterling cheques.
 Sellers pay a fixed commission fee.
 I have never committed any crime.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commissioned on someone
charge / pay commission
a commission fee
x per cent commission
 This is a man who has committed murder.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commit a crime / offence / atrocity/ murder
B. VERB If you commit money or resources to something,
you decide to use they for a particular purpose.
 [+to] They called on Western nations to commit
more money to the poorest nations.
 [+for] The government had committed billions of
pounds for a programme to reduce acid rain.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commit something to / for something
commit time / money / troops
 SYNONYMS : give, pledge
C. VERB If you commit yourself to something, you say
that you will definitely do it.
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79
 [+to] would advise people to think very carefully
about committing themselves to working Sundays.
 [+to] You don't have to commit to anything over the
phone.
 COLLOCATIONS :
commit to something
fully / totally commit to something
 SYNONYM : promise
com | mit | meant
(commitments)
NOUN If you make a commitment to do something, you
promise that you will do it. [FORMAL]
 We made a commitment to keep working together.
 [+to] They made a commitment to peace.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a commitment to something
make / honour a commitment
a long-term / lifelong / long-standing / ongoing
commitment
a financial / emotional / work / family commitment
 SYNONYMS : pledge, promise
com | mit | ted
ADJECTIVE  [+to] He said the government remained
committed to peace.
 a committed socialist
 COLLOCATIONS :
committed to something
fully / deeply committed
a committed campaigner / socialist / environmentalist
…………………………………………………………………
86. com | mod | ity
(commodities)
NOUN A commodity is something that is sold for money.
 The government increased prices on several basic
commodities like bread and meat.
 Unlike gold, most commodities are not kept solely for
investment purposes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a commodity market / exchange
commodity trading / futures / prices
a tradeable/ marketable / valuable / rare / commodity
a basic commodity
…………………………………………………………………
87. com | mu | ni | cate (communicates, communicating,
communicated)
VERB If you communicate with someone, you share or
exchange information with them, for example by speaking,
writing, or using equipment. You can also say that two
people communicate.
 [+with] Officials of the CIA depend heavily on
electronic mail to communicate with each other.
 [+by] Communicating by text can have disadvantages.
 COLLOCATIONS :
communicate with someone
communicate by something
communicate with others / the public
communicate by email / telephone / letter
communicate verbally / wirelessly / electronically /
directly
 SYNONYMS : converse, correspond
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81
com | mu | ni | ca | tion
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+between] There was a
tremendous lack of communication between us.
 [+with] Good communication with people around
you could prove difficult.
 Poor communication skills can be a problem in the
workplace.
 COLLOCATIONS :
comunication with / between people
communication skills
written / verbal / direct / electronic / instant
communication
B. PLURAL NOUN Communications are the systems and
processes that are used to communicate or broadcast
information.  In 1962 the USA launched the world's
first communications satellite, Telstar.
 advanced communications equipment for emergency
workers.
 COLLOCATIONS :
wireless / satellite / radio communications
a communications satellite / device / network
communications equipment / technology
…………………………………………………………………
88. com | mu | nity
(communities)
A. NOUN The community is all the people who live in a
particular area or place.
 He's well liked by people in the community.
 The growth of such vigilante gangs has worried
community leaders, police and politicians.
 COLLOCATIONS :
people in the community
a community leader / group
community services
a community centre / hall
 PHRASE : individuals and communities
 SYNONYM : neighbourhood, society
B. NOUN A particular community is a group of people
who are similar in some way.
 The police haven't really done anything for the black
community in particular.
 Friedmann's work receivd surprisingly little attention
from the scientific community.
 close links to Sao Paulo's business community.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the business / scientific / academic community
the black / Asian / Jewish community
…………………………………………………………………
89. com | pat | ible
A. ADJECTIVE If things, for example systems, ideas and
beliefs, are compatible, they work well together or can
exist together successfully.
 [+with] Free enterprise, he argued, was compatible
with Russian values and traditions.
 The two aims are not necessarily compatible.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compatible with something
compatible aims / ideas / beliefs
B. ADJECTIVE If a make of computer or equipment is
compatible with another make, they can be used
together and can use the same software.
83
 [+with] iTunes is only compatible with the iPad
while Microsoft and Sony are offering rival
technologies.
 [+with] Only Windows- based desktop computers
less than 4 years old are compatible with the software.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compatible with something
compatible with a device / browser / pc / system
compatible with software
 ANTONYM : incompatible
com | pat | ibil | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+with] National courts can
freeze any law while its compatibility with European
legislation is being tested.
 [+ between] the compatibility between a certain job and
a candidate.
 [+of] chapter 13 describes the compatibility of
reincarnation with the Christian faith.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compatibility with something / someone
compatibility between things / people
the compatibility of something with something
 ANTONYM : incompatibility
…………………………………………………………………
90. com | pen | sate
(compensates, compensating,
compensated)
A. VERB To compensate someone for money or things
that they have lost means to pay them money or give
them something to replace that money or those things.
84
 [+for] To ease [financial difficulties, farmers could
be compensated for their loss of subsidies.
 the Anglican Church has pledged to fully compensate
sex abuse victims in South Australia.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compensate someone for something
financially compensated
adequately / amply / generously / fully compensated
B. VERB Something that compensates for something else
balances it or reduces its effects.
 [+for] MPs say it is crucial that a system is found to
compensate for inflation.
 [+for] The drug may compensate for prostaglandin
deficiency.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compensate for something
compensate for a deficiency / imbalance
compensated for a loss / absence
…………………………………………………………………
91. com | pile
(compiler, compiling, compiled)
VERB When you compile something such as a report,
book, or programme, you produce it by collecting and
putting together many pieces of information.
 The book took 10 years to compile.
 The report was compiled by 240 scientists from 96
countries to assess the status of coral reefs worldwide.
 COLLOCATIONS :
compiled by someone
compile a report / register / list
compile a dictionary / anthology
compile records / data / figures / statistics
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85
com | pi | la | tion
(compilations)
NOUN  [+of] a compilation of essays and articles on a
wide range of topics
 [+of] the compilation of research data.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a compilation of things
a compilation of songs / clips
the compilation of data / material
…………………………………………………………………
92. com | ple | ment
(complements, complementing,
complemented)
VERB If people or things complement each other, they are
different or do something different, which makes them a
good combination.
 There will be a written examination to complement the
practical test.
 Their academic program is complemented by a wide
range of sporting, recreational and cultural activies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
complemented by something
complement the menu / architecture / setting
perfectly complement something
…………………………………………………………………
93. com | ple | men | tary
ADJECTIVE Complementary things are different from
each other but make a good combination. [FROMAL]
 To improve the quality of life through work, two
complementary strategies are necessary.
 [+to] He has done experiments complementary to those
of Eigen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
complementary to something
complementary strategies / skills
complementary colours / shades
com | plex
ADJECTIVE Something that is complex has many
different parts, and is therefore often difficult to
understand.
 in-depth coverage of today's complex issues
 a complex system of voting
 complex machines
 COLLOCATIONS :
a complex task / calculation / process
a complex relationship / system / issue
 SYNONYMS : complicated, intricate
 ANTONYM : simple
…………………………………………………………………
94. com | po | net
(components)
NOUN The components of something are the parts that it is
made of.
 [+ of] Enriched uranium is a key component of a
nuclear weapon.
 The management plan has four main components.
 automotive component suppliers to motor manufactures.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a component of something
manufacture / supply components
a key / major / main component
a vital / essential / critical component
a software / hardware / electronic / electrical component
…………………………………………………………………
87
95. com | pound
(compounds)
NOUN In chemistry, a compound is a substance that
consists of two or more elements.
 Organic compounds contain carbon in their molecules.
 [+of]Gasoline is essentially a compound of carbon and
hydrogen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a compound of something
a synthetic / organic / inorganic compound
a chemical / toxic compound
a sulphur / nitrogen / chlorine compound
…………………………………………………………………
96. com | pre | hen
ADJECTIVE Something that is comprehensive includes
everything that is needed or relevant.
 The Rough Guide to Nepal is a comprehensive guide to
the region.
 The first step involves a comprehensive analysis of the
job.
 a comprehensive investigation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a comprehensive review / survey
a comprehensive plan / strategy / approach
a comprehensive package / range / collection
 SYNONYMS : full, thorough, complete
 ANTONYM : partial, limited
com | pre | hen | sive | ly
 This section is not intended to
comprehensively cover all possible infectious conditions
relating to fatigue.
 the book is comprehensively illustrated.
ADVERB
88
 COLLOCATION :
cover / deal with something comprehensively.
 SYNONYMS : fully, thoroughly, completely
 ANTONYM : partially
………………………………………………………………….
97. com | prise
(comprises, comprising, comprised)
VERB If you say that something comprises or is
comprised of a number of things or people, you mean it
has them as its parts or members. [FORMAL]
 The exhibition comprises 50 oils and watercolours.
 [+of] The Coordinating Group is currently comprised
of representatives from 73 financial institutions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
be comprised of people / things
comprise x per cent of something
a consortium / committee / panel comprises people
a collection / range / exhibition comprises things
comprised mainly / mostly / largely
…………………………………………………………………
98. com | pute
`(computes, computing, computed)
VERB To compute a quantity or number means to calculate
it.  I tried to compute the cash value of the ponies and
horse boxes.
…………………………………………………………………
99. con | ceive
`(conceives, conceiving, conceived)
A. VERB If you cannot conceive of something, you cannot
imagine it or believe it.
 [+of] Western leaders could not conceive of the idea
that there might be traitors at high levels in their own
governments.
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89
 [+of] He was immensely ambitious but unable to
conceive of winning power for himself.
 [+that] We cannot conceive that he will die at home.
 COLLOCATIONS :
conceive of something
not conceive of something
not conceive of a circumstance / idea / situation /
possibility
B. VERB If you conceive something as a particular thing,
you consider it to be that thing.
 [+as] The ancients conceived the Earth as a float in
water.
 [+of] We conceive of the family as being in a
constant state of change.
 [+of] She cannot conceive of herself being anything
else but a doctor.
 COLLOCATIONS :
conceive something as something
conceive of something as something
con | ceiv | able
ADJECTIVE If something is conceivable, you can imagine
it or believe it.
 Without their support the project would not have been
conceivable.  Through the centuries, flowers have been
used for cooking in every conceivable way.
 COLLOCATIONS :
every conceivable something
every conceivable angle / way
 ANTONYM : inconceivable
con | ceiv | ably
 The mission could conceivably be
accomplished within a week,  A series of interest-rate
might conceivably affect buyer's confidence at the supper
end of the market.
…………………………………………………………………
100. con | cen | trate
(concentrates, concentrating,
concentrated)
A. VERB If you concentrate on something, you give all
your attention, effort, and resources to it.
 [+on] It was up to him to concentrate on his
studies.
 The Party should concentrate resources at local
rather than national level.
 At work you need to be able to concentrate.
ADVERB
 COLLOCATIONS :
concentrate on something
concentrate resources / power / effort
concentrate hard
 SYNONYM : focus
B. VERB If something is concentrated in an area, it is all
there rather than being spread around.
 [+in] Italy's industrial districts are concentrated
in its northern regions.
 [+in] Most development has been concentrated in
and around cities.

COLLOCATIONS :


concentrated in places
geographically concentrated
SYNONYMS : gather, collect
ANTONYMS : scatter, spread
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91
con | cen | tra | tion
(concentrations)
A. UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
Concentration
on
something involves giving all your attention, effort
and resources to it.
 Neal kept interrupting, breaking my concentration.
 [+on] Changing needs led to a concentration on
electricity generation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a concentration on something
lose / require / need / aid concentration
intense concentration
a concentration level / span / lapse
B. NOUN A concentration of something is a large
amount of it or large numbers of it in a small area.
 [+of] The area has one of the world's greatest
concentrations of wildlife.
 [+of] There's been too much concentration of
power in the hands of central authorities.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a concentration of something
a concentration of power / wealth
a high / low / dense / heavy concentration
C. NOUN The concentration of a substance is the
proportion of essential ingredients or substances in it.
 [+of] pH is a measure of the concentration of free
hydrogen atoms in a solution.
 Global ozone concentrations had dropped over the
last decade.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the concentration of something
a high / low concentration
concentration levels
…………………………………………………………………
101. con | cept
(concepts)
NOUN A concept is an idea or abstract principle.
 [+of] She added that the concept of arranged
marriages is misunderstood in the west.
 basic legal concepts.

COLLOCATIONS :
the concept of something
the concept freedom / democracy / justice
understand / introduce / explain a concept
a basic / original / abstract / simple / key /
underlying concept
a marketing / design concept
…………………………………………………………………
102. con | clude
(concludes, concluding, concluded)
A. VERB If you conclude that something is true, decide
that it is true using the facts you know as a basis.
 [+that] Larry had concluded that he had no
choice but to accept Paul's words as the truth.
 [+from] So what we conclude from this debate ?

COLLOCATIONS :
conclude something from something
researchers / investigators / experts conclude
reasonably / reluctantly / unanimousl / rightly
conclude
B. VERB When you conclude, you say the last thing
that you are going to say. [FROMAL]
 It's a waste of time, he concluded.
 I would like to conclude by saying that I do enjoy
your magazine.


SYNONYMS :
end, close, finish
ANTONYM : begin
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93
con | clu | sion
(conclusions)
103. con | cur | rent
A. NOUN When you come to a conclusion, you decide
ADJECTIVE Concurrent events or situations happen at
that something is true after you have thought about it
the same time.
 There remains a large area of concurrent jurisdiction
where a plaintiff may still sue in either a provincial or
the Federal Court.
 He will acutally be serving three concurrent five-year
sentences.
 [+with] toll-free Web access concurrent with paper
publication.
 COLLOCATIONS :
concurrent with something
concurrent sentences / events / jurisdiction
concurrent symptoms / infections / medication
serve concurrent sentences
carefully and have considered all the relevant facts.
 [+that] Over the years I've come to the conclusion
that she's a very great musician.
 I have tried to give some idea of how I feel - other
people will no doubt draw their own conclusions.

COLLOCATIONS :
come to / draw / reach a conclusion
a clear/ obvious / foregone / inescapable conclusion

SYNONYMS
: decision, opinion
B. NOUN The conclusion of a piece of academic
writing is its last section.
 The function of the essay's conclusion is to restate
the main argument.
 Your essay lacks only two paragraphs now : the
introduction and the conclusion.

COLLOCATION

RELATED WORD : introduction
: the conclusion of something
C. PHRASE You say in conclusion to indicate that what
you are about to say is the last thing that you want to
say.
 In conclusion, walking is a cheap, safe, enjoyable
and readily available form of exercise.
…………………………………………………………………
con | cur | rent | ly
ADVERB  He was jailed for 33 months to run
concurrently with a sentence he is already serving
burglary.  [+with] It is unethical for human trials to
run concurrently with chronic texicity tests on animals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
concurrently with something
run / occur / exist concurrently with something
…………………………………………………………………
104. con | duct
(conducts, conducting, conducted)
VERB When you conduct an activity or task, you
organize it and carry it out.
 I decided to conduct an experiment.
 He said they were conducting a campaign against
democrats across the country.
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95

COLLOCATIONS :
conduct business / research
conduct a test / experiment / study
conduct a poll / survey / review / interview
conduct a search / investigation
 SYNONYM : run, direct, manage, organize
…………………………………………………………………
105. confer
(confers, conferring, conferred)
A. VERB When you confer with someone, you discuss
something with them in order to make a decision.
You can also say that two people confer.
 He conferred with Hill and the others in his office
 His doctors conferred by telephone and agreed
that he must get away from his family for a time.
B. It someone or something confers something such as
power or an honour on you, they give it to you; a
formal use.
 The constitution also confers large powers on
Brazil's 25 constituent states.
 An honorary doctorate of law was conferred on
him by Newcastle University in 1976.
 Never imagine that rank confers genuine
authority.
…………………………………………………………………
106. con | fine
(conflines, confining, confined)
A. VERB To confine something to a particular place or
group means to prevent it from spreading beyond that
place or group.
 Health officials have successfully confined the
epidemic to the Tabatinga area.
 The US will soon be taking steps to confine the
conflict.
B. If you confine yourself for your activities to
something, you do only that thing and are involved
with nothing else.
 He did not confine himself to the one language.
 Yoko had largely confined her activities to the
world of big business.
 His genius was not confined to the decoration of
buildings.
C. If someone is confined to a mental institution,
prison, or other place, they are sent there and are not
allowed to leave for a period of time.
 The woman will be confined to a mental
institution.
 He announced that the army and police had been
confined to barracks.
D. Something that is within the confines of an area or
place is within the boundaries enclosing it; a formal
use.
 The movie is set entirely within the confines of the
abandoned factory.
 the wild grass and weeds that grew in the confines
of the grandstand.
E. The confines of a situation, system, or activity are
the limitations or restrictions it involves.
 away from the confines of the British class system.
 I can't stand the confines of this marriage.
con | fined
A. ADJECTIVE If something is confined to a particular
place, it exists only in that place. If it is confined to a
particular group, only members of that group have it.
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97
 [+to] The problem is not confined to Germany.
 [+to] These dangers are not confined to smokers.


confirm a report / diagnosis / finding
COLLOCATIONS :
confined to something
largely/ exclusively confined to someone/
somewhere
 SYNONYMS : restricted, limited
B. ADJECTIVE A confined space or area is small and
enclosed by walls.
 The drill connects to all 12 volt batteries and is
useful for working in confined spaces.
 the confined area of the crash site made rescue
operation difficult.
 COLLOCATION : a confined space / area
 SYNONYM : enclosed
…………………………………………………………………
107. con | firm
(conforms, confirming, confirmed)
A. VERB If something confirms what you believe,
suspect, or fear, it shows that it is definitely true.
 [+that] X-rays have confirmed that he has not
broken any bones.
 These new statistics confirm our worst fears about
the depth of the recession.
 [+with] This confirms what I suspected all along.
B. VERB If you confirm something that has been stated
or suggested, you say that it is true because you know
about it.
 [+that] The spokesman confirmed that the area
was now in rebel hands.
 He confirmed what had long been feared.
COLLOCATIONS :
confirm a rumor / fear / suspicion / impression
confirm something's existence / presence / identity
independently / officially confirmed

ANTONYMS :
deny, contradict
con | fir | ma | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] They took her
resignation from Bendix as confirmation of their
suspicions.
 She glanced over at James for confirmation.

COLLOCATIONS :
confirmation of something
receive / need / get / await / provide confirmation
written / official / independent confirmation
further / final confirmation

SYNONYMS
: proof, affirmation

ANTONYM
: denial
…………………………………………………………………
108. con | flict
(conflicts, conflicting, conflicted)
A. UNCOUNTABLE
disagreement
and
NOUN
Conflict
argument
about
is
serious
something
important.
 You must be sure to deal with any conflict
immediately.
 [+with] Employees already are in conflict with
management over job cuts.
 The two companies came into conflict.
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99

COLLOCATIONS :
 talks aimed at ending four decades of conflict.
(conforms, conforming, conformed)
1. VERB If something conforms to something such as a
law or someone's wishes, it is of the required type or
quality.
 [+to] The Night Rider lamp has been designed to
conform to new British Standard safety requirements.
 [+with] The meant market can continue only if it
is radically overhauled to conform with strict
European standards.
 The National Security Council has met to discuss

ways of preventing a military conflict.
conform to / with something
conform to / with requirement / standards / laws
conform closely / strictly / exactly
B. VERB If someone or something conforms to a
pattern or type, they are very similar to it.
 [+to] I am well aware that we all conform to one
stereotype or another.
 [+to] Like most' peacetime wars' it did not
conform to preconceived ideas.
conflict with someone
resolve / settle conflict
conflict arises / exists

SYNONYM

ANTONYM :
: disagreement
agreement
B. NOUN Conflict is fighting between countries or
groups of people. [FORMAL]

COLLOCATIONS :
end / settle / prevent / avoid conflict
a conflict begins / erupts
a bloody / armed / violent / bitter conflict
a military / civil conflict
a conflict zone

SYNONYMS
: hostility, fighting

ANTONYM
: peace
C. VERB If two beliefs, ideas or interests conflict, they
are very different.
 Personal ethics and professional ethics sometimes
conflict.  three powers with conflicting interest.

COLLOCATIONS :
conflicting reports / claims / accounts / messages
conflicting interests / signals / feelings / views
directly / potentially conflict

109. con | form
SYNONYM : clash
…………………………………………………………………

COLLOCATIONS :
COLLOCATIONS :
conform to something
conform to a pattern / idea / stereotype / model
con | form | ity
A. COUNTABLE NOUN If something happens in
conformity with something such as a law or
someone's wishes, it happens as the law says it
should, or as the person wants it to.
 [+with] The prime minister is, in conformity with
the constitution, chosen by the president.
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101

 [+with] Any action it takes has to be in conformity

with international law.
consent to something
with / without someone's consent
seek / solicit / obtain / grant / refuses consent
written / unanimous / mutual / parental consent
B. VERB If you consent to something, you agree to do it
or to allow it to be done. [FORMAL]
 [+to-inf] Doctors failed to fully inform patients
before they consented to participate.
 [+to] She had consented to a laparotomy, fibroid
removal, and the reconstruction of her uterus.
 Churchill proposed to Stalin a division of
influence in te Balkan states. Stalin readily
consented.
COLLOCATIONS :
in conformity with the law / constitution
in conformity with the principles / ideology of
something
in conformity with standards / regulations /
requirements

PHRASE
: in conformity with something
B. UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
Conformity
means
behaving in the same way as most other people.
 Excessive conformity is usually caused by fear of
disapproval.
 [+in] Pressure appears to be mounting for
conformity in how people speak English.

COLLOCATIONS :
conformity of / in something
enforce / compel / impose conformity
defy / reject / resist conformity
ideological / mindless/ intellectual conformity
…………………………………………………………………
110. con | sent
(consents, consenting, consented)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you give your consent to
something, you give someone permission to do it.
[FORMAL]

COLLOCATIONS :
COLLOCATIONS :
consent to something
consent to marry someone
consent to allow something
…………………………………………………………………
111. con | se | quent
ADJECTIVE Consequent means happening as a direct
result of an event or situation; a formal word.
 The warming of the Earth and the consequent climatic
changes affect us all.
 The changes in social work consequent upon
reorganization have been considerable.
 [+to] Patients must give their signed consent to an
operation.
 Can my child be medically examined without my
consent ?
con | se | quence
(consequences)
A. NOUN The consequences of somethingare the results
or effects of it.
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103
 [+of] Her lawyer said she understood the
consequences of her actions and was prepared to go
to jail.
 [+for] An economic crisis may have tremendous
consequences for our global security.

COLLOCATIONS :
a consequence of something
the consequences for someone / something
the consequences of war / action / failure
the consequences for the economy / future / region
suffer / face / accept / consider / understand the
consequences
serious / severe / tragic consequences
likely / unintended consequences
health / tax consequences
B. PHRASE If one thing happens and then another thing
happens in consequence or as a consequence, the
second thing happens as a result of the first.
 His death was totally unexpected and, in
consequence, no plans had been made for his
replacement.
 [+of] people who are suffering and dying as a
consequence of cigarette smoking.
 PHRASE : in consequence / as a consequence of
something
 Apprehension and stress had made him depressed and
consequently irritable with his family.

SYNONYM : as a result, thus
…………………………………………………………………
112. con | sid | er | able
ADJECTVE Considerable means great in amount or
degree. [FORMAL]
 Other studies found considerable evidence to support
this finding.
 Doing it properly makes considerable demands on our
time.
 Vet's fees can be considerable.

COLLOCATIONS :
a considerable amount
considerable influence / pressure / demands
considerable skill / success

SYNONYMS
: substantial large
con | sid | er | ably
ADVERB  Children vary considerably in the rate at
which they learn.  In the past ethical standards have
often been considerably lower.

COLLOCATIONS :
considerably more / less / higher / lower
vary / differ / improve considerably
con | se | quent | ly
ADVERB Consequently means as a result. [FORMAL]
 They said that Freud had not understood women and
consequently belittled them.

SYNONYM : significantly
…………………………………………………………………
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105
118. con | sist
(consists, consisting, consisted)
VERB Something that consists of particular thing or
people is formed from them.
 [+of] Breakfast consisted of porridge served with
butter.
 [+of] Her crew consisted of children from Devon and
Cornwall.
 COLLOCATIONS :
consists of things / people
consists mainly / entirely / primarily
consist mostly / largely / only
 SYNONYM : comprise
…………………………………………………………………

remain / stay constant
fairly / relatively / almost constant

SYNONYMS
: stable, even

ANTONYM
: changeable, uneven
con | stant | ly
ADVERB  The direction of the wind is constantly
changing.  We are constantly being reminded to cut
down our fat intake.

temperature at 24C.
COLLOCATIONS :
constantly change / evolve / shift
114. con | stant
A. ADJECTIVE You use constant to describe something
that happens all the time or is always there.
 She suggests that women are under constant
pressure to be abnormally thin.
 Inflation is a constant threat.
 COLLOCATIONS :
constant pressure / pain
constant supervision / vigilance / surveillance
a constant companion / threat / reminder / menace
 SYNONYMS : continual, ongoing
 ANTONYM : occasional
B. ADJECTIVE If an amount or level is constant, it
stays the same over a particular period of time.
 The average speed of the winds remained
constant.
 The climate is tropical with a fairly constant
COLLOCATIONS :
constantly remind / monitor

SYNONYMS

ANTONYMS : sometimes,
: always, continually
occasionally
…………………………………………………………………
115. constitute
(constitutes, constituting, constituted)
A. VERB If something constitutes a particular thing, it
can be regarded as being that thing.
 Testing patients without their consent would
constitute a professional and leag offence.
 The vote hardly constitutes a victory.
 What constitutes abuse ?
B. If a number of things or people constitute something,
they are the parts or members that form it.
 China's ethnic minorities constitute less than 7
percent of its total population … the four companies
constituting the Aramco partnership.
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107
C. When something such as a committee or government
is constituted, it is formally established and given
authority to operate; a formal use.
 On 6 July a People's Revolutionary Government
was constituted .
 The accused will appear before a specially
constituted military tribunal.

COLLOCATIONS :
constitute only
together constitute
constitute a risk / thereat
…………………………………………………………………
116. con | strain (constrains, constraining, constrained)
VERB To constrain someone or something means to
limit their development or force them to behave in a
particular way. [FROMAL]
 Women are too after constrained by family
commitments and by low expectations.
 It's the capacity of those roads which is going to
constrain the amount of travel by car that can take
place.

COLLOCATIONS :

constrained by something
constrained by limits
SYNONYM : limit
con | straint
 [+on] Water shortages in the area will be the main
constraint on development.

a constraint on something / someone
the constraints of something
financial / budgetary constraints
capacity / budge constraints
constraints limit something
 SYNONYM : limitation
…………………………………………………………………
117. con | struct (constructs, constructing, constructed)
A. VERB if you construct, something such as a
building, road, or machine, you build it or make it.
 The French constructed a series of fortresses from
Dunkirk on the Channel coast to Douai.
 [+from] The boxes should be constructed from
rough-sawn timber.
B. VERB If you construct something such as an idea, a
piece of writing, or a system, you create it by putting
different parts together.
 He eventually constructed a business empire
which ran to Thailand and Singapore.
 [+from]The novel is constructed from a series onthe-spot reports.
 using carefully-constructed tests.

COLLOCATIONS :

construct something from / of / out of something
specially / carefuly constructed
SYNONYMS : create, design, build
(constraints)
NOUN A constraint is something that limits or controls
what you can do.
 Their decision to abandon the trip was made because
of financial constraints.
COLLOCATIONS :
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109
con | struc | tion
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Construction is the
building of things such as houses, factories, roads,
and bridges.
 the only nuclear power station under construction
in Britain
 the downturn in the construction industry
 a job in construction.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The construction of
something such as a vehicle or machine is the
making of it.
 [+of] companies who have long experience in the
construction of those types of equipment
 the finest wood for boat construction.

COLLOCATIONS :
the construction of something
under construction
the construction industry
a construction worker / company / site / project
road / highway / housing construction
being / complete / halt / finance / fund construction
 ANTONYMN : demolition
…………………………………………………………………
118. con | sult
(consults, consulting, consulted)
A. VERB if you consult an expert or someone senior to
you or consult with them, you ask them for their
opinion and advice about what you should do or their
permission to do something.
 Consult your doctor about how much exercise
should attempt.
 [+with] He needed to consult with an attorney.
 If you are in any doubt, consult a financial
adviser.
B. VERB If a person or group of people consults with
other people or consults them, they talk and
exchange ideas and opinions about what they might
decide to do.
 [+with] After consulting with her manager she
decided to take on the part.
 The two countries will have to consult their allies.
 The umpires consulted quickly.
 COLLOCATIONS :
consult with someone
consult a doctor / solicitor / lawyer / specialist /
adviser / expert
 SYNONYMS : confer
con | sul | ta | tion
(consultations)
NOUN A consultation or a consultation with someone is
a meeting which is held to discuss something.
Consultation is discussion about something.
 [+with] The plans were drawn up in consultation with
the World Health Organization.
 [+with] A personal diet plan is devised after a
consultation with a nutritionist.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a consultation with someone
in consultation with someone
hold / launch / conduct a consultation
public / extensive / further / initial consultation
a consultation process / period / exercise
 SYNONYMS : discussion, meeting, deliberation
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111
con | sult | ant
(consultants)
NOUN A consultant is a person who gives expert advice
to a person or organization on a particular subject.
 [+to] a team of management consultants sent in to
reorganize the department.

COLLOCATIONS :
a consultant to someone / something
pay / hire a consultant
a senior / independent / outside consultant
a technical / environmental / marketing / design
consultant
a management / recruitment / property / security
consultant
a consultant's report
 SYNONYMS : specialist, adviser
………………………………………………………………
119. con | sume
(consumes, consuming, consumed)
1. VERB If you consume something, you eat or drink
it. [FORMAL]
 Many people experienced a drop in their
cholesterol levels when they consumed oat bran.
 SYNONYMS : eat, drink
2. VERB To consume an amount of fuel, energy, or
time means to use it up.
 Some of the most efficient refrigerators consume
70 percent less electricity than traditional models.

COLLOCATIONS :
consume an amount of something
consume an amount of time / energy
con | sump | tion
1. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The consumption of fuel or
natural resources is the amount of them that is used
or the act of using them.
 a reduction in fuel consumption in the U.S
 [+ of] a tax on the consumption of non-renewable
energy resources.

COLLOCATIONS :
consumption of something
consumption fuel / energy / power
2. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The consumption of food
or drink is the act of eating or drinking something, or
the amount that is eaten or drink. [FORMAL]
 Most of the wine was unfit for human
consumption.
 [ + of] The average daily consumption of fruit
and vegetables is around 200 grams.
 Excessive alcohol consumption is clearly bad.

COLLOCATIONS :
alcohol / sugar consumption
excessive / daily / high / low consumption
3. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Consumptiopn is the act
of buying and using things.
 [+of] the production and consumption of goods
and services.

COLLOCATIONS :
the consumption of goods / services
reduce / increase / cut consumption
consumption rises / increases / falls
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113
con | sum | er
(consumers)
NOUN A consumer is a person who buys things or uses
services.
 claims that tobacco companies failed to warn
consumers about the dangers of smoking.
 improving public services and consumer rights.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a consumer wants / demands / buys something
the average / individual consumer
electricity / gas / energy consuemrs
consumer confidence / spending / protection
consumer goods
 SYNONYMS : buyer, user, customer
…………………………………………………………………
120. con | tact
(contacts, contacting, contacted)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Contact involves meeting
or communicating with someone, especially
regularly.
 [+with] Opposition leaders are denying any
contact with the government in Kabul.
 [+between] He forbade contact between directors
and executives outside his presence.
 COLLOCATIONS :
contact with / between people
maintain / establish contact
direct / close / regular / human / social contact
eye / radio / telephone contact
a contact number / address
 PHRASES :
make / have contact with someone
lose contact with someone
 SYNONYM : communication
B. VERB If you contact someone, you telephone them,
write to them, or go to see them in order to tell or ask
them something.
 Contact the Tourist Information Bureau for
further details.
 His client was on holiday and couldn't be
contacted.

COLLOCATIONS :
contact the police / authorities
contact someone immediately
 SYNONYM : communicate with
C. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN When people or things are
in contact, they are touching each other.
 [+with] They compared how these organisms
behaved when left in contact with different materials.
 There was no physical contact.
 This shows where the foot and shoe are in
contact.

COLLOCATIONS :
in contact
in contact with something / someone
direct / physical / sexual contact
…………………………………………………………………
121. con | tem | po | rary
A. ADJECTIVE Contemporary things are modern and
relate to the present time.
 one of the finest collections of contemporary art
in the country.
 Only the names are ancient; the characters are
modern and contemporary.
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115

COLLOCATIONS :
contemporary art / music / design / society / culture
contemporary artist / composer
 SYNONYMS : modern, present-day, current
 ANTONYM : old-fashioned
B. ADJECTIVE Contemporary people are things were
alive or happened at the same time as something else
you are talking about.
 drawing upon official records and the reports of
contemporary witnesses.
 He was easily recognized from contemporary
paintings.
…………………………………………………………………
122. con | text
A. NOUN The context of an idea or event is the general
situation that relates to it, and which helps it to be
understood.
 [+of] We are doing this work in the context of reforms
in the economic, social and cultural spheres.
 the historical context in which Chaucer wrote.
 This is the context in which President Chirac must
decide his policy.
B. NOUN The context of a word, sentence, or text
consists of the words, sentences, or text before and
after it which help to make its meaning clear.
 Without a context, I would have assumed it was
written by a man.
 [+of] a neutral remark which, in the context of
the article, sounded condemnatory.

COLLOCATIONS :
the context of something
the context of a debate / discussion
a historical / social / cultural / political context
broad / wide / proper context
 SYNONYMS :
circumstances, conditions, situation,background
C. PHRASE If something is seen in context or if it is
put into context, it is considered together with all the
factors that relate to it.
 Taxation is not popular in principle, merely
acceptable in context.
 [+of] It is important that we put Jesus into the
context of history.

COLLOCATIONS :
in / into the context of something
in / into context
 ANTONYM : out of context
…………………………………………………………………
123. con | tract
(contracts)
NOUN A contract is a legal agreement, usually between
two companies or between an employer and employee,
which involves doing work for a stated sum of money.
 [+for] The company won a prestigious contract for
work on Europe's tallest building.
 [+with] He was given a seven-year contract with an
annual salary of $ 150,000.

COLLOCATIONS :
a contract for something
a contract with someone
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117
win / give / award / offer / sign a contract
a contract worth an amount
a one-year / long-term / new contract
a recording / maintenance / employment contract
 SYNONYMS : commission, agreement
…………………………………………………………………
124. contra | dict (contradicts, contradicting, contradicted)
VERB If one statement or piece of evidence contradicts
another, the first one makes the second one appear to be
wrong.
 Her vision contradicted the Government's claim that
they were shot after being challenged.
 The result seems to contradict a major U.S study
reported last November.
 Often his conclusions flatly contradicted orthodox
medical opinion.

COLLOCATIONS :
contradict a belief / claim / statement
directly / flatly contradict something
 [+in] There are various contradictions in the
evidence.

COLLOCATIONS :
a contradiction between thing
a contradiction of / in something
an apparent contradiction
 SYNONYMS : inconsistency, conflict
…………………………………………………………………
125. contra | dic | tory
ADJECTIVE If two or more facts, ideas, or statements
are contradictory, they state or imply that opposite
things are ture.
 Customs officials have made a series of contradictory
statements about the equipment.
 advice that sometimes is contradictory and confusing.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a contradictory statement / message
contradictory evidence / testimony
apparently contradictory
 SYNONYMS : inconsistent, conflicting, incompatible
contra | dic | tion
(contradictions)
NOUN If you describe an aspect of a situation as a
contradiction, you mean that it is completely different
from other aspects, and so makes the situation confused
or difficult to understand.
 [+between] in my opinion, there is no contradiction
between the two types of treatment.
 [+of] The performance seemed to me unpardonable, a
contradiction, of all that the Olympics is supposed to be.
con | tra | ry
A. ADJECTIVE Ideas, attitudes, or reactions that are
contrary to each other are completely different from
each other.
 [+to] This view is contrary to the aims of critical
social research for a number of reasons.
 Several of those present had contrary information.
 people with contrary interests.
120
119
 COLLOCATIONS :
contrary to something
run / seem contrary to something
a contrary view / opinion / direction
contrary evidence / information
 SYNONYMS : opposite, different, opposing
B. PHRASE If you say that something is true contrary
to other people's beliefs or opinions, you are
emphasizing that it is true and that they are wrong.
 Contrary to popular belief, moderate exercise
actually decreases your appetite.
 Contrary to its popular definition, Shamanism is
not a religion: there is no dogma here.
…………………………………………………………………
126. con | trast
(contrasts, contrasting, contrasted)
A. NOUN A contrast is a great difference between two or
more things which is clear when you compare them.
 [+between] the contrast between town and
country.
 [+in] The two visitors provided a startling contrast
in appearance.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a contrast between things
a contrast in something
a stark / sharp / marked / striking / dramatic
contrast
B. PHRASE You say by contrast or in contrast, or in
contrast to something, to show that you are
mentioning a very different situation from the one you
have just mentioned.
 The private sector, by contrast, has plenty of
money to spend.
 In contrast, the lives of girls in well-to-do families
were often very sheltered.
 In contrast to similar services in France and
Germany, Intercity rolling stock is very rarely idle.
C. PHRASE If one thing in contrast to another, it is very
different from it.
 [+to] His public statements have always been in
market contrast to those of his son.
D. VERB If you contrast one thing with another, you
point out or consider the differences between those
things.
 [+with] She contrasted the situation then with the
present crisis.
 In this section we contrast four possible broad
approaches.
 COLLOCATIONS :
contrast something with something
contrast a view / approach with something
E. VERB If one thing contrasts with another, it is very
different from it.
 [+with] Johnson's easy charm contrasted sharply
with the prickliness of his boss.
 [V-ing] Paint the wall in a contrasting colour.
 COLLOCATIONS :
contrast with something
a colour / style contrasts with something
contrast sharply / starkly
 SYNONYM : differ
…………………………………………………………………
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121
127. con | trib | ute (contributes, contributing, contributed)
A. VERB If you contribute to something, you say or do
things to help to make it successful.
 [+ to] The three sons also contribute to the family
business.
 [+to] He believes he has something to contribute
to a discussing concerning the uprising.
B. VERB If something contributes to an event situation,
it is one of the causes of it.
 [+to] The report says design faults in both the
vessels contributed to the tragedy.
 [V-ing] Stress, both human and mechanical, may
also be a contributing factor.
 COLLOCATIONS :
contribute to something
a contributing factor
contribute greatly/ directly/ significantly /
substantially
con | tri | bu | tion
(contributions)
NOUN If you make a contribution to something, you do
something to help make it successful or to produce it.
 [+to] American economists have made important
contributions to the field of financial and corporate
economics.
 [+to] He was awarded a prize his contribution to
world peace.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a contribution to something
make a contribution
a significant / outstanding / major / positive
contribution
…………………………………………………………………
128. con | tro | ver | sy
(controversies)
NOUN Controversy is a lot of discussing and argument
about something, often involving strong feelings of anger
or disapproval.
 The proposed cuts have caused considerable
controversy.
 [+over] a fierce political controversy over human
rights abuses.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a controversy over / about / surrounding something
considerable / political controversy
cause / spark controversy
 SYNONYMS : argument, discussion, debate
 ANTONYM : agreement
con | tro | ver | sial
ADJECTIVE  Immigration is a controversial issue in
many countries.
 The changes are bound to be controversial.
 the controversial 19th century politician Charles
Parnell.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a controversial decision/ plan/ proposal/ issue/
figure
prove controversial
highly controversial
con | tro | ver | sial | ly
ADVERB  More controversially, he claims that these
higher profits cover the cost of finding fresh talent.
 the issues she controversially espoused.
…………………………………………………………………
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123
129. con | vene
(convenes, convening, convened)
VERB If someone convenes a meeting or conference,
they arrange for it to take place; a formal use. You can
also say that people convene or that meeting convenes.
 Last August he convened a meeting of his closest
advisers at Camp David.
 Senior officials convened in October 191 in London ..
the convening of an international peace conference.
…………………………………………………………………
130. con | verse
NOUN The converse of a statement is its opposite or
reverse. [FORMAL]
 What you do for a living is critical to where you settle
and how you live and the converse is also true.
 Similarly, the converse applied to coming upright
from a bent position with the eyes looking downward.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the converse of something
the converse is true
 SYNONYM : opposite
con | verse | ly
ADVERB You say conversely to indicate that the
situation you are about to describe is the opposite or
reverse of the one you have just described. [FORMAL]
 If government saving is high private saving will be
low. Conversely if government saving is negative then
private saving will be high.
 That makes Chinese products even cheaper and,
conversely, makes American-made goods more expensive
to export.
…………………………………………………………………
131. con | vert
(converts, converting, converted)
A. VERB If one thing is convertd or converts into
another, it is changed into a different form.
 [+into] The signal will be converted into digital
code.
 [+to] Spreadsheet data is automatically converted
to a table.
B. VERB If you convert a quantity from one system of
measurement to another, you calculate what the
quantity is in the second system.
 [+to] Converting metric measurement to U.S
equivalents in easy.
 COLLOCATION :
convert from something to / into something
 SYNONYMS : change, transform, alter
con | ver | sion
(conversions)
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the conversion of
disused rail lines into cycle routes  A loft conversion
can add considerably to the value of a house.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the conversion of something
the conversion of something into something
a loft / basement / barn conversion
 SYNONYMS :
adaptation, modification, alternation, transformation
…………………………………………………………………
132. con | vince (convinces, convincing, convinced)
VERB If someone or something convinces you of
something, they make you believe that it is true or that it
exists.
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125
 [+of] We remain to be convinced of the validity of
some of the research.
 [+ that] The waste disposal industry is fiding it
difficult to convince the public that its operations are
safe.
 [+in] It was agreed that the two leaders should cooperate in a joint enterprise.
 The French and British are co-operating more closely
than they have for years.
 COLLOCATIONS :
convince somene of something
convinced by something / someone
convinced by the argument / evidence
convinced of the merit / importance
convince the public / electorate / jury
 COLLOCATIONS :
co-operate with something
co-operate in something
co-operate fully
 SYNONYM : collaborate
 ANTONYM : conflict
…………………………………………………………………
con | vinc | ing
133. co-operation
.
ADJECTIVE If you describe someone or something as
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+with] A deal with Japan
convincing, you mean that they make you believe that a
particular thing is true, correct, or genuine.
 Scientists say there is no convincing evidence that
power lines have anything to do with cancer.
 The first explanation appears more convincing.
could indeed open the door to economic co-operation
with East Asia.
 [+by] Scientists claimed there had been a lack of cooperation by food manufactures.
 The patient's co-operation is of course essential.
 COLLOCATIONS :
convincing evidence
a convincing argument / explanation
sound / look / appear / seem convincing
 ANTONYM : unconvincing
co-operate `(co-operates, co-operating, co-operated)
 COLLOCATIONS :
co-operation with / by someone
require / increase / strengthen co-operation
economic / regional / international co-operation
close / full co-operation
 SYNONYMS : teamwork, collaboration
 ANTONYM : opposition
VERB If you co-operate with someone, you work with
them or help them for a particular purpose. You can also
say that two people co-operate.
 [+with] The U.N had been co-operating with the State
Department on a plan to find countries willing to take
the refugees.
co-operative / also cooperative
ADJECTIVE  The President said the visit would
develop friendly and co-operative relations between the
two countries.
 a contented and co-operative workforce.
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127
 COLLOCATION :
a co-operative approach / effort / relationship
 SYNONYMS : helpful, obliging, supportive
 ANTONYM : unco-operative
…………………………………………………………………
134. co-ordinate
(co-ordinates, co-ordinating,
co-ordinated) also coordinate
VERB If you co-ordinate an activity, you organize the
various people and things involved in it.
 Government officials visited the earthquake zone to
co-ordinate the relief effort.
 the setting up of an advisory committee to co-ordinate
police work.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the core of something
the city's / planet's core
 PHRASE : the earth's core
 SYNONYM : centre
B. NOUN The core of something such as a problem or
an issue is the part of it that has to be understood or
accepted before the whole thing can be understood or
dealt with.
 [+of] the ability to get straight to the core of a
problem.
 [+of] At the core of this ideology was an ethnic
nationalism.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a co-ordinated effort / response / approach
a co-ordinated operation / activity / action / attack
centrally / nationally / closely / carefully co-ordinated
 SYNONYMS : organize, synchronize
 COLLOCATIONS :
the core to something
the core of a theory / dispute / problem
 SYNONYM : heart
C. NOUN The core businesses or the core activities of a
company or organization are their most important
ones.
 The core activities of local authorities were
reorganised.
 The group plants to concentrate on six core
business.
 [+of] However, the main core of the company
performed outstandingly.
co-ordination
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+between] the lack of co-
ordination between the civilian and military authorities.
 [+of] the co-ordination of economic policy.
 [+of]
…………………………………………………………………
135. core
(cores)
A. NOUN The core of an object, building, or city is the
central part of it.
 the earth's core
 [+of] The core of the city is a series of ancient
squares.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the core of something
the core activities / businesses / areas
…………………………………………………………………
130
129
136. cor | po | rate
ADJECTIVE Corporate means relating to business
corporations or to a particular business corporation.
 top US corporate executive
 the U.K corporate sector
 a corporate lawyer
 This established a strong corporate image.
 The two maps of London correspond closely.
 COLLOCATIONS :
correspond to / with something
findings / numbers / figures correspond
correspond exactly / closely / roughly
 SYNONYM : match, relate to
 ANTONYM : differ
 COLLOCATIONS :
corporate finance / business
a corporate lawyer / executive / image / body
cor | re | spond | ing
cor | po | ra | tion
8 per cent on the corresponding period in 1992.
 [+to] Older types of meter show the reading on a
series of dials corresponding to different powers of 10.
(corporations)
NOUN A corporation is a large business or company,
 multi- national corporations
 the Seiko Corporation
 COLLOCATIONS :
a giant / major corporation
a multinational/ foreign/ private/ global corporation
corporation tax / law
 SYNONYMS : business, firm, company, organization
…………………………………………………………………
137. cor | re | spond
(corresponds, corresponding,
corresponded)
VERB If one thing corresponds to another, there is a
close similarity or connection between them. You can
also say that two things correspond.
 [+to] All buttons and switches were clearly numbered
to correspond to the chart on the wall.
 [+with] A 22 per cent increase in car travel
corresponds with a 19 per cent drop in cycle mileage per
person.
ADJECTIVE  March and April sales this year were up
 COLLOCATIONS :
corresponding to something
a corresponding figure / period
a corresponding increase / decrease
 SYNONYM : equivalent, matching, related
…………………………………………………………………
138. cou | ple
(couples)
A. QUANTIFIER If you refer to a couple of people or
things, you mean two or approximately two of them,
although the exact number is not important or you are
not sure of it.
 [+of] There are a couple of police officers
standing guard.
 I think the trouble will clear up in a couple of days.
 a small town in Massachusetts, a couple of
hundred miles from New York City.
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131
 COLLOCATIONS :
a couple of things
a couple of days / hours / months / weeks / years
a couple of times
a couple of miles / kilometres / metres / inches
 SYNONYM : a few, several
B. NOUN A couples is two people who are married,
living together, or having a sexual relationship.
 The couple have no children.
 after burglars ransacked an elderly couple's home.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a married / divorced / elderly / same-sex / infertile
couple
a couple marries / gets married / divorces
…………………………………………………………………
139. cre | ate
(creates, creating, created)
VERB To create something means to cause it to happen
or exist.
 Tourist companies are creating 45,000 jobs per year.
 Changing interest rates can create problems for home
owners.
 COLLOCATIONS :
create jobs / opportunities / chances / problems
creates a situation / environment / atmosphere
newly created
 ANTONYM : destroy
crea | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] These businesses
stimulate the creation of local jobs.
 to the process of wealth creation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the creation of something
the creation of jobs / wealth
the creation of a state / zone / park / detabase
 SYNONYM : production
 ANTONYM : destruction
…………………………………………………………………
140. cred | it
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you are allowed credit, you
are allowed to pay for goods or services several weeks or
months after you have received them.
 The group can't get credit to buy farming machinery.
 You can ask a dealer for a discount whether you pay
cash or buy on credit.
 COLLOCATIONS :
on credit
buy / get something on credit
interest-free credit
credit card / rating
…………………………………………………………………
141. cri | teri | on
(criteria)
NOUN A criterion is a factor on which you judge or
decide something.
 [+of] The most important criterion for entry is that
applicants must design and make their own work.
 British defence policy had to meet three criteria if it
was to succeed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the criteria for something
meet the criteria
economic / selection / inclusion / strict criteria
 SYNONYM : standard, rule
…………………………………………………………………
134
133
142. cru | cial
 people from different cultures.
ADJECTIVE If you describe something as crucial, you
 I was brought up in a culture that said you must
mean it is extremely important.
 He had administrators under him but took the crucial
decisions himself.
 the most crucial election campaign for years.
 [+to] improved consumer confidence is crucial to an
economic recovery.
put back into the society what you have taken out.
 COLLOCATION :
 SYNONYMS : tradition, way of life
cul | tur | al
ADJECTIVE  a deep sense of personal honour which
 COLLOCATIONS :
crucial to / for something
crucial for survival / development
a crucial decision / role / point / question
a crucial difference / distinction
a crucial element / aspect / factor
…………………………………………………………………
143. cul | ture
(cultures)
1. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Culture consists of activities
such as the arts and philosophy, which are considered
to be important for the development of civilization
and of people's minds.
 aspects of popular culture
 France's Minister of Culture and Education
 COLLOCATIONS :
popular / contemporary culture
Western / American / Japanese culture
 PHRASES :
language and culture
history and culture
2. NOUN A culture is a particular society or civilization,
especially considered in relation to its beliefs, way of
life, or art.
a different / ancient culture
was part of his cultural heritage.
 the Rajiv Gandhi Foundation which promotes cultural
and educational exchanges between Britain and India.
 the sponsorship of sports and culturl events by
tobacco companies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
cultural heritage / identity / diversity
cultural differences
a cultural event / tradition
 PHRASES :
social and cultural
political and cultural
…………………………………………………………………
144. cur | ren | cy
(currencies)
NOUN The money used in a particular country is referred
to as its currency.
 Tourism is the country's
top earner of foreign
currency.
.
 More people favour a single European currency than
oppose it.
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135
 COLLOCATIONS :
European / Asia currencies
a single currency
a foreign / local currency
currency exchange
…………………………………………………………………
145. cy | cle
(cycles)
NOUN A cycle is a series of events or processes that is
repeated again and again, always in the same order.
 [+of] the life cycle of the plant.
 [+of] They must break out of the cycle of violence.

COLLOCATIONS :
a cycle of something
a cycle of violence / poverty
break / complete the cycle
a life / menstrual / economic / business cycle
…………………………………………………………………
D
146. da | ta
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN You can refer to information
as data, especially when it is in the form of facts or
statistics that you can analyse.
 [+from] The study was based on data from 2,100
women.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Data is information that can
be stored and used by a computer program.
 You can compress huge amounts of data on to a
CD-ROM.
 COLLOCATIONS :
data from people / thing
store / collect / collate / analyse / delete data
raw / primary data
data protection / collection / transmission
data suggests / show / indicate things
 SYNONYMS : information, figures, statistics
…………………………………………………………………
147. de | bate
(debates, debating, debated)
A. NOUN A debate is a discussion about a subject on
which people have different views.
 An intense debate is going on within the Israeli
government.
 [+about] There has been a lot of debate among
scholars about this.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a debate on / over / about / within something
a debate on a subject / issue
a heated / lively / intense / ongoing debate
a televised / public / political debate
spark / provoke / trigger a debate
 SYNONYMS : discussion, argument
B. VERB If people debate a topic, they discuss it fairly
formally, putting forward different views.
 The United Nations Security Council will debate
the issue today.
 [+whether] Scholars have debated whether or not
Yagenta became a convert.
 COLLOCATIONS :
debate something with someone
scholars / historians / scientists debate
debate a matter / topic / issue
hotly debated
 SYNONYMS : discuss, argue
…………………………………………………………………
138
137
148. dec | ade
(decades)
NOUN A decade is a period of ten years, especially one
that begins with a year ending in O, for example 1980 to
1989.
 the last decade of the nineteenth century.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the last / next decade
recent / past / previous decades
a decade later / earlier / ago
decades of something
decades of war / conflict / neglect
 RELATED WORD : century
…………………………………………………………………
149. de | cline
(declines, declining, declined)
A. VERB If something declines, it becomes less in
quantity, importance, or strength.
 [+from] The number of staff has declined from
217,000 to 114,000.
 Hourly output by workers declined 1.3 % in the
first quarter.
 [V-ing] a declining birth rate.
 COLLOCATIONS :
decline from x to y
decline by x
decline in something
decline in value / importance / popularity
steadily / rapidly / sharply decline
B. NOUN If there is a decline in something, it becomes
less in quantity, importance, or quality.
 [+in] The reasons for the apparent decline in
fertility are unclear.
 Rome's decline in the fifth century.
 The first signs of economic decline became visible.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a decline in something
a decline in value / sales / revenue / population /
fertility
experience / suffer / report / reverse a decline
a market / economic / population decline
a step / sharp / rapid / gradual decline
…………………………………………………………………
150. de | duce
(deduces, deducing, deduced)
VERB If you deduce something or deduce that something
is true, you reach that conclusion because of other things
that you know to be true.
 [+that] The observations led the team to deduce that
the two clusters approached one another from a different
direction.
 [+from] The date of the document can be deduced
from references to the Civil War.
 The researchers have to analyse a huge amount of
information in order to deduce any conclusions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
deduce something from something
deduce something from a fact / observation
deduce a pattern / hypothesis / conclusion
deduce the existence / presence of something
correctly / logically deduce
140
139
de | duc | tion
(deductions)
A. NOUN A deduction is a conclusion that you have
reached about something because of other things that
you know to be true.
 It is a natural instinct rather than a logical
deduction.
 [+about] Children can predict other people's
behavior on the basis of deductions about their beliefs
or feelings.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a deduction about something
a logical / rational deduction
 SYNONYMS : conclusion, inference
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Deduction is the process of
reaching a conclusion about something because of
other things that you know to be true.
 a case that tested his powers of deduction
 The assessment was based on rational deduction,
not hard evidence.
 COLLOCATIONS :
powers of deduction
logical / rational deduction
 SYNONYM : reasoning
 The criteria for settling disputes in political theory are
partly deductive and partly empirical.
 COLLOCATION : deductive reasoning / logic
 ANTONYM : inductive
…………………………………………………………………
151. de | fine
(defines, defining, defined)
A. VERB If you define something, you show, describe,
or state clearly what it is and what its limits are, or
what it is like.
 [+what] We were unable to define what exactly
was wrong with him.
 a musical are when genres were less narrowly
defined.
B. VERB If you define a word or expression, you
explain its meaning, for example in a dictionary.
 [+as] Collins English Dictionary defines a
workaholic as a person obsessively addicted to work.
 COLLOCATIONS :
define something as / in terms of something
define a term / concept
a rule / law defines something
clearly / narrowly / broadly defined
defi | ni | tion (definitions)
de | duc | tive
ADJECTIVE Deductive
reasoning involves drawing
conclusions logically from other things that are already
known. [FORMAL]
 The force of deductive reasoning depends on the
reliability of the premises.
NOUN A definition is a statement giving the meaning of
a word or expression, expecially in a dictionary.
 [+of] There is no general agreement on a standard
definition of intelligence.
 Human perception is highly imperfect and by
definition subjective.
142
141
 COLLOCATIONS :
by definition
a definition of something
a dictionary / textbook / legal definition
a precise / broad / narrow / clear definition
broaden / clarify / propose / change a definition
 SYNONYMS : explanation, interpretation
…………………………………………………………………
152. defi | nite
A. ADJECTIVE If something such as a decision or an
arrangement is definite, it is firm and clear, and
unlikely to be changed.
 It's too soon to give a definite answer.
 She made no definite plans for her future.
B. ADJECTIVE Definite evidence or information is true,
rather than being someone's opinion or guess.
 We didn't have any definite proof.
 There is no definite conclusion that can be reached
from these studies.
 The police had nothing definite against her.
C. ADJECTIVE You use definite to emphasize the
strength of your opinion or belief.
 There has already been a definite improvement.
 That's a very definite possibility.
 COLLOCATIONS :
definite proof / evidence
a definite answer / conclusion / diagnosis
a definite advantage / possibility / improvement
 SYNONYMS : certain, definite, conclusive, real
 ANTONYMS : uncertain, inconclusive, inexact
defi | nite | ly
You use definitely to emphasize that
something is the case, or to emphasize strength of your
intention or opinion.
 I'm definitely going to get in touch with these people.
 While intra-region trade in Asia has definitely
improved, the pace of recovery in individual economies
has been uneven.
 SYNONYM : certainly
 ANTONYM : possibly
…………………………………………………………………
153. dem | on | strate
(demonstrates, demonstrating,
demonstrated)
A. VERB To demonstrate a fact means to make it clear
to people.
 The study also demonstrated a direct link between
obesity and mortality.
 [+that] His experiments demonstrated that plants
alter their shape at night.
 [+to] They are anxious to demonstrate to the
voters that they have practical policies.
B. VERB If you demonstrate something, you show
people how it work or how to do it.
 The BBC has just successfully demonstrated a new
digital radio transmission system.
 [+to] He flew the prototype to West Raynham to
demonstrate it to a group of senior officers.
ADVERB
 COLLOCATIONS :
demonstrate something to someone
a study / experiment demonstrates something
144
143
amply / conclusively / convincingly / clearly
demonstrate
 SYNONYMS : show, prove, display
 ANTONYMS : refute, disprove
…………………………………………………………………
154. de| note
(denotes, denoting, denoted)
A. VERB If one thing denotes another, it is a sign or
indication of it. [FORMAL]
 Red eyes denote strain and fatigue.
 [+that] a sound which denotes that a photograph
has been taken.
B. VERB What a symbol denotes is what it represents.
[FORMAL]
 In figure 24 "D" denotes quantity demanded and
"S" denotes quantity supplied.
 We will denote the adjusted cost of capital by r".
 COLLOCATION :
a number / symbol / sign denotes something
 SYNONYMS : indicate, show, represent
…………………………………………………………………
155. deny
(denies, denying, denied)
VERB When you deny something, you state that it is not
true.
 Official advice denies the existence of any link
between the MMR vaccine and autism.
 [+that] The government has denied that there was a
plot to assassinate the president.
 [+v-ing] They all denied ever having seen her.
 COLLOCATIONS :
deny a claim / allegation / charge / suggestion
deny murdering / killing / assaulting someone
vehemently / strenuously / categorically deny
something
 SYNONYM : refute
 ANTONYM : admit, confirm
de | ni | al
(denials)
NOUN A denial of something is a statement that it is not
true, does not exist or did not happen.
 Despite official denials, the rumours still persist.
 [+of] The archbishop has issued a vigorous denial of
these allegations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a denial of something
a denial of wrongdoing / involvement
a categorical / vehement / official denial
issue a denial
 ANTONYM : confirmation
…………………………………………………………………
156. de | press
(depresses, depressing, depressed)
VERB If something depresses prices, wages, or figures,
it cause them to become less.
 The stronger U.S dollar depressed sales.
 The appreciation in the value of the euro is depressing
import prices.
 COLLOCATIONS :
depress prices / earnings / wages / demand
depress a market
 SYNONYMS : reduce, devalue
 ANTONYM : increase
146
145
de | pressed
ADJECTIVE A depressed place or industry does not
have enough business or employment to be successful.
 legislation to encourage investment in depressed
areas.
 The construction industry is no longer as depressed as
it was.
 COLLOCATIONS :
economically depressed
a depressed region / area
a depressed market / sector
 ANTONYM : thriving, booming
depress | sion
(depressions)
NOUN A depression is a time when there is very little
economic activity, which causes a lot of unemployment
and poverty.
 [+of] He never forgot the hardships he witnessed
during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
 COLLOCATION :the depression of / in a period
 PHRASE
: the Great Depression
 SYNONYMS : slump, downturn, recession
 ANTONYM
: recovery
…………………………………………………………………
157. de | rive
(derives, deriving, derived)
VERB If you say that something derives or is derived
from something else, you mean that it comes from that
thing.
 [+from] Some modern drugs are derived from plant
medicines.
 [+from] The word Easter derives from Eostre, the
pagan goddess of spring.
 COLLOCATIONS :
derive from something
a word / name / title derives from something
empirically / logically / directly / ultimately derived
 SYNONYM : originate
de| riva | tive
(derivatives)
NOUN A derivative in something which has been
developed or obtained from something else.
 a poppy-seed derivative similar to heroin.
 [+of] synthetic derivatives of male hormones.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a derivative of something
a synthetic / complex / partial derivative
 SYNONYM : by - product
…………………………………………………………………
158. de | sign
(designs, designing, designed)
A. VERB When someone designs a garment, building,
machine, or other object, they plan it and make a
detailed drawing of it from which it can be built or
made.
 They wanted to design a machine that was both
attractive and practical.
 men wearing specially designed boots.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an architect / engineer / artist designs something
design a machine / product / device / building
 PHRASES :
design and build
design and manufacture
148
147
B. VERB When someone designs a survey, policy, or
system, they plan and prepare it, and decide on all the
details of it.
 We may be able to design a course to suit your
particular needs.
 A number of very well designed studies have been
undertaken.
 COLLOCATION :
design a program / system / course / strategy
 PHRASES :
design and develop
design and implement
C. VERB If something is designed for a particular
purpose, it is intended for that purpose.
 [+to-inf] This project is designed to help landless
people.
 [+for] It's not designed for anyone under age
eighteen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
be designed for something / someone
specifically / specially designed
 SYNONYM : intended
…………………………………………………………………
159. de | spite
PREPOSITION You use despite to introduce a fact
which makes the other part of the sentence surprising.
 Despite thorough investigation, no trace of Dr
Southwell has been found.
 The National Health Service has visibly deteriorated,
despite increased spending.
 [+v-ing] Despite being the world's richest nation, the
USA is also one of the most religious.
 SYNONYM : in spite of
…………………………………………………………………
160. de | tect
(detects, detecting, detected)
VERB To detect something means to find it or discover
that it is present somewhere by using equipment or
making an investigation.
 a sensitive piece of equipment used to detect radiation
 Most skin cancers can be cured if detected and treated
early.
 COLLOCATIONS :
detect a virus / abnormality / tumour
detect cancer / radiation
detect a trace / signal / sign
a sensor / radar / test detects things
 SYNONYMS : discover, reveal
 ANTONYMS : miss, overlook
de | tec | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Detection is the act of noticing
or sensing something.
 [+of] the early detection of breast cancer.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the detection of something
early detection
radar / radiation / cancer / fraud detection
a detection device / method / system
 PHRASE : detection and prevention
 SYNONYM : discovery
150
149
de | tec | tor
(detectors)
NOUN A detector is an instrument which is used to
discover that something is present somewhere, or to
measure how much of something there is
 an airport metal detector.
 fire alarms and smoke detectors
 infra-red motion detectors.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a metal / smoke / radiation / motion detector
…………………………………………………………………
161. de | vi | ate
(deviates, deviating, seviated)
VERB To deviate from something means to start doing
something different or not planned, especially in way
that causes problems for others.
 [+from] Deviation from the norm is not tolerated.
 [+in] radical deviations in blood sugar level.
 COLLOCATIONS :
deviation from / in something
deviation from a norm / path / pattern / rule
slight / significant deviation
 SYNONYM : departure
 ANTONYM : adherence
…………………………………………………………………
162. de | vice
(devices)
NOUN A device is an object that has been invented for a
particular purpose, for example for recording or
measuring something.
 [+that] an electronic device that protects your vehicle
24 hours a day.
 An explosive device had been left inside a container.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a mechanical / electronic / nuclear / explosive
device
a hand-held / wireless / portable / storage device
a communication / safety / medical / tracking
device
use / install / attach a device
 SYNONYMS : machine, instrument, gadge
…………………………………………………………………
163. de | vote
(devotes, devoting, devoted)
A. VERB If you devote yourself, your time, or your
energy to something, you spend all or most of your
time or energy on it.
 [+to] the increased time devoted to watching
television.
 [+to] Spanish manufactures are devoting greater
resources to advertising and promotion campaigns.
 [+to] She gave up her part-time job to devote
herself entirely to her art.
B. VERB If you devote a particular proportion of a piece
of writing or a speech to a particular subject, you deal
with the subject in that amount of space or time.
 [+to] He devoted a major section of his massive
report to an analysis of U.S aircraft design.
 [+to] This chapter is devoted to clarifying the
nature of risk.
 COLLOCATIONS :
devote something to something
devote time / space / energy / resources
a chapter / page / section is devoted to something
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151
a museum /website / exhibition is devoted to
something
safely / exclusively / entirely devoted to something
 SYNONYM : dedicate
de | vo | tine
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+to] devotion to the cause
of the people and to socialism.
 [+to] Darwin's devotion to his studies of plants and
animals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
devotion to something
slavish / fanatical / utter / lifelong devotion
 SYNONYM : dedication
…………………………………………………………………
164. dif | en | ti | ate
(differentiates, differentiating,
differentiated)
A. VERB If you differentiate between things or if you
differentiate one thing from another, you recognize
or show the difference between them.
 [+between] A child may not differentiate between
his imagination and the real world.
 [+from] At this age your baby cannot differentiate
one person from another.
B. VERB A quality or feature that differentiates one
thing from another makes the two things different.
 [+from] distinctive policies that differentiate them
from the other parties.
 [+from] features which differentiate the pygmy
elephant from the forest elephant.
 [V-ing] The brand did not have a differentiating
factor.
 COLLOCATIONS :
differentiate between thing
differentiate something from something
a differentiated product / brand
a differentiating factor
 SYNONYM : distinguish
…………………………………………………………………
165. di | men | sion
(dimensions)
A. NOUN A particular dimension of something is a
particular aspect of it.
 [+to] There is a political dimension to the
accusations.
 [+to] This adds a new dimension to our work.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a dimension of / to something
a moral / spiritual dimension
a different / important / added / extra dimension
bring / add a dimension
 SYNONYM : aspect
B. NOUN A dimension is a measurement such as length,
width, or height. If you talk about the dimension of
an object or place, you are referring to its size and
proportions.
 [+ of] Drilling will continue on the site to assess
the dimension of the new oilfield.
 [+of] the grandiose dimensions of the building.
 SYNONYMS : scale, size, extent, measurement
…………………………………………………………………
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166. di | min | ish
(diminishes, diminishing, diminished)
VERB When something diminishes, or when something
diminishes it, it becomes reduced in size, importance, or
intensity.
 The threat of nuclear war has diminished.
 Federalism is intended to diminish the power of the
central state.
 [V-ing] Universities are facing grave problems
because of diminishing resources.
 This could mean diminished public support for the
war.
 COLLOCATIONS :
diminish in something
diminish in importance / size / number
rapidly / gradually diminish
greatly / drastically / considerably diminished
 SYNONYMS : lessen, decrease
 ANTONYM : increase
…………………………………………………………………
167. dis | crete
ADJECTIVE Discrete ideas or things are separate and
distinct from each other. [FORMAL]
 instruction manuals that break down jobs into scores
of discrete step.
 Herbal medicine does not treat mind and body as
discrete entities, but holistically.
 COLLOCATION :
a discrete entity / element / category
 SYNONYMS : separate, distinct
…………………………………………………………………
168. dis | crimi | nate
(discriminates, discriminating,
discriminated)
VERB To discriminate against a group of people or in
favour of a group of people means to unfairly treat them
worse or better than other groups.
 [+ against] They believe the law discriminates
against women.
 [+ in favour of] legislation which would discriminate
in favour of racial minorities.
 COLLOCATIONS :
discriminate against / in favour of someone
unlawfully / unfairly / racially / systematically
discriminate
…………………………………………………………………
169. dis | place
(displaces, displacing, displaced)
A. VERB If one thing displaces another, it forces the
other thing out of its place, position, or role, and then
occupies that place, position, or role itself.
 [+as] These factories have displaced tourism as
the country's largest source of foreign exchange.
 Coal is to be displaced by natural gas and nuclear
power.
 COLLOCATION : displaced as / by something
B. VERB If a person or group of people is displaced,
they are forced to moved away from the area where
they live.
 In Europe alone thirty million people were
displaced.
 Most of the civilians displaced by the war will be
unable to return to their homes.
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 the task of resettling refugees and displaced
persons.
 COLLOCATIONS :
displaced by something
displaced by fighting / war / conflict / violence
displaced by a fire / flood / hurricane
a displaced person / refugee / worker
dis | place | ment
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [FORMAL]
 [+of] too much resistance to the displacement of your
reasons by your emotions.
 [+of] the gradual displacement of the American
Indian
allegations of genocide, rape, and forced displacement.
 COLLOCATIONS :
displacement of people / things
forced / mass / massive displacement
…………………………………………………………………
170. dis | play
(displays, displaying, displaed)
VERB If you display a characteristic, quality, or emotion,
you behave in a way which shows that you have it.
 Researchers have found that women can display
symptoms of a heart attack up to a month in advance.
 He has displayed remarkable courage in his efforts to
reform the party.
 COLLOCATIONS :
display a symptom / sign / attitude / tendency
display a lack of something
display emotion / talent / courage
 SYNONYM : show
 ANTONYM : hide
 Display is also a noun.
 [+of]a public display of unity.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a display of something
a display of emotion / affection / unity / solidarity
 SYNONYM : show
…………………………………………………………………
171. dis | pose of
(disposes of, disposing of, dispose of)
PHRASAL VERB If dispose of something that you no
longer want or need, you throw it away.
 the safest means if disposing of nuclear waste.
 Engine oil cannot be disposed of down drains.
 COLLOCATIONS :
dispose of waste / rubbish / sewage
safely / illegally/ easily dispose of something
 ANTONYM : keep
dis | pos | al
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Disposal is the act of getting
rid of something that is no longer wanted or needed.
 [+of] methods for the permanent disposal of
radioactive wastes.
 waste disposal sites.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the disposal of something
the disposal of waste / sewage / chemicals
waste / garbage / sewage / bomb disposal
a disposal site / expert
 SYNONYMS : discarding, dumping
…………………………………………………………………
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172. dis | tinct
ADJECTIVE If something is distinct from something
else of the same type, it is different or separate from it.
 [+from] Engineering and technology are disciplines
distinct from one another and from science.
 This book is divided into two distinct parts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
distinct from something
a distinct category / type / species / entity
 SYNONYMS : separate, discrete, divers
 ANTONYM : connected
dis | tinc | tion
(distinctions)
NOUN A distinction between similar things is a
different.
 [+between] There are obvious distinctions between
the two wine-making areas.
 [+between] We have drawn an important distinction
between the market value and the intrinsic value of a
firm.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a distinction between things
draw / make a distinction
a clear / sharp / subtle distinction
 SYNONYM : difference, differentiation, separation
dis | tinc | tive
ADJECTIVE Something that is distinctive has a special
quality or feature which makes it easily recognizable and
different from other things of the same type.
 the distinctive odour of chlorine
 Thompson's distinctive prose style.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a distinctive style / characteristic / feature
a distinctive flavor / aroma / voice
highly / visually distinctive
 SYNONYMS : unique, characteristic, idiosyncratic
…………………………………………………………………
173. dis | tort
(distorts, distorting, distorted)
A. VERB If you distort a statement, fact, or idea, you
report or represent it in an untrue way.
 The media distorts reality; categorises people as
all good or all bad.
 allegations that the administration distorted
scientific findings to justify political decisions.
B. VERB If something you can see or hear is distorted
or distorts, its appearance or sound is changed so that
it seems unclear.
 A painter may exaggerate or distort shapes and
forms.
 [V-ing] the distorting effects of Earth's atmosphere
on light passing through it.
 This caused the sound to distort.
 COLLOCATIONS :
distort the truth
distort findings / facts / meaning / reality
distort a shape / image / pattern
a distorting mirror / lens / effect
grossly / severely / deliberately distorted
 SYNONYM : misrepresent
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159
dis | tor | tion
(distortions)
A. NOUN Distortion is the changing of something into
something that is not true or not acceptable.
 [+of] I think it would be a gross distortion of
reality to say that they were motivated by self-interest.
 He later accused reporters of willful distortion and
bias.
B. NOUN Distortion is the changing of the appearance
or sound of something in a way that makes it seem
strange or unclear.
 Audio signals can be transmitted along cables
without distortion.
 symptoms including some perceptual distortions
and hallucinations
 COLLOCATIONS :
distortion of something
distortion of the truth / history / facts
distortion of reality / history
gross / deliberate distortion
visual / perceptual distortion
cause / introduce / create distortion
correct / eliminate / minimize / reduce distortion
 SYNONYM : misrepresentation
…………………………………………………………………
174. dis | trib | ute
(distributes, distributing, distributed)
A. VERB If you distribute things, you hand them or
deliver them to a number of people.
 Students shouted slogans and distributed leaflets.
 [+to] Soldiers are working to distribute food to the
refugees.
 [+among] Profits are distributed among the
policyholders.
B. VERB When a company distributes goods, it supplies
them to the shops or businesses that sell them.
 We didn't understand how difficult it was to
distribute a national paper.
 firms that manufacture and distribute DVDs
 COLLOCATIONS :
distribute something to / among people
distribute leaflets / flyers / pamphlets / copies / aid /
food
 SYNONYMS : disseminate, issue
 ANTONYM
: collect
dis | trib | ut | ed
ADJECTIVE If things are distributed throughout an
area, object, or group, they exist throughout it.
 [+throughout] These cells are widely distributed
throughout the body.
 [+in] Distant galaxies are not as evenly distributed
in space as theory predicts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
distributed throughout / in something / somewhere
evenly / equitably / widely / unevenly / randomly
distributed
 SYNONYM : spread
…………………………………………………………………
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161
175. di | verse
A. ADJECTIVE If a group or range of things is diverse,
it is made up of a wide variety of things.
 a diverse range of habitats.
 Society is now much more diverse than ever before.
B. ADJECTIVE Diverse people or things are very
different from each other.
 Jones has a much more diverse and perhaps
younger audience.
 Studies of diverse populations have reached
similar conclusions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ethnically / culturally diverse
geographically / linguistically diverse
diverse backgrounds
a diverse group / range / population / society
 SYNONYM : varied
 ANTONYM : uniform
ethnic / racial / cultural / linguistic diversity
rich / wide / enormous diversity
 SYNONYM : variety
 ANTONYM : uniformity
di | ver | si | fy (diversifies, diversifying, diversified)
VERB When an organization or person diversifies into
other things, or diversifies their range of something, they
increase the variety of things that they do or make.
 [+ into] The company's troubles started only when it
diversified into new products.
 Manufactures have been encouraged to diversify.
 These firms have been given a tough lesson in the
need to diversify their markets.
…………………………………………………………………
176. docu | ment
(documents)
A. NOUN A documents is a piece of text or graphic, for
example a letter, that is stored as a file on a computer
di | ver | sity
and that you can access in order to read it or change it.
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The diversity of something is
 When you are finished typing, remember to save
the fact that it contains many very different elements.
 [+of] the cultural diversity of British society.
 to introduce more choice diversity into the education
system.
your document.
 COLLOCATIONS :
diversity of things
diversity of opinions / viewpoints
celebrate / promote diversity
reflect / introduce / increase diversity
 COLLOCATIONS :
prepare / scan / save / send a document
B. VERB If you document something, you make a
detailed record of it in writing or on film or tape.
 The book represents the first real attempt to
accurately document the history of the entire area.
.  The effects smoking have been well documented.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
document the history of something
document instances of something
well / meticulously / extensively documented
documented cased / proof / evidence
…………………………………………………………………
177. do | main
(domains)
NOUN A domain is a particular field of thought, activity,
or interest, especially one over which someone has
control, influence, or rights. [FORMAL]
 [+of] the great experimenters in the domain of art.
 This information should be in the public domain.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the domain of something
the domain of science / business / art
the public domain
enter a domain
 SYNONYM : sphere
…………………………………………………………………
178. do | mes | tic
A. ADJECTIVE Domestic political activities, events, and
situations happen or exist within one particular
country.
 over 100 domestic flights a day to 15 UK
destinations.
 sales in the domestic market.
 COLLOCATIONS :
domestic politics/ demand/ production/ competition
the domestic market / economy
a domestic issue / flight
 SYNONYM : internal
 ANTONYMS : foreign, international
B. ADJECTIVE Domestic means relating to
concerned with the home and family.
 a plan for sharing domestic chores
 the sale of furniture and domestic appliance
 victims of domestic violence
or
 COLLOCATIONS :
a domestic chore / servant / appliance
domestic violence
 SYNONYM : household
 ANTONYM : industrial
…………………………………………………………………
179. domi | nate
(dominates, dominating, dominated)
VERB To dominate a situation means to be the most
powerful or important person or thing in it.
 Microsoft's products dominate the global market for
computer operating systems.
 countries where life is dominated by war.
 COLLOCATIONS :
dominated by someone / something
dominate a conversation / discussion
dominate a market / campaign / agenda
 SYNONYMS : lead, overshadow, govern
domi | nant
ADJECTIVE Someone or something that is dominant is
more powerful, successful, influential, or noticeable than
other people or things.
 a change which would maintain his party's dominant
position in Scotland
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165
 She was a dominant figure in the French film industry.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a dominant theme / ideology / feature
a dominant position / role / culture
politically/ economically/ socially / overwhelmingly
dominant
 SYNONYMS : pre-eminent, leading, powerful
 ANTONYMS : inferior, subordinate
…………………………………………………………………
180. draft
(drafts)
NOUN A draft is an early version of a piece of writing.
 a draft report from a major US university.
 [+of] a final draft of an essay.
 COLLOCATIONS :
draft of something
a draft of a paper / manuscript / chapter / essay
a draft report / bill / document
a rough / first / final draft
write / type / prepare / compose / revise a draft
 SYNONYM : version
…………………………………………………………………
181. dra | ma
(dramas)
A. NOUN A drama is a serious play for the theatre,
television, or radio.
 He acted in radio dramas.
 COLLOCATIONS :
be in drama
watch a drama
a drama is set / filmed somewhere
a drama is based on something
a drama continues / begins / unfolds
a drama stars / features someone
a costume / two-part / romantic / historical drama
a TV / radio drama
a crime / courtroom / comedy drama
a drama series
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN You use drama to refer to
plays in general or to work that is connected with
plays and the theatre, such as acting in producing.
 He knew nothing of Greek drama.
 She met him when she was at drama school.
 COLLOCATIONS :
study drama
a drama school / department / student / teacher /
critic
study drama
 SYNONYM : play, theatre
drama | tist
(dramatists)
NOUN A dramatist is someone who writes plays.
 [+who] Tennessee Willams, the dramatist who wrote
A Streetcar Named Desire
 plays written jointly by several Elizabethan drmatists.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a Greet / Jacobean / Elizabethan dramatist
 COLLOCATIONS :
a TV / television / radio drama
Greek / Shakespearean drama
a drama teacher / student / department / school
modern / living dramatist
 SYNONYM : playwright
 RELATED WORDS : novelist, poet
…………………………………………………………………
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182. du | ra | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The duration of an event or
state is the time during which it happens or exits.
 [+of] The result was an increase in the average
duration of prison sentences.
 Courses are of two years' duration.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the duration of something
the duration of a war
x hours' / minutes' / years' duration
a long / short / average / maximum duration
 SYNONYMS : extent, period, term
…………………………………………………………………
183. dy | nam | ic
(dynamics)
A. ADJECTIVE A dynamic process is one that
constantly changes and progresses.
 a dynamic, evolving worldwide epidemic.
 Political debate is dynamic.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a dynamic economy / range
economically dynamic
 SYNONYMS : active, progressive
 ANTONYM : static
B. NOUN The dynamic of a system or process is the
force that causes it to change or progress.
 [+of] The dynamic of the market demands constant
change and adjustment.
 Politics has its own dynamic.
 COLLOCATIONS :
change / alter / create a dynamic
a varied / internal / political dynamic
C. PLURAL NOUN The dynamics of a situation or
group of people are the opposing forces within it that
cause it to change.
 [+of] the dynamics of the social system.
 The interchange of ideas aids an understanding of
family dynamics.
D. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Dynamics are forces which
produce power or movement.
 Scientists observe the same dynamics in fluids.
E. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Dynamics is the scientific
study of motion, energy, and forces.
 His idea was to apply geometry to dynamics.
 other field of fluid dynamics.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the dynamics of something
the dynamics of situation / relationship / process
family / market / group dynamics
changing / shifting / internal / underlying dynamics
understand / study the dynamics
…………………………………………………………………
E
184. econo | my
(economies)
NOUN The economy of a country or region is the system
by which money, industry, and trade are organized. .
 Zimbabwe boasts African's most industrialised
economy.
 The Japanese economy grew at an annual rate of
more than 10 per cent.
 the region's booming service economy.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
the economy of somewhere
a modern / industrial / service / market economy
a booming / strong / weak economy
the global / world / local / domestic economy
the American / Canadian / Japanese / British
economy
stimulate / revive / boost the economy
the economy grows/ recovers / shrinks / slows down
eco | nom | ic
ADJECTIVE Economic means concerned with the
organization of the money, industry, and trade of a
country, region, or society.
 Poland's radical economic reforms.
 The pace of economic growth is picking up.
 COLLOCATIONS :
economic growth / recovery / development
economic reform / policy / activity / aid
an economic downturn / crisis / slowdown
the economic situation / impact
an economic adviser
 SYNONYMS : financial, monetary
eco | nomi | cal
ADJECTIVE Something that is economical does not
require a lot of money to operate. For example a car that
only uses a small amount of petrol is economical.
 the most economical method of extracting essential
oils from plant materials.
 COLLOCATION :
an economical method / solution / alternative /
option
 PHRASE
: efficient and economical
 SYNONYM : cost-effective, inexpensive
 ANTONYM : uneconomical, expensive, wasteful
eco | nomi | cal | ly
ADVERB  an economically depressed area.
 Small English orchards can hardly compete
economically with larger French ones.
 COLLOCATIONS :
prosper / benefit / grow / survive economically
suffer / struggle / develop economically
economically viable / feasible / sustainable
economically dependent/ disadvantaged/ depressed/
inefficient
eco | nom | ice
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Economics is the study of
the way in which money, industry, and trade are
organized in a society.
 He gained a first class Honours degree in
economics.
 having previously studied economics and fine art.
 COLLOCATION :
an economics professor / degree / department
 PHRASE : economics and politics
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The economics of a society
or industry is the system of organizing money and
trade in it.
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 a radical free-market economics policy.
 [+of] the economics of the third world.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the economics of somewhere / something
the economics of industry / business
Keynesian / classical / experimental / free-market
economics
an economics correspondent / editor / policy
 SYNONYM : finance
econo | mist
(economists)
NOUN An economist is a person who studies, teaches, or
writes about economics.
 the chief economist of the World Bank.
 few economists expect to see a rise this year.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a leading / chief / senior economist
market / health economists
economists say/believe / expect / predict/ forecast/
warn
…………………………………………………………………
185. edit
(edits, editing, edited)
A. VERB If you edit text such as an article or a book,
you correct and adapt it so that it is suitable for
publishing.
 The majority of contracts give the publisher the
right to edit a book after it's done.
 an edited version of the speech.
B. VERB If you edit a book or a series of books, you
collect several pieces of writing by different authors
and prepare them for publishing.
 This collection of essays is edited by Ellen Knight.
 She has edited the media studies quarterly, Screen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
edited by someone
heavily / carefully edited
an edited version / extract
edit magazine/ book/ journal/ collection / anthology
 SYNONYMS : revise, correct
 RELATED WORD : proofread
edi | tor
(editors)
NOUN An editor is a person who collects pieces of
writing by different authors and prepares them for
publication in a book or a series of books.
 [+of] Michael Rosen is the editor of the anthology.
 Editors Introduction to the British edition.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an editor of something
an editor's decision / note
a managing / commissioning editor
edi | tion
(editons)
NOUN An edition is a particular version of a book,
magazine, or newspaper that is printed at one time.
 A paperback edition is now available at bookshops.
 [+of] They brought out a special edition of the
Skulker.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
an edition of something
a special / new / limited / revised edition
the first / second / latest edition
a print / online / electronic edition
a collector's / paperback / hardback edition
…………………………………………………………………
186. el | ment
(elements)
A. NOUN The different elements of a situation, activity,
or process are the different parts of it.
 [+of] The exchange of prisoners of war was one of
the key elements of the U.N's peace plan.
 [+of] The plot has all the elements not only of
romance but of high drama.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an element of something
an element of surprise / truth / luck / danger /
uncertainly / risk
contain / include / add an element
a key / important / essential / main / vital / basic
element
certain / core elements
 SYNONYMS : part, constituent, component
B. NOUN An element is a substance such as gold,
oxygen, or carbon that consists of only one type of
atom.
 an essential trace element for animals and man.
 the minerals and element in sea water.
 COLLOCATION :
a trace / chemical / radioactive element
 RELATED WORD : compound
…………………………………………………………………
187. elimi | nate
(eliminates, eliminating, eliminated)
VERB To eliminate something, especially something
you do not want to need, means to remove it completely.
[FORMAL]
 The Sex Discrimination Act has not eliminated
discrimination in employment.
 [+from] If you think you may be allergic to a food or
drink, eliminate it from your diet.
 COLLOCATIONS :
eliminate something from something
eliminate a need / risk / requirement / deficit /
threat / possibility
eliminate waste
effectively eliminate something
 SYNONYMS : remove, abolish
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the prohibition and
elimination of chemical weapons.
 [+of] complete elimination of halitosis is usually
possible.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the elimination of something
the elimination of weapons / discrimination / waste
the elimination of subsidies / taxes / proverty
…………………………………………………………………
188. emerge
(emerges, emerging, emerged)
A. VERB To emerge means to come out from an
enclosed or dark space such as a room or a vehicle, or
from a position where you could not be seen.
 [+from] like a butterfly emerging from a chrysalis.
 [V-ing] holes made by the emerging adult beetle.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
emerge from something
emerge from obscurity / hibernation / darkness
emerge from a chrysalis / cocoon
 SYNONYM : appear
 ANTONYM : disappear
B. VERB If a fact or result emerges from a period of
thought, discussion, or investigation, it becomes
known as a result of it.
 the growing corruption that has emerged in the
past few years.
 [+that] It some emerged that neither the July nor
August mortgage repayment had been collected.
 COLLOCATIONS :
details emerge
evidence emerges
a pattern / picture emerges
C. VERB If someone or something emerges as a
particular thing, they become recognized as that thing.
 [+as] Vietnam has emerged as the world's thirdbiggest rice exporter.
 New leaders have emerged.
 COLLOCATIONS :
emerge as something
emerges as a favourite / victor / winner / candidate /
contender
emer | gence
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The emergence of something is
the process or event of its coming into existence.
 [+of] the emergence of new democracies in East and
Central Europe.
 [+of] measures that help to prevent the emergence of
future generations of terrorists.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the emergence of something
the sudden / recent / gradual / rapid emergence
prevent the emergence of something
 SYNONYMS : arrival, surfacing, rise, appearance
…………………………………………………………………
189. em | pha | sis
(emphases)
NOUN Emphasis is special or extra importance that is
given to an activity or to a part or aspect of something.
 [+an] Too much emphasis is placed on research.
 [+on] Grant puts a special emphasis on weather in
his paintings.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an emphasis on something
place / put / add emphasis
great / particular emphasis
heavy / strong / special emphasis
 SYNONYMS : importance, attention, weight
em | pha | size
(emphasizes, emphasizing,
emphasized)
VERB To emphasize something means to indicate that it
is particularly important or true or to draw special
attention to it. [in BRIT, also use emphasise]
 [+that] But it's also been emphasized that no major
policy changes can be expected.
 [+how] Discuss pollution with your child,
emphasizing how nice a clean street, lawn, or park looks.
178
177
 COLLOCATIONS :
emphasize the importance / need
repeatedly / strongly emphasize something
 PHRASE
: cannot emphasize enough
 SYNONYM : stress
…………………………………………………………………
190. em | piri | cal
ADJECTIVE Empirical evidence or study relies on
practical experience rather than theories.
 There is no empirical evidence to support his thesis.
 a series of important empirical studies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an empirical observation / finding
an empirical study / investigation
empirical evidence / research / analysis / data
 ANTONYM : theoretical
em | piri | cal | ly
ADVERB  empirically based research.
 They approached this apart of their task empirically.
 the empirically confirmed relationship between high
service levels and profitability.
 COLLOCATIONS :
empirically grounded / derived / based
empirically confirm/ verify / demonstrate something
empirically supportable / verifiable / measureable
 SYNONYM : theoretically
…………………………………………………………………
191. en | able
(enables, enabling, enably)
A. VERB If something enables you to do a particular
thing, it give you the opportunity to do it.
 [+ to-inf] The new test should enable doctors to
detect the disease early.
 Hypotheses enable scientists to check the accuracy
of their theories.
 SYNONYM : help
B. VERB To enable something to happen means to make
it possible for it to happen.
 [+ to-inf] The hot sun enables the grapes to reach
optimum ripeness.
 The working class is still too small to enable a
successful socialist revolution.
 SYNONYM : allow
 ANTONYM : prevent
…………………………………………………………………
192. en | coun | ter
(encounters, encountering,
encountered)
VERB If you encounter problems or difficulties, you
experience them.
 Every day of our lives we encounter stresses of one
kind or another.
 Environmental problems they found in Poland were
among the worst they encountered.
 COLLOCATIONS :
encounter resistance / opposition
encounter a difficulty / problem
 SYNONYMS : meet, experience, face
…………………………………………………………………
180
179
193. en | er | gy
(energies)
en | force | ment
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Energy is the power form
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If someone carries out the
sources such as electricity and coal that makes machines
enforcement of an act or rule, they enforce it.
 [+ of] The doctors want stricter enforcement of
existing laws, such as those banning sales of cigarettes
to children.
 Interpol are liaising with all the major law
enforcement agencies around the world.
work or provides heat.
 a scheme for supporting renewable energy in England
and Wales.
 Oil shortage have caused an energy crisis.
 The energy efficiency of public transport could be
improved.
 COLLOCATIONS :
renewable / solar / wind / nuclear energy
energy efficiency / conservation
…………………………………………………………………
194. en | force
(enforces, enforcing, enforced)
VERB If people in authority enforce a law or a rule, they
make sure that it is obeyed, usually by punishing people
who do not obey it.
 Until now, the government has only enforced the ban
with regard to American ships.
 The measures are being enforced by Interior Ministry
troops.
 A strict curfew was enforced.
 COLLOCATIONS :
enforced by someone
strictly / aggressively / effectively enforce something
enforce a law / regulation / ban / curfew
a court / regulator / law enforces something
the police / army / government enforce something
 COLLOCATIONS :
the enforcement of something
strict/ tough/ effective/ lax/ inadequate enforcement
enforcement of a law / regulation / ban / agreement
law / traffic / drug enforcement
an enforcement agency / authority / official
oversee / relax / tighten / strengthen enforcement
…………………………………………………………………
195. en | hance
(enhances, enhancing, enhanced)
VERB To enhance something means to improve its
value, quality, or attractiveness.
 They'll be keen to enhance their reputation abroad.
 The superb sets are enhanced by Bobby Crossman's
marvelous costumes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
enhanced by something
enhance the quality / value / performance of
something
enhance someone's reputation
digitally / surgically / further enhance something
 SYNONYMS : improve, enrich
182
181
en | hance | ment
NOUN
The
enhancement
(enhancements)
of
something
is
 COLLOCATIONS :
the
enormous wealth / potential / influence / success
improvement of it in relation to its value, quality, or
enormous importance / significance
attractiveness. [FORMAL]
an enormous task / challenge
 [+of] Music is merely an enhancement to the power of
 SYNONYMS : great, significant
her words.
 [+of] the enhancement of the human condition.
enor | mous | ly
 COLLOCATIONS :
ADVERB  an enormously influential historian.
the enhancement of something
 Blood levels can vary enormously throughout a 24-
minor / cosmetic enhancement
hour period.
productivity / performance / security enhancement
 COLLOCATIONS :
vary / differ enormously
image / breast / career enhancement
grow / expand / improve enormously
 SYNONYM : improvement power
…………………………………………………………………
 SYNONYMS:
196. enor | mous
A. ADJECTIVE
enormously influential / popular / successful
Something
that
is
enormous
is
hugely, greatly, incredibly, dramatically,significantly
extremely large in size or amount.
…………………………………………………………………
 The main bedroom is enormous.
197. en | sure
(ensures, ensuring, ensured)
 New technology means that it is possible to send
VERB To ensure something, or to ensure that something
enormous amounts of information at once.
happens, mean to make certain that it happens.
 COLLOCATION :
an enormous amount / sum / quality
[FORMAL]
 [+that] Britain's negotiators had ensured that the
 SYNONYMS : vast, tremendous, huge
treaty was a significant change in direction.
 ANTONYM
 [+that] Ensure that it is written into your contract.
: tiny
B. ADJECTIVE You can use enormous to emphasize
 COLLOCATIONS :
the great degree or extent of something.
ensure the safety / survival / stability / surccess of
 This drug holds enormous potential for the
something
treatment of strokes.
ensure fairness / accuracy / integrity
 SYNONYM : guarantee
…………………………………………………………………
184
183
198. en | tity
(entities)
 COLLOCATIONS :
NOUN An entity is something that exists separately from
protect / preserve / conserve the environment
other things and has a clear identity of its own.
damage / pollute / harm the environment
[FORMAL]
an environment minister / spokesman / department
 the earth as a living entity.
 SYNONYMS :
 the designation of Kurdistan as a separate federal
the wild, the natural world, the countryside
entity, with its own parliament.
 COLLOCATIONS :
en | vi | ron | men | tal
merged / separate / combined entities
ADJECTIVE  the environment impact of buildings and
a distinct / autonomous / independent entity
transport systems
form / create an entity
 It protects against environmental hazards such as
…………………………………………………………………
wind and sun.
199. en | vi | ron | ment
 COLLOCATIONS :
(environments)
A. NOUN Someone's environment is their surroundings,
especially the conditions in which they grow up, live,
an environment good / problem / issue
environmental protection / impact
or work.
 Pupils are taught in a safe, secure environment.
en | vi | ron | men | tal | ly
 His method is based on observing the animal in its
ADVERB  encourage builders to make environmentally
natural environment.
sound homes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a safe / secure / supportive environment
 the high price of environmentally friendly goods.
 COLLOCATION :environmentally friendly / sound
a work / business / learning environment
a natural environment
B. NOUN The environment is the natural world of land,
en | vi | ron | men | tal | ist
(environmentalists)
NOUN An environmentalist is a person who is
sea, air, plants and animals.
concerned with protecting and preserving the natural
 the need to protect the environment.
environment, for example by preventing pollution.
 Their aim is to increase income from tourism
 Environmentalists fear that the mine will destroy the
without damaging the environment.
habitats of grizzly bears.
 SYNONYM : conservationist
…………………………………………………………………
186
185
200. equate
(equates, equating, equated)
201. equip | ment
VERB If you equate one thing with another, or if you say
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Equipment consists of the
that one thing equates with another, you believe that they
things which are used for a particular purpose, for
example a hobby or job.
 computers, electronic equipment and machine tools.
 a shortage of medical equipment and medicine.
are strongly connected, for example because you think
that they are the same thing or that one causes the other.
 I'm always wary of men wearing suits, as I equate this
with power and authority.

The
author
doesn't
equate
liberalism
and
conservation.
 The principle of hierarchy does not equate to
totalitation terror.
equa | tion
(equations)
A. NOUN An equation is a mathematical statement
saying that two amounts or values are the same, for
example 6  4 = 12  2.
 COLLOCATIONS :
solve an equation
a mathematical / simple equation
 SYNONYM : formula
B. An equation is a situation or problem in which two or
more parts have to be considered together so that the
whole situation or problem can be understood or
explained.
 The equation is simple: research breeds new
products.
 The party fears the equation between higher
spending and higher taxes.
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATIONS :
electrical / electronic / medical / military equpment
computer / telecoms equipment
modern / state-of-the-art / high-tech equipment
 SYNONYMS : machinery, supplies, tools
…………………………………………………………………
202. equiva | lent
(equivalents)
NOUN If one amount or value is the equivalent of
another, they are the same.
 [+of] The equivalent of two tablespoons of
polyunsaturated oils is ample each day.
 [+of] Even the cheapest car costs the equivalent of 70
years' salary for a government worker.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the equivalent of something
the equivalent of a pound / pint
a modern / modern-day equivalent
a cinematic / literary / musical / visual equivalent
the male / female equivalent
 SYNONYM : equal
equiva | lence
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If there is equivalence between
two things, they have the same use function, size, or
value.
188
187
 [+of] the equivalence of science and rationality.
 [+between] The effect is a moral equivalence between
the two.
 COLLOCATION : equivalence of / between things
 SYNONYM : equality
…………………………………………………………………
203. erode
(erodes, eroding, eroded)
A. VERB If someone's authority, right, or confidence
erodes or is eroded, it gradually destroyed or
removed. [FORMAL]
 His critics say his fumbling of the issue of reform
has eroded his authority.
 America's belief in its own God-ordained
uniqueness started to erode.
 COLLOCATIONS :
erode someone's credibility / morale / confidence
further erode something
B. VERB If the value of something erodes or is eroded
by something such as inflation or age, its value
decreases.
 Competition in the financial marketplace has
eroded profits.
 The value of the dollar began to erode rapidly just
around this time.
 COLLOCATIONS :
eroded by something
steadily / gradually / quickly / rapidly erode
erode profits
inflation / competition erodes something
a recession erodes something
ero | sion
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The erosion of a person's
authority, rights, or confidence is the gradual
destruction or removal of them.
 [+ of] the erosion of confidence in world financial
markets.
 [+of] the widespread erosion of civil liberties.
 [+of] the rapid erosion of privacy rights.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The erosion of support,
values, or money is a
…………………………………………………………………
204. er | ror
(errors)
NOUN An error is something you have done which is
considered to be incorrect or wrong, or which should not
have been done.
 [+ in] NASA discovered a mathematical error in its
calculation.
 [+of] MPs attacked lax management and errors of
judgment.
 the risk of making an error in testing a hypothesis.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an error in / of something
make / discover / correct an error
a spelling / factual / grammatical / clerical error
a basic / common / serious / grave / fatal error
an error occurs
 SYNONYM : mistake
…………………………………………………………………
190
189
205. es | tab | lish (establishes, establishing, established)
A. VERB If someone establishes something such as an
organization, a type of activity, or a set of rules, they
create it or introduce it in such a way that it is likely
to last for a long time.
 The U.N has established detailed criteria for who
should be allowed to vote.
 The School was established in 1989 by an Italian
professor.
 SYNONYM : found
B. VERB If you establish that something is true, you
discover facts that show that it is definitely true.
[FORMAL]
 [+that] Medical tests established that she was not
their own child.
 [+how] It will be essential to establish how the
money is being spent.
 An autopsy was being done to establish the cause
of death.
 COLLOCATIONS :
establish a link / relationship
firmly / quickly establish something
 SYNONYMS : ascertain, prove, confirm
es | tab | lish | ment
(establishments)
A. NOUN The establishment of an organization or
system is the act of creating it or beginning it.
[FORMAL]
 [+of] His ideas influenced the establishment of
National Portrait Galleries in London and Edinburgh.
 [+of] the establishment of diplomatic relations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the establishment of something
announce/support/propose/oppose the establishment
the establishment of a state
the establishment of relations
 SYNONYMS : creation, formation
B. NOUN An establishment is a shop, business, or
organization occupying a particular building or place.
[FORMAL]
 a scientific research establishment
 shops and other commercial establishments.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a political / medical / educational establishment
a literary / scientific / religious establishment
 SYNONYMS : office, building
…………………………………………………………………
206. estate / rstent
A. NOUN An estate is a large area of land in the country
which is owned by a person, family, or organization.
 a shooting party on Lord Wyville's estate in
Yorkshire.
B. In Britain, people sometimes use estate to refer to a
housing estate or an industrial estate.
 He used to live on the estate.
C. Someone's estate is all the money and property that
they leave behind them when they die; a legal use.
 His estate was valued at $ 150,000.
D. In British English, an estate is an estate car. The
American term is station wagon.
 COLLOCATIONS :
housing, industrial, real
…………………………………………………………………
192
191
207. es | ti | mate
(estimates, estimating, estimated)
A. VERB If you estimate a quantity or value, you make
an approximate judgment or calculation of it.
 [+that] The Academy of Sciences currently
estimates that there are approximately one million
plant varieties in the world.
 He estimated the speed of the winds from the
degree of damage.
 COLLOCATIONS :
estimate something at X
estimate cost / value / revenue
as estimated percentage / amount
originally / previously estimated
 SYNONYMS : judge, calculate
B. NOUN An estimate is an approximate calculation of a
quantity or value.
 [+of/for] the official estimate of the electrical
result.
 This figure is five times the original estimate.
 a conservative estimate based on previous findings.
 COLLOCATIONS :
base an estimate on something
estimates range / vary
a conservative / initial / official estimate
…………………………………………………………………
208. eth | ic
(ethics)
A. PLURAL NOUN Ethics are moral beliefs and rules
about right and wrong.
 Its members are bound by a rigid code of ethics
which includes confidentiality.
 Refugee workers said such action was a violation
of medical ethics.
 the corporate ethnics and social responsibility that
society expects of business.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the ethics of something
the ethics of journalism / genetics / war
medical / professional / corporate / journalistic
ethics
question / violate / embrace / instill ethics
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Ethics is the study of
questions about what is morally right and wrong.
 the teaching of ethics and moral philosophy.
 Lambert, an ethics professor at Wartburg College,
concurs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
study / teach ethics
an ethics professor / faculty / seminar
ethi | cal
A. ADJECTIVE Ethical means relating to beliefs about
right and wrong.
 the moral and ethical standards in the school.
 the medical, nursing and ethical issues
surrounding terminally-ill people
 Indeed, the use of placebos raises a whole range
of ethical dilemmas.
B. ADJECTIVE If you describe something as ethical,
you mean that it is morally right or morally
acceptable.
194
193
 ethical investment schemes
 [+to-inf] Does the party think it is ethical to link
tax policy with party fund-raising?
 the ethical treatment of wild animals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ethical standards / issues / implications
an ethical dilemma / obligation / code / principle
ethical behavior / conduct / treatment
 PHRASE : ethical and moral
…………………………………………………………………
209. eth | nic
ADJECTIVE Ethnic means connected with or relating to
difference racial or cultural groups of people.
 a survey of Britain's ethnic minorities.
 ethnic tensions
 COLLOCATIONS :
an ethnic minority / group / community
ethnic cleansing / conflict / violence / tensions
eth | nic | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Ethnicity is the state or fact of
belonging to a particular ethnic group.
 He said his ethnicity had not been important to him.
 a dozen boys of mixed ethnicity
…………………………………………………………………
210. evalu | ate
(evaluates, evaluating, evaluated)
VERB If you evaluate something or someone, you
consider them in order to make a judgment about them,
for example about how good or bad they are.
 They will first send in trained nurse to evaluate the
needs of the individual situation.
 The market situation is difficult to evaluate.
 [+how]we evaluate how well we do something.
 COLLOCATIONS :
evaluate a situation / impact / risk
evaluate the effectiveness of something
evaluate the performance of someone
carefully evaluate something
 SYNONYMS : assess, analyze
evalu | ation
(evaluations)
NOUN  [+of] the opinions and evaluations of college
supervisor
 Evaluation is standard practice for all training
arranged through the school.
 COLLOCATIONS :
evaluation of something
undergo / provide evaluation
performance / job / psychiatric / psychological
evaluation
thorough / careful / formal evaluation
evaluation process / team / system / report
 SYNONYMS : analysis, appraisal, assessment, review
evalu | ative
ADJECTIVE [FORMAL]  ten years of evaluative
research.
 The professor rightly states the need for longer-term
evaluative studies.
 COLLOCATION :evaluative criteria / procedure
…………………………………………………………………
196
195
211. even | tual
ADJECTIVE You use eventual to indicate that something
happens or is the case at the end of a process or period of
time.
 There are many who believe that civil war will be the
eventual outcome of the racial tension in the country.
 The eventual aim is reunification.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the eventual winner / champion / outcome
 SYNONYMS : ultimate, final
even | tual
A. Eventual means in the end, especially after a lot of
delays, problems, or arguments.
 Eventually, the army caught up with him in Latvia.
 The flight eventually got away six hours late.
 SYNONYM : finally
B. ADVERB Eventually means at the end of a situation
or process or as the final result of it.
 Dehydration eventually leads to death.
 researchers who hope eventually to create insulinproducing cells.
 SYNONYM : ultimately
…………………………………………………………………
212. evident
A. ADJECTIVE If something is evident, you notice it
easily and clearly.
 His footprints were clearly evident in the heavy
dust.
 The threat of inflation is already evident in bond
prices.
 the best-publicised cases of evident injustice.
B. You use evident to emphasize your certainly about a
situation or fact and your interpretation of it.
 It was evident that she had once been a beauty.
 The cities are bombarded day after day in an
evident effort to force their surrender.
evidently
A. You use evidently to say that something is obviously
true, for example because you have seen evidence of
it yourself.
 The man wore a bathrobe and had evidently just
come from the bathroom.
 The two Russians evidently knew each other.
B. You use evidently to show that you think something
is true or have been told something is true, but that
you are not sure, because you do not have enough
information or proof.
 From childhood, he was evidently at once
rebellious and precocious.
 Ellis evidently wished to negotiate downwards
after Atkinson had set the guidelines.
C. You can use evidently to introduce a statement or
opinion and to emphasize that you feel that it is true
or correct, a formal use.
 Quite evidently, it has nothing to do with social
background.
evi | dence
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Evidence is anything that you
see, experience, read, or are told that causes you to
believe that something is true or has really happened.
198
197
.
 [+of/for] a report on the scientific evidence for global
warming.
 [+that] There is a lot of evidence that stress is partly
responsible for disease.
 [+to-inf] To date there is no evidence to support this
theory.
 COLLOCATIONS :
evidence of / for something
find / gather / collect evidence
present / produce evidence
evidence suggests / shows
clear / strong /conclusive evidence
scientific / medical / circumstantial evidence
 PHRASE : evidence to support something
 SYNONYMS : proof, support
…………………………………………………………………
213. evolve
(evolves, evolving, evolved)
A. VERB When animals or plants evolve, they gradually
change and develop into different forms.
 The bright plumage of many male birds has
evolved to attract females.
 [+from] Maize evolved from a wild grass in
Mexico.
 [+into] when amphibians evolved into reptiles.
B. VERB If something evolves or you evolved it, it
gradually develops over a period of time into
something different and usually more advanced.
 [+into] a tiny airline which eventually evolved into
Pakistan International Airlines.
 [+from] Popular music evolved from folk songs.
 As medical knowledge evolves, beliefs change.
 COLLOCATIONS :
evolve from / into something
evolve over time
culture / language / society / technology evolves
humans / organisms / species evolve
rapidly / constantly / gradually / slowly evolve
 SYNONYM : develop, adapt
evo | lu | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the evaluation of
plants and animals
 the theory of evolution by natural selection.
 [+of] a crucial period in the evolution of modern
physics.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the evolution of something
human / natural / biological evolution
evolution theory
 PHRASE : evolution by natural selection
 SYNONYM : development
…………………………………………………………………
214. ex | ceed
(exceeds, exceeding, exceeded)
VERB If something exceeds a particular amount or
number, it is greater or larger than that amount or
number. [FORMAL]
 Its research budget exceeds $700 million a year.
 The demand for places at some school exceeds the
supply.
 His performance exceeded all expectations.
200
199
 COLLOCATIONS :
exceed a limit / expectation / target / supply
far / greatly / easily exceed something
 SYNONYM : surpass
ex | cess
(excesses)
A. NOUN An excess of something is a larger amount
than is needed, allowed, or usual.
 Large doses of vitamin C are not toxic, since the
body will excrete any excess.
 COLLOCATION :an excess of something
 SYNONYMS : surfeit, surplus
 ANTONYM : deficiency
B. PHRASE In excess of means more than a particular
amount. [FROMAL]
 Avoid deposits in excess of £ 20,000 in any one
account.
 The energy value of dried fruits is considerably in
excess of that of fresh items.
excessive consumption / drinking / use / intake
excessive noise / speed / heat / force
 PHRASE
: excessive and disproportionate
 SYNONYMS : inordinate, undue, exorbitant
 ANTONYM : insufficient
ex | ces | sive | ly
ADVERB  Managers are also occused of paying
themselves excessively high salaries.
 Some people will resort to smoking excessively, some
turn to alcohol.
 COLLOCATIONS :
excessively generous / cautions / violent
drink / exercise / worry excessively
…………………………………………………………………
215. ex | clude
(excludes, excluding, excluded)
VERB If you exclude something that has some
connection with what you are doing, you deliberately do
not use it or consider it.
ex | ces | sive
ADJECTIVE If you describe the amount or level of
something as excessive, you disapprove of its because it
is more or higher than is necessary or reasonable.
 the alleged use of excessive force by police.
 The government says that local authority spending is
excessive.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an excessive punishment / sentence / fine
manifestly / grossly excessive
 [+from] They eat only plant foods, and take care to
exclude animal products from other areas of their lives.
 In some schools, Christmas carols are being modified
to exclude any reference to Christ.
 COLLOCATIONS :
exclude something from something
deliberately / unfairly / temporarily exclude
 SYNONYMS : omit, reject
 ANTONYM : include
202
201
ex | clud | ing
PREPOSITION You use excluding before mentioning a
person or thing to show that you are not including them
in your statement.
 The families questioned, excluding those on income
support, have a net income £ 200.20 a week.
 Excluding water, half of the body's eight it protein.
 SYNONYMS : except, without
 ANTONYM : including
ex | clu | sion
(exclusions)
NOUN The exclusion of something is the act of
deliberately not using allowing, or considering it.
 [+of] It calls for the exclusion of all commercial
lending institutions from the college loan program.
 Certain exclusion and limitations apply.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the exclusion of someone / something
exclusion from something
social exclusion
permanent / temporary / automatic exclusion
an exclusion zone / order / clause / unit
 SYNONYM : ban
 ANTONYM : inclusion
…………………………………………………………………
216. ex | hib | it
(exhibits, exhibiting, exhibited)
VERB If someone or something shows a particular
quality, feeling, or type of behavior, you can say that
they exhibit it. [FORMAL]
 He has exhibited symptoms of anxiety and
overwhelming worry.
 Two cats or more in one house will also exhibit
territorial behavior.
 The economy continued to exhibit signs of decline in
September.
 COLLOCATIONS :
exhibit behavior / signs / symptoms
exhibit characteristics / similarities / variation
typically / commonly exhibit something
 SYNONYM : show
…………………………………………………………………
217. ex | pand
(expands, expanding, expanded)
A. VERB If something expands or is expanded, it
becomes larger.
 Engineers noticed that the pipes were not
expanding as expected.
 The money supply expanded by 14.6 per cent in the
year to September.
 [V-ing] a rapidly expanding universe.
B. VERB If something such as a business, organization,
or service expands, or if you expand it, it becomes
bigger and includes more people, goods, or activities.
 The popular ceramics industry expanded towards
the middle of the 19th century.
 Health officials are proposing to expand their
services by organizing counselling.
 COLLOCATIONS :
expanded by an amount
an expanding universe / economy / population
expand capacity / coverage / production
expand the scope / range of something
expand rapidly / dramatically
 SYNONYMS : increase, grow, enlarge, develop
 ANTONYM : contract, shrink
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203
expand on / upon
PHRASAL VERB If you expand on or expand upon
something, you give more information or details about it
when you write or talk about it.
 He used today's speech to expand on remarks he made
last month.
 a view that I will expand upon below.
 COLLOCATION :expand on a theme / point / view
 SYNONYMS : elaborate on, develop, enlarge on
ex | pan | sion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Expansion is the process of
becoming greater in size, number or amount.
 [+of] the rapid expansion of private health insurance.
 a new period of economic expansion.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the expansion of something
rapid / further / future expansion
economic / global / major expansion
an expansion plan / programme / project / team
 SYNONYMS : growth, spread, increase, development
 ANTONYM : contraction
…………………………………………………………………
218. ex | pert
NOUN An expert is a person who is very skilled at doing
something or who knows a lot about a particular subject.
 Health experts warn that the issue is a global
problem.
 [+on] He is an expert on trade in that area.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an expert in / on something
a leading / acknowledged expert
a legal / medical / health / security expert
experts warn / predict / say
 SYNONYM : specialist
…………………………………………………………………
219. ex | plic | it
ADJECTIVE Something that is explicit is expressed or
shown clearly and openly, without any attempt to hide
anything.
 sexually explicit scenes in films and books.
 explicit references to age in recruitment advertising.
 The FBI's instructions were explicit.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an explicit reference/ instruction/ photograph/ scene
explicit material / content
sexually / verbally explicit
 SYNONYM : overt
 ANTONYM : implicit
ex | plic | it | ly
ADVERB  The play was the first commercially
successful work dealing explicitly with homosexuality.
 Their intention is not to become involved in explicitly
political activities.
 COLLOCATIONS :
explicitly political / sexual
mention / state / express something explicitly
explicitly authorize / forbid something
 SYNONYM : overtly
 ANTONYM : implicitly
…………………………………………………………………
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220. ex | ploit
(exploits, exploiting, exploited)
A. VERB If you say that someone is exploiting you, you
think that they are treating you unfairly by using your
work or ideas and giving you very little in return.
 Critics claim he exploited black musicians for
person gain.
 exploited workers.
B. VERB If you exploit something, you use it well, and
achieve something or gain an advantage from it.
 Cary is hoping to exploit new opportunities in
Europe.
 So you feel that your skills have never been fully
appreciated or exploited ?
 COLLOCATIONS :
exploit a loophole / opportunity / resource
commercially / successfully exploit something
 SYNONYM : use
ex | ploi | ta | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  Extra payment should be
made to protect the interests of the staff and prevent
exploitation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the exploitation of someone / something
the exploitation of resources / land / knowledge
the exploitation of children / women / animals
prevent / combat exploitation
sexual / commercial exploitation
resource / oil / mineral exploitation
 SYNONYM : use
…………………………………………………………………
221. ex | port
(exports, exporting, exported)
A. VERB To export products or raw materials means to
sell them to another country.
 The nation also exports beef.
 [+to] They expect the antibiotic products to be
exported to Southeast Asia and Africa.
 To earn foreign exchange we must export.
 COLLOCATIONS :
export something to somewhere
export something worldwide / overseas
export oil / goods / products
 ANTONYM : import
B. NOUN Exports are goods which are sold to another
country and sent there.
 He did this to promote American exports.
 Ghana's main export is cocoa.
 COLLOCATIONS :
exports of something
exports of goods / products / commodities
halt / boost / ban / increase exports
exports rise / fall / grow
cheap / expensive / illegal exports
total / net exports
oil / arms / agricultural / live exports
the export market / trade
 ANTONYM : import
ex | porta | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [mainly AM]  an asymmetry
between positive and negative exportation.
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207
 COLLOCATION :
agricultural / industrial exportation
 ANTONYM : importation
…………………………………………………………………
222. ex | pose
(exposees, exposing, exposed)
A. VERB To expose something that is usually hidden
means to uncover it so that it can be seen.
 Lowered sea levels exposed the shallow continental
shelf beneath the Bering Sea.
 a wall with exposed wiring
 COLLOCATIONS :
exposed flesh / skin
an exposed wall / surface
 SYNONYMS : uncover, reveal, diclose
 ANTONYMS : cover, hide
B. VERB If someone is exposed to something dangerous
or unpleasant, they are put in a situation in which it
might affect them.
 [+to] They had not been exposed to most diseases
common to urban population.
 [+to] people exposed to high levels of radiation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
expose someone to something
exposed to sun / radiation / heat / X-rays
 SYNONYM : subject
 [+to] Exposure to lead is known to damage the brains
of young children.
 [+to] the potential exposure of people to nuclear
waste.
 COLLOCATIONS :
exposure to something
sun / radiation / asbestos exposure
risk / limit / reduce / increase / measure / cause
exposure
prolonged / repeated / excessive / constant exposure
low-level / minimal / accidental exposure
 SYNONYMS : subjection, contact, experience
…………………………………………………………………
223. ex | ter | nal
ADJECTIVE External is used to indicate that something
is on the outside of a surface or body, or that it exists,
happens, or comes from outside.
 a much reduced heat loss through external walls.
 internal and external allergic reactions.
 COLLOCATION :
external factors / affairs/ stimuli / influences
 SYNONYM : outside
 ANTONYM : internal
ex | ter | nal | ly
ADVERB  Vitamins can be applied externally to the
ex | po | sure
Exposure to something
dangerous means being in a situation where it might
affect you.
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
skin.
 COLLOCATION : apply / use something externally
 ANTONYM : internally
…………………………………………………………………
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209
224. ex | tract
(extracts)
NOUN An extract from a book or piece of wiring is a
small part of it that is printed or published separately.
 [+from] Read this extract from an information
booklet about the work of an airline cabin crew.
 [+from] The orchestra played extracts from
Beethoven and Brahms.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an extract from something
an extract from a book / letter / speech
edited / exclusive / brief extracts
 SYNONYMS : excerpt, passage
ex | tract
(extracts , extracting, extracted)
VERB To extract a substance means to obtain it from
something else, for example by using industrial or
chemical processes.
 the traditional method of pick and shovel to extract
coal.
 [+ from] Citric acid can be extracted from the juice of
orange, lemons, limes or grapefruit.
 looking at the differences in the extracted DNA.
 COLLOCATIONS :
extract something from something
extract something from a plant / embryo
extract minerals / hydrogen / plutonium / DNA
ex | trac | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] Petroleum engineers
plan and manage the extraction of oil.
 Several mineral extraction companies operate on the
lake.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the extractio1n of something
the extraction of oil
peat / mineral / DNA extraction
…………………………………………………………………
F
225. fa | cili | tate
VERB To facilitate an action or process, especially one
that you would like to happen, means to make it easier or
more likely to happen.
 The new airport will facilitate the development of
tourism.
 He argued that the economic recovery had been
facilitated by his tough stance.
 the facilitated diffusion of glucose in red blood cells.
 COLLOCATIONS :
facilitated by something
facilitate communication / interaction / dialogue
facilitate cooperation / integration / access
greatly facilitate
 SYNONYM : assist, aid
…………………………………………………………………
226. fa | tor
(factors)
NOUN A factor is one of the things that affects an event,
decision, or situation.
 [+in] Physical activity is an important factor in
maintaining fitness.
 The relatively cheap price of food may be a
contributing factor to the increasing number of
overweight people.
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211
 COLLOCATIONS :
a factor in something
a key / important / major / significant factor
a deciding / determining / underlying factor
a contributing / complicating factor
environmental / economic / genetic factors
 SYNONYMS : element, point
…………………………………………………………………
227. fea | ture
(features)
NOUN A features of something is an interesting or
important part or characteristic of it.
 [+of] The key feature of terrorists is their total
disregard for the lives of innocent civilians.
 Italian democracy's unique feature is that government
has not alternated between two parties.
 The ships have built-in safety features including
specially-strengthened hulls.
 Five of the six provinces are to become
autonomous regions in a new federal system of
government.
 Czechoslovakia would remain a federal state.
B. ADJECTIVE Federal also means belonging or
relating to the national government of a federal
country rather than to one of the states within it.
 The federal government controls just 6 % of the
education budge.
 A federal judge ruled in her favour.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a feature of something
a key / important / central feature
a special / unique / striking / distinctive /
distinguishing feature
a safety / security / design feature
 SYNONYMS : characteristic, quality
…………………………………………………………………
fed | era | tion
228. fed | er | al
A. ADJECTIVE A federal country or system of
government is one in which the different states or
provinces of the country have important powers to
make their own laws and decisions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a federal system / state
a federal agency / authority /election
a federal court / judge / prosecutor / official
federal government / law / tax / funds / budget
 RELATED WORD : provincial
(federations)
A. NOUN A federation is a federal country.
 the Russian Federation.
 in what remains of the Yugoslav federation.
B. NOUN A federation is a group of societies or other
organizations which have joined together, usually
because they share a common interest.
 the British Athletic Federation.
 [+of] The organization emerged from a federation
of six national agencies.
 COLLOCATION :a federation of something
 SYNONYM : association
…………………………………………………………………
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213
229. fee
(fees)
A. NOUN A fee is an amount of money that you pay to
be allowed to do something.
 He hadn't paid his television licence fee.
 [+of] Expect to pay an entrance fee of 50-60 euros
per head.
B. NOUN A fee is the amount of money that a person or
organization is paid for a particular job or service that
they provide.
 Find out how much your surveyor's and solicitor's
fees will be.
 the legal fees amounted to almost £ 12 million.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a fee of £X
charge / pay a fee
a monthly / annual fee
a high / low / small / nominal / flat fee
a membership / entrance / licence fee
legal/ tuition/ management / school / university fees
 SYNONYM : charge
…………………………………………………………………
230. file
(files)
NOUN In computing, a file is a set of related data that
has its own name.
 Now that you have loaded Word Perfect, it's easy to
create a file.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a computer / digital file
a video / music / audio / image / text file
a zip / MP3 / PDF file
create / open / delete a file
send / share / store / retrieve a file
file format / size / sharing
 RELATE WORD : folder
…………………………………………………………………
231. fi | nal
ADJECTIVE In a series of events, things, or people, the
final one is the last one.
 This was the final stage in the process.
 The third and final day of the conference was
different.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the final round / stage / phase / session
the final attempt
the final day / year / minute
 PHRASE : the third / fifth etc. and final
 SYNONYM : last
 ANTONYM : first
fi | nal | ly
A. ADVERB You are finally to indicate that something is
last in a series of actions or events.
 The action slips from comedy to melodrama and
finally to tragedy.
 SYNONYM : lastly
 ANTONYM : firstly
B. ADVERB You use finally in speech or writing to
introduce a final point, question, or topic.
 Finally, and perhaps most importantly, Project
Challenge has raised awareness of the issue.
 SYNONYMS : in conclusion, lastly
 ANTONYM : firstly
…………………………………………………………………
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215
232. fi | nance
233. fi | nite
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Finance is the management of
ADJECTIVE Something that is finite has a definite fixed
money.
 the principles of corporate finance.
 We looked at three common problems in international
finance.
 A former Finance Minister and five senior civil
servants are accused of fraud.
size or extent. [FORMAL]
 Only a finite number of situations can arise.
 Coal and oil are finite resources.
 COLLOCATIONS :
corporate / personal / public / international finance
a finance minister / director / committee /
department
 PHRASES :
banking and finance
finance and economic
fi | nan | cial
ADJECTIVE Financial means relating to or involving
money.
 The company is in financial difficulties.
 There has been an improvement in the company's
financial position.
 the government's financial advisers.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a financial crisis
financial difficulties / problems
financial help / aid / assistance / performance
a financial institution / adviser / officer
someone's financial position
 SYNONYMS : monetary, economic
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATION :
a finite resource / number / period / amount / set
 SYNONYM : limited
 ANTONYM : infinite
…………………………………………………………………
234. flex | ible
A. ADJECTIVE A flexible object or material can be bent
easily without breaking.
 brushes with long, flexible bristles.
 air is pumped through a flexible tube.
 SYNONYM : pliable
 ANTONYM : inflexible, rigid
B. ADJECTVE Something or someone that is flexible is
able to change easily and adapt to different conditions
and circumstances.
 more flexible arrangements to allow access to
services after normal working hours.
 We encourage flexible working.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a flexible approach / system / arrangement
flexible working / working hours
a flexible rate / market
 SYNONYM : adaptable
 ANTONYM : inflexible
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217
flexi | bil | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] The flexibility of
distance learning would be particularly suited to busy
managers.
 [+of] The flexibility of the lens decreases with age.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the flexibility of something
offer / provide / increase / show flexibility
 SYNONYM : adaptability
 ANTONYM : inflexibility
…………………………………………………………………
235. fluc | tu | ate
(fluctuates, fluctuating, fluctuated)
VERB If something fluctuates, it changes a lot in an
irregular way.
 The temperature fluctuates very little between daytime
and night-time.
 Share prices have fluctuated wildly in recent weeks.
 [V-ing] the fluctuating price of oil.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a price / rate / value fluctuates
the temperature / weight fluctuates
fluctuate wildly / significantly
fluc | tua | tion
(fluctuations)
NOUN  [+in] Much of the seasonal fluctuation in
death rates was caused by cold, the researchers
concluded.
 [+in] daily fluctuations in core body temperature.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a fluctuation in something
a currency / price / market fluctuation
a short-term / seasonal fluctuation
…………………………………………………………………
236. fo | cus
(foci, focuses, focusing, focused)
A. VERB If you focus on a particular topic or if your
attention is focused on it, you concentrate on it and
think about it, discuss it, or deal with it, rather than
dealing with other topic.
 [+on] The research effort has focused on tracing
the effects of growing levels of five compounds.
 [+on] He is currently focusing on assessment and
development.
 [+on] The company decide to focus exclusively on
the home market.
 COLLOCATIONS :
focus on something
focus exclusively / solely / entirely on something
focus mainly / heavily / largely on something
 SYNONYM : concentrate
B. NOUN The focus of something is the main topic or
main thing that it is concerned with.
 [+of] The U.N's role in promoting peace is
increasing the focus of international attention.
 [+of] The ethnic problem in the country is crucial
but it is not the primary focus of the negotiations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the focus of something
the main / primary / central focus
…………………………………………………………………
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219
237. for | mat
(formats)
NOUN The format of something is the way or order in
which it is arranged and presented.
 [+of] He explained the new format and policy of the
paper.
 music available in a digital format.
 [+of] You all know the format of the show.
 a large format book.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the format of something
in a format
a different / traditional / digital / electronic / online
format
 SYNONYMS : style, form
…………………………………………………………………
238. for | mu | la
(formulae or formulas)
A. NOUN A formula is a group letters, numbers, or other
symbols which represents a scientific or mathematical
rule.
 He developed a mathematical formula describing
the distances of the planets from the Sun.
 using a standard scientific formula.
 COLLOCATIONS :
develop a formula
a mathematical / scientific formula
B. NOUN In science, the formula for a substance is a list
of the amount of various substances which make up
that substance, or an indication of the atoms that it is
composed of.
 Water's chemical formula is H2O.
 [+for] NO is the formula for nitric oxide.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the formula for something
the chemical formula
…………………………………………………………………
239. forth | com | ing
ADJECTIVE A forthcoming event is planned to happen
soon.
 his opponents in the forthcoming elections.
 the forthcoming meeting, scheduled for January 19.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a forthcoming election / meeting / event / marriage
a forthcoming album / book / tour / film
 SYNONYM : impending
…………………………………………………………………
240. found
(founds, founding, founded)
VERB When an institution, company, or organization is
founded by someone or by a group of people, they get it
started, often by providing the necessary money.
 The Independent Labour Party was founded in 1893.
 He founded the Centre for Journalism Studies at
University College Cardiff.
 The business founded by Dawn and Nigel, suffered
financial setbacks.
 COLLOCATIONS :
founded by someone
founded in a year
found a company / charity / organization / institute
 SYNONYMS : set up, establish
…………………………………………………………………
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221
241. foun | da | tion
.
(foundations)
A. NOUN The foundation of something such as a belief
or way of life is the things on which it is based.
 [+of] The issue strikes at the very foundation of
our community.
 [+for] This laid the foundations for later modern
economic growth.
 COLLOCATION : the foundation of / for something
 PHRASES :
lay the foundations for something
shake the foundations of something
strike at the foundation of something
 SYNONYM : basis
B. NOUN A foundation is an organization which
provides money for a special purpose such as research
or charity.
 [+for] the National Foundation for Educational
Research.
 her response was to set about creating a charitable
foundation.
NOUN  [+of] the 150th anniversary of the
foundation of Kew Gardens.
 [+of] With the foundation of the NHS there was a
move away from traditional medicines towards
synthetic ones.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the foundation of something
the foundation an institution / organization
a charitable foundation
 SYNONYMS : organization, institute, society
…………………………………………………………………
242. frame | work
(frameworks)
NOUN A framework is a particular set of rules, ideas or
beliefs which you use in order to deal with problems or
to decide what to do.
 [+for] The purpose of the chapter is to provide a
framework for thinking about why exchange rates
change.
 Doctors need a clear legal framework to be able to
deal with difficult clinical decisions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
within a framework
a framework of / for something
agree / develop / establish / set a framework
a legal/ regulatory / legislative / political framework
a conceptual / theoretical framework
…………………………………………………………………
243. func | tion
(functions, functioning, functioned)
A. NOUN The function of something or someone is the
useful thing that they do or are intended to do.
 This enzyme serves various functions.
 [+of] The main function of the merchant banks is
to raise capital for industry.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the function of something / someone
perform / serve a function
the primary function
a basic / important / useful function
 SYNONYMS : purpose, role
B. VERB If a machine or system is functioning, it is
working or operating.
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223
 The authorities say the prison is now functioning
normally.
 Conservation programs cannot function without
local support.
 COLLOCATIONS :
function effectively / efficiently / smoothly
barely function
 SYNONYMS : operate, work
func | tion | al
ADJECTIVE Functional means relating to the way in
which something works or operates, or relating to how
useful it is.
 Every new employee starts with a fully functional
workspace and a full day of training in desktop tools.
 SYNONYM : operational
…………………………………………………………………
244. fund
(funds, funding, funded)
A. PLURAL NOUN Funds are amounts of money that
are available to be spent, especially money that is
given to an organization or person for a particular
purpose.
 [+for] The concert will raise funds for research
into Aids.
 Funds are allocated according to regional needs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
funds for something
raise/ use / receive / provide / allocate / invest funds
public / federal / government / private funds
 SYNONYM : money, finances
B. VERB When a person or organization funds
something, they provide money for it.
 The Bush Foundation has funded a variety of
faculty development programs.
 The airport is being privately funded by a
construction group.
 a new privately funded scheme.
 COLLOCATIONS :
funded by someone
publiclly / privately / federally funded
largely / adequately / partly / jointly funded
 SYNONYM : finance
fund | ing
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Funding is money which a
government or organization provides for a particular
purpose.
 [+ for] They hope for government funding for the
scheme.
 Many colleges have seen their funding cut.
 COLLOCATIONS :
funding for something
seek / apply for / receive / secure funding
provide / increase / cut / boost funding
government / council / federal / public funding
research / education / arts funding
a funding cut / gap / shortfall / crisis
 SYNONYMS : money, finance
…………………………………………………………………
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225
245. fun | da | men | tal
ADJECTIVE You use fundamental to describe things,
activities, and principles that are very important, basic, or
essential.
 Our constitution embodies all the fundamental
principles of democracy.
 The fundamental problem lies in their inability to
distinguish between reality and invention.
 But on this question, the two leaders have very
fundamental differences.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a fundamental principle / value / right
a fundamental change / shift / difference
a fundamental problem / question / issue / flaw
 SYNONYM : basic
fun | da | men | tal | ly
ADVERB  He disagree fundamentally with the
President's judgment.  Environmentalists say the treaty
is fundamentally flawed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
fundamentally different / flawed / wrong / unfair
fundamentally change / alter / oppose something
fundamentally disagree
 SYNONYM : profuondly
…………………………………………………………………
246. further | more
ADVERB Furthermore is used to introduce a piece of
information of opinion that adds to or supports the
previous one. [FORMAL]
 Furthermore, they claim that any such interference is
completely ineffective.
 furthermore, even a well-timed therapy intervention
may fail.
 SYNONYMS : moreover, in addition
…………………………………………………………………
G
247. gen | der
(genders)
NOUN A person's gender is the fact that they are male or
female.
 Women are sometimes denied opportunities solely
because of their gender.
 groups that are traditionally discriminated against on
ground of gender, colour, race, or age.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the opposite gender
gender roles / stereotypes / differences
gender equality / inequality
the gender gap
 PHRASES :
race and gender
age and gender
class and gender
 SYNONYM : sex
…………………………………………………………………
248. gen | er | ate
(generates, generating, generated)
A. VERB To generate something means to cause it to
begin and develop.
 The Employment Minister said the reforms would
generate new jobs.
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 the excitement generated by the changes in Eastern
Europe.
 COLLOCATIONS :
generated by something
generate excitement / publicity / controversy /
enthusiasm
generate wealth / income / profit
 SYNONYMS : create, cause
B. VERB To generate a form of energy or power means
to produce it.
 The company, New England Electric, burns coal to
generate power.
 COLLOCATION :
generate electricity / energy / heat / power
 SYNONYM : produce
gen | era | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Generation is the production
of a form of energy or power from fuel or another source
of power such as water.
 Japan has announced plans for a sharp rise in its
nuclear power generation.
 COLLOCATION :
power / heat / electricity generation
 SYNONYMS : production
…………………………………………………………………
249. gen | era | tion
(generations)
NOUN A generation is all the people in a group or
country who are of a similar age.
 the problems of previous generations.
 David Mamet has long been considered the leading
American playwright his generation.
 [+of] future generations of schoolchildren.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a generation of something
the younger / older generation
the current/ previous/ next / new / future generation
our parent's / grandparent's generation
…………………………………………………………………
250. globe
(globes)
A. NOUN You can refer to the world as the globe when
you are emphasizing how big it is or that something
happens in many different parts of it.
 anticapitalism protests spanning the globe from
Seattle to Genoa.
 70% of our globe's surface is water.
 COLLOCATIONS :
across / around the globe
traverse / travel / tour / span the globe
the globe's surface / climate / population
 PHRASE : every corner of the globe
 SYNONYMS : planet, earth, world
B. NOUN Any ball-shaped object can be referred to as a
globe.
 The overhead light was covered now with a white
globe.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a crystal / glass / copper / bronze globe
a green / yellow / spherical / giant globe
 SYNONYM : sphere
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glob | al
ADJECTIVE You can use global to describe something
that happens in all parts of the world or affects all parts
of the world.
 a global ban on nuclear testing.
 On a global scale, AIDS may well become the leading
cause of infant death.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a global scale / reach
a global recession / downturn / recovery
a global brand / trend
the global economy / marketplace
global trade/ growth/ capitalism/ poverty/ terrorism
increasingly global
 PHRASE : global warming
 SYNONYMS : worldwide, international
 ANTONYM : local
glob | al | ly
ADVERB  a globally familiar trade name.
 Indian companies that complete globally.
 COLLOCATIONS :
export / trade / operate / compete globally
globally significant / famous / successful / familiar
 SYNONYMS : worldwide, internationally
glob | ali | za | tion
Globalization is the
standardization or growth of something around the
world, for example a trade or industry.
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
 [+of] The globalization of industry has affected food
production in California.
 a period of rapid economic globalization.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a globalization of something
the globalization of economy / trade / industry
rapid / increasing globalization
economic / corporate globalization
…………………………………………………………………
251. goal
(goals)
NOUN Something that is your goal is something that you
hope to achieve, especially when much time and effort
will be needed.
 Be realistic and set goals that are within reach.
 Their goals are ambitious : to nearly double federal
money for Down syndrome research.
 [+of] the Nationalist goal of independence.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the goal of something
set / accomplish / achieve / reach a goal
the ultimate / main / key / state goal
an achievable / ambitious / unrealistic goal
 SYNONYMS : aim, objective, ambition
…………………………………………………………………
252. grade
(grades, grading, graded)
A. VERB If something is graded, its quality is judged,
and it is often given a number or a name that indicates
how good or bad it is.
 Dust masks are graded according to the protection
they offer.
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 South Point College does not grade the students'
work.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a grading system / structure
grade an exam / exercise / assignment
 SYNONYMS : mark, categorize
B. NOUN Your grade in an examination or piece of
written work is the mark you get, usually the form of
a letter or number, that indicates your level of
achievement.
 Results show a 0.8 percentage point increase in
candidates achieving a grade A.
 COLLOCATIONS :
get / obtain / attain / achieve a grade
a good / high / low grade
A-Level / GCSE / university / exam grades
grade A/ B/ C
 SYNONYMS : mark , score
…………………………………………………………………
253. grant
(grants, granting, granted)
A. NOUN A grant is an amount of money that a
government or other institution gives to an individual
or to an organization for a particular purpose such as
education or home improvements.
 [+to-inf] They'd got a special grant to encourage
research.
 Unfortunately, my application for a grant was
rejected.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a grant for something
a grant of X
award / receive / obtain / provide a grant
a federal / means-tested / annual / lottery / research
grant
a grant application / recipient
grant money
B. VERB If someone in authority grants you something,
or if something is granted to you, you are allowed to
have it. [FORMAL]
 France has agreed to grant him political asylum.
 [+to] It was a Labour government which granted
independence to India and Pakistan.
 Permission was granted a few weeks ago.
 COLLOCATIONS :
be granted to something
grant permission / approval / asylum / access / bail
grant a request / licence / visa / pardon
a judge / court grants something
 SYNONYMS : give, allow, award
 ANTONYM
: refuse
…………………………………………………………………
254. guar | an | tee
(guarantees, guaranteeing,
guaranteed)
A. VERB If one thing guarantees another, the first is
certain to cause the second thing to happen.
 Surplus resources alone do not guarantee growth.
 [+that] one of the few ways to virtually guarantee
that a fraudster cannot open an account in your
name.
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B. VERB If you guarantee something, you promise that
255. guide | one
(guidelines)
it will definitely happen, or that you will do or
NOUN Guidelines on something are rules or advice about
provide it for someone.
how to do it.
 Most states guarantee the right to free and
 [+on] The government should issue clear guidelines
adequate education.
on the content of religious education.

All
students
are
guaranteed
campus
accommodation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
 [+for] The accord also lays down guidelines for the
conduct of American drug enforcement agents.
 COLLOCATIONS :
guarantee freedom / security / rights / access
guidelines on / for something
guarantee safety / success / satisfaction
issue / establish / set / propose guidelines
guarantee a return / income
follow / violate / breach guidelines
virtually / almost guarantee
ethical / dietary / clinical / safety / sentencing
 SYNONYMS : ensure, promise
guidelines
C. NOUN A guarantee is a promise that something will
strict / stringent / general / voluntary guidelines
definitely happen or that you will do or provide it.
 [+that] The Editor can give no guarantee that they
will fulfill their obligations.
 SYNONYMS :
rule, procedure, recommendation, principle
…………………………………………………………………
 [+of] California's state Constitution includes a
H
guarantee of privacy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a guarantee of something
a guarantee of freedom / success / safety / quality
a written / constitutional / cast-iron guarantee
256. hence
ADVERB You use hence to indicate that the statement
you are about to make is a consequence of what you have
just said. [FORMAL]
seek / require a guarantee
 The trade imbalance is likely to rise again in 1990.
supply / offer / provide / obtain / secure a guarantee
Hence a new set of policy actions will be required soon.
 SYNONYMS : promise, pledge
…………………………………………………………………
 European music happens to use a scale of eight notes,
hence the use of the term octave.
…………………………………………………………………
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257. hi | er | ar | chy
(hierarchies)
NOUN A hierarchy is a system of organizing people
into different ranks or levels of importance, for example
in society or in a company.
 Like most other American companies with a rigid
hierarchy, workers and managers had strictly defined
duties.
 She rose up the Tory hierarchy by the local
government route.
 Even in the desert there was a kind of social
hierarchy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ascend / establish / create a hierarchy
a social / Catholic / rigid / strict hierarchy
a church / party / corporate hierarchy
hi | er | ar | chi | cal
ADJECTIVE A hierarchical system or organization is
one in which people have different ranks or positions,
depending on how important they are
 the traditional hierarchical system of military
organization.
 a rigidly hierarchical command structure.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a hierarchical structure / organization / society /
relationship
rigidly / strictly hierarchical
…………………………………………………………………
258. high | light
(highlights, highlighting, highlighted)
VERB If someone or something highlights a point or
problem, they emphasize it or make you think about it.
 This incident highlights the care needed when
disposing of unwanted plants.
 Once again, the 'Free Press' prefers not to highlight
these facts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
highlight the importance / need / danger / lack of
something
a report / survey / incident highlights something
clearly / dramatically highlighted
 SYNONYMS :
emphasize, draw attention to, illustrate, expose
…………………………………………………………………
259. hy | poth | esis
(hypotheses)
NOUN A hypothesis is an icea which is suggested as a
possible explanation for a particular situation or
condition, but which has not yet been proved to be
correct. [FORMAL]
 Work will now begin to test the hypothesis in rats.
 Different hypotheses have been put forward to explain
why these foods are more likely to cause problems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a null / testable / scientific / statistical / reasonable
hypothesis
predict/ propose/ suggest / put forward a hypothesis
 SYNONYMS : theory , proposal
hy | poth | esize
(hypothesizes, hypothesizing,
hypothesized)
VERB If you hypothesize that something will happen,
you say that you think that thing will happen because of
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237
various facts you have considered. [FORMAL: in BRIT,
also use hypothesie]
 [+ that] To explain this, they hypothesize that
galaxies must contain a great deal of missing matter
which cannot be detected.
 Hypothesizing other time dimensions does not in
practice progress our understanding of precognition.
 COLLOCATIONS : a researcher / scientist
hypothesizes something
hypo | theti | cal
ADJECTIVE If something is hypothetical, it is based
on possible ideas or situation rather than actual ones.
 Candidates are required to describe what they would
do in a variety of hypothetical situations.
 a purely hypothetical question.
 COLLOCATIONS :
purely / entirely / strictly hypothetical
a hypothetical situation / scenario / example /
question / dilemma
 SYNONYM : theoretical
hypo | theti | cal | ly
ADVERB  He was invariably willing to discuss the
possibilities hypothetically.
 It bases its figures on what it might, hypothetically, be
earning on past investment.
 PHRASE : hypothetically speaking
 SYNONYM : theoretically
…………………………………………………………………
I
260. iden | ti | cal
ADJECTIVE Things that are identical are exactly the
same.
 [+to] The new buildings look identical to those built
200 years ago.
 The two parties fought the last election on almost
identical manifestos.
 COLLOCATIONS :
identical to / with something
an identical copy / score / twin
identical wording / circumstances
functionally / genetically identical
look identical
 SYNONYMS : the same, indistinguishable
 ANTONYM : different
iden | ti | cal | ly
ADVERB  two separate but identically worded
statements.
 Not all people respond identically to the same diet.
 COLLOCATIONS : identically dressed / worded
 ANTONYM : differently
…………………………………………………………………
261. iden | ti | fy
(identifies, identifying, identified)
A. VERB If you can identify someone or something,
you are able to recognize them or distinguish them
from others.
 There are a number of distinguishing
characteristics by which you can identify a Hollywood
epic.
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239
 COLLOCATIONS :
positively identify someone / something
correctly / incorrectly identify someone / something
 SYNONYMS : recognize, distinguish
B. VERB If you identify something, you discover or
notice its existence.
 Scientists claim to have identified natural
substances with cancer-combating properties.
 [+as] It was not until the twentieth century that
mosquitoes were identified as the carriers of malaria.
 COLLOCATIONS :
identify something as something
identify a cause / factor / need / gene / virus
 SYNONYM : discover
 [+of] Fifteen years after the president embraced the
ideology of privatization, the people were worse off than
ever.
 North Carolina more than any other southern state, is
the home of two disparate, yet equally powerful, political
ideologies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the ideology of something
embrace / reject an ideology
an ideology influences / motivates / drives someone
the dominant ideology
a political / religious / secular / economic ideology
a communist / liberal / conservative ideology
iden | ti | fi | ca | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The identification of
something is the recognition that it exists, is important,
or is true.
 [+of] Early identification of a disease can prevent
death and illness.
 [+of] the identification of training needs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the identification of something
the identification of a gene / protein / factor / need
 SYNONYM : recognition
…………………………………………………………………
262. ideal | ogy
(ideologies)
NOUN An ideology is a set of beliefs, especially the
political beliefs on which people, parties, or countries
base their actions.
 SYNONYMS : values, beliefs, doctrine
idea | logi | cal
ADJECTIVE Ideological means relating to principles or
beliefs.
 Others left the party for ideological reasons.
 The ideological divisions between the parties aren't
always obvious.
 a world divided along ideological lines.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an ideological difference / divide / division
an illogical fear / hatred
totally / completely illogical
…………………………………………………………………
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241
263. ignorance
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Ignorance of something is
lack of knowledge about it.
 I am beginning to feel embarrassed by my complete
ignorance of non-European history.
 There is so much ignorance of non-European history.
There is so much ignorance about mental illness.
 In my ignorance I had never heard country & western
music.
ignor (ignores, ignoring, ignored)
A. VERB If you ignore someone or something, you pay
no attention to them.
 They had ignored the warning signs.
 She ignored legal advice to drop the case.
B. VERB If you say that an argument or theory ignores
an important aspect of a situation, you are criticizing
it because it fails to consider that aspect or to take it
into account.
 Such arguments ignore the question of where
ultimate responsibility lay.
 His article ignores the fact that the environment
can exaggerate small genetic differences.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ignore advice / evidence
ignore a warning / sign / order / call / rule
choose / try to ignore something
hard / difficult to ignore
largely / simply / completely / totally / deliberately
ignore something
 PHRASES
: ignore fact that ….
 SYNONYMS : overlook
 ANTONYM : notice
…………………………………………………………………
264. il | lus | trate
(illustrates, illustrating, illustrated)
A. VERB If you say that something illustrates a
situation that you are drawing attention to, you mean
that it shows that the situation exists.
 The example of the United States illustrates this
point.
 [+how] The incident graphically illustrates how
parlous their position.
 [+that] The case also illustrates that some women
are now trying to fight back.
B. VERB If you use an example, story, or diagram to
illustrate a point, you use it to show that what you
saying is true or to make your meaning clearer.
 To illustrate this point, Wolf gives an example from
the car production sector in America.
 [+with] Throughout, she illustrates her analysis
with excepts from discussions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
illustrate something with / by something
illustrate something by a story / fact / example / case
illustrate a point / principle / difficulty
illustrate the importance / extent / complexity of
something
graphically / perfectly / vividly illustrate
 SYNONYMS : demonstrate, exemplify
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243
il | lus | tra | tion
NOUN  This can best be described by way of
illustration.
 [+of] a perfect illustration of the way Britain absorbs
and adapts external influences.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an illustration of something
an illustration of a fact/ effect / principle / difference
 PHRASE : by way of illustration
 SYNONYMS : demonstration, example
…………………………………………………………………
265. im | age
(images)
A. NOUN The image of a person, group or organization
is the way that they appear to other people.
 [+of] He has cultivated the image of an elder
statesman.
 The tabacco industry has been trying to improve its
image.
 COLLOCATIONS :
create / improve / project an image
a public / corporate image
your body / self- image
a negatively / positive image
 SYNONYMS : impression, reputation
B. NOUN An image is a picture of someone or
something. [FORMAL]
 [+of] photographic images of young children.
 A computer in the machine creates an image on the
screen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
display an image
a full-size / mirror image
produce / feature / capture an image
 SYNONYM : picture
…………………………………………………………………
266. im | mi | grate
(immigrates, immigrating,
immigrated)
VERB If someone immigrates to a particular country,
they come to live or work in that country, after leaving
the country where they were born.
 [+to]a Russian-born professor who had immigrated
to the United States.
 [+from] He immigrated from Ulster in 1848.
 10,000 people are expected to immigrate in the next
two years.
 COLLOCATION :
immigrate to / from somewhere
 RELATED WORDS : migrate, emigrate
im | mi | gra | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Immigration is the coming
of people into a country in order to live and work there.
 The government has decided to tighten its
immigration policy.
 [+into] immigration into Europe.
 measures aimed at curbing illegal immigration.
 COLLOCATIONS :
immigration into somewhere
curb/ restrict/ combat / tackle / control immigration
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245
mass / illegal immigration
an immigration policy / law / official
immigration control
 RELATED WORDS : migration, emigration
im | mi | grant
(immigrants)
NOUN An immigrant is a person who has come to live
in a country from some other country.
 industries that employ large numbers of illegal
immigrants.
 Portugal, Spain and Italy all have large immigrant
populations from Africa.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a skilled / illegal immigrant
a first-generation / second-generation immigrant
deport / detain / smuggle immigrants
immigrants arrive / settle / flee
an immigrant population / community/ worker/ visa
 ANTONYM : emigrant
 RELATED WORDS : asylum seeker, refugee, migrant
…………………………………………………………………
267. im | pact
(impacts, impacting, impacted)
A. NOUN The impact that something has on a situation,
process or person is a sudden and powerful effect that
it has on them.
 [+on] the mining industry's devastating impact on
the environment.
 an area where technology can make a real impact.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an impact on something
an impact on the environment / economy
an impact on society / health / earnings / tourism
a historical / economic / environmental impact
a significant / important / major / profound impact
a lasting / immediate / negative / adverse / positive
impact
an impact statement / assessment / study
 SYNONYMS : effect, mark, impression
B. VERB To impact on a situation, process, or person
means to affect them.
 [+on] That would impact on inflation and
competition.
 the potential for women to impact the political
process.
 COLLOCATIONS :
impact on / upon something
impact on / upon growth / industry
negatively / adversely / directly impact
 SYNONYM : affect
…………………………………………………………………
268. im | ple | ment
(implements, implementing,
implemented)
VERB If you implement something such as a plan, you
ensure that what has been planned is done.
 The government promised to implement a new system
to control financial loan institutions.
 The report sets out strict inspection procedures to
ensure
that
implemented.
the
recommendations
are
properly
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247
 COLLOCATIONS :
implement a plan / policy / programme / change
implement a recommendation / directive
successfully / poorly implement something
im | ple | men | ta | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] Very little has been
achieved in the implementation of the peace agreement.
 [+of] Full implementation of the ban was deferred
until 2012.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the implementation of something
the implementation of a plan / policy / agreement
oversee / monitor / delay / defer implementation
full / effective / successful implementation
…………………………………………………………………
269. im |pli | cate
(implicates, implicating, implicated)
VERB To implicate someone or something means to
show or claim that they were involved in a crime or
responsible for something bad.
 Allegations had appeared in the press implicating the
army and police in some of the killings.
 He was obliged to resign when one of his own aides
was implicated in a financial scandal.
 He didn't find anything in the notebooks to implicate
Stu.
im | pli | cation
(inplications)
NOUN Implication in a murder finally brought him to
the gallows.
 SYNONYM : ramification
…………………………………………………………………
270. im | plic | it
ADJECTIVE Something that is implicit is expressed in
an indirect way.
 This is seen as an implicit warning not to continue
with military action.
 There has been an implicit assumption in much of the
thinking that quality can only improve if productivity
declines.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an implicit assumption / understanding / message
an implicit threat / criticism / warning
 SYNONYM : indirect
 ANTONYM : explicit
im | plic | it | ly
ADVERB  The jury implicitly criticized the
government by their verdict.
 The prime minister implicitly acknowledged the
government's failure to enthuse the country.
 COLLOCATIONS :
implicitly acknowledge / accept / assume
implicitly criticize / threaten
 SYNONYM : indirectly
 ANTONYM : explicitly
…………………………………………………………………
271. im | ply
(implies, implying, implied)
VERB If an event or situation implies that something is
the case, it makes you think it likely that it is the case.
 [+that] Exports in June rose 1.5 %, implying that the
economy was stronger than many investors had realized.
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249
 A frontier-free Europe implies a greatly increased
market for all economic operators.
 COLLOCATION :
not necessarily / clearly / strongly imply something
 SYNONYMS : suggest, indicate, point to
im | pli | ca | tion
(implications)
NOUN The implications of something are the things
that are likely to happen as a result.
 [+of] the political implications of his decision.
 [+for] The low level of investment has serious
implications for future economic growth.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the implications of / for something
far-reaching/ profound / wide / serious implications
grasp / understand / consider the implications
 SYNONYMS : consequence effect amplifications
…………………………………………………………………
272. im | pose
(impose, imposing, imposed)
VERB If you impose something on people, you use your
authority of force them to accept it.
 [+on] Britain imposed fines on airlines which bring in
passengers without proper papers.
 Many companies have imposed a pay freeze.
 COLLOCATIONS :
impose something on someone / something
impose restrictions / sanctions
impose a fine / tax / penalty / sentence / ban / limit
a judge / authority / government imposes something
externally / unilaterally / centrally imposed

SYNONYMS : dictate, enforce
im | po | si | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the imposition of a
ban on cycling in the city centre.
 The key factor is that there is no imposition of locally
unpopular development.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the imposition of something
the imposition of sanctions / tariffs / VAT
the imposition of a penalty / law
 SYNONYM : enforcement
…………………………………………………………………
273. in | cen | tive
(incentives)
NOUN If something is a incentive to do something, it
encourages you to do it.
 [+to-inf] There is little or no incentive to adopt such
measures.
 [+for]Many companies in Britain are keen on the idea
of tax incentives for R & D.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an incentive for something / someone
provide / offer / give / create an incentive
a financial]/ economic/ added/ extra/ additional
incentive
a tax / cash / strong / powerful / perverse incentive
 SYNONYMS : inducement, enticement
 ANTONYM : disincentive
…………………………………………………………………
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251
274. in | ci | dence
(indcidences)
NOUN The incidence of something bad, such as a
diseases, is the frequency with which it occurs, or the
occasions when it occurs.
 [+of] The incidence of breast cancer increases with
age.
 [+of] Excess fat is through to be responsible for the
high incidence of heart disease in Western countries.
 [+of] It is time for action to prevent increasing
incidences of HIV infection in prisons.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the incidence of something
a high / low incidence
a growing/ rising / decreasing / increasing incidence
the overall incidence
reduce / increase the incidence of something
in | ci | dent
(incidents)
NOUN An incident is something that happens, often
something that is unpleasant. [FORMAL]
 These incidents were the latest in a series of disputes
between the two nations.
 [+in] The attack on Liquica was the worst in a series
of violent incidents in East Timor.
 The voting went ahead without incident.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an ancident in a place
a serious / unfortunate / tragic / alleged incident
a terrorist / friendly-fire / isolated incident
investigate / witness an incident
an incident happens / occurs / takes place
an incident involves someone / something
 SYNONYMS : attachment
 ANTONYM : inability
…………………………………………………………………
275. in | cline
(incline, inclines, inclining, inclined)
A. VERB If you incline to think or act in a particular
way, or if something inclines you to it, you are likely
to think or act in that way; a formal use.
 I incline to the view that he is right
 the factors which incline us towards particular
beliefs.
 Many end up as team leaders, which inclines them
to co-operate with the bosses.
 Those who fail incline to blame the world for their
failure.
B. If you incline your head, you bend your neck so that
your head is learning forward ; used in written
English.
 Jack inclined his head very slightly.
C. An incline is land that slopes at an angle; a formal
use.
 He came to a halt at the edge of a steep incline.
in | clined
ADJECTIVE If you are inclined to behave in a
particular way, you often behave in that way, or you
want to do so.
 [+to-inf] Nobody felt inclined to argue with Smith.
 If you are so inclined, you can watch TV.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
feel / seem inclined
arthistically / mathematically inclined
 PHRASE : be so inclined
 SYNONYM : disposed
in | cli | na | tion
(inclinations)
NOUN An inclination is a feeling that makes you want
to act in a particular way.
 He had neither the time or the inclination to think of
other things.  His natural inclination in such a
dilemma was to do nothing and watch.
 COLLOCATIONS :
have / show an inclination
a slight / strong / natural inclination
 SYNONYM : desire
…………………………………………………………………
276. in | come
(incomes)
NOUN A person's or organization's income is the money
that they earn or receive, as opposed to the money that
they have to spend or pay out.
 Many families on low incomes will be unable to
afford to buy their own home.
 [+of] To cover its costs, the company will need an
annul income of £ 15 million.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an income of £X
earn an income
supplement your income
a high / low / average / net / gross / annual income
a large / small / fixed / second / steady / taxable
income
a household / family income
income tax / support
 PHRASES :
loss of income
a source of income
 SYNONYMS : earnings, salary, revenue
 ANTONYM : costs, expenses
…………………………………………………………………
277. in | cor | po | rate
(incorporates, incorporating,
incorporated)
A. VERB If one thing incorporates another thing, it
includes the other thing. [FROMAL]
 the new cars will incorporate a number of major
improvements.
 Many sports garments now incorporate technology
which helps to carry any sweat away from the body.
 COLLOCATIONS :
incorporate a feature / element / idea
incorporate technology / information / material
 SYNONYMS : include, contain
 ANTONYM : omit
B. VERB If someone or something is incorporated
into a large group, system, or area, they become a
part of it. [FORMAL]
 [+into] The agreement would allow the rebels to
be incorporated into a new national police force.
 [+into] The party vowed to incorporate
environmental considerations into all its policies.
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 COLLOCATION :
incorporate something / someone into something
 ANTONYM : exclude
In | cor | po | rated
ADJECTIVE Incorporated is used after a company's
name to show that it is a legally established company in
the United States. [AM]  MCA incorporated
…………………………………………………………………
278. in | dex / indeks
NOUN An index is an alphabetical list that is printed at
the back of a book and tells you on which pages
important topics are referred to.
 There's even a special subject index.
 COLLOCATION : an alphabetical index
 RELATED WORD : table of contents
…………………………………………………………………
279. in | di | cate
(indicates, indicating, indicated)
A. VERB If one thing indicates another, the first thing
shows that the second is true or exists.
 [+that] A survey of retired people has indicated
that most are independent and enjoying life.
 [+whether] This indicates whether remedies are
suitable for children.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a poll / study / survey / report indicates something
research / findings / statistics indicate something
indicate the extent / degree / presence / lack of
something
clearly / previously / otherwise indicated
 SYNONYMS : demonstrate, show
B. VERB If a technical instrument indicates something,
it shows a measurement or reading.
 The needles that indicate your height are at the top
right-hand corner.
 [+that] The temperature gauge indicated that it
was boiling.
 SYNONYMS : show
in | di | ca | tion
(indications)
NOUN An indication is a sign which suggests that
something exists or is going to happen.
 All the indications are that we are going to receive
reasonable support from abroad.
 [+of] These numbers give an indication of the extent
of the disease.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an indication of something
an indication of strength / importance / progress
a clear / strong / early / initial indication
 SYNONYM : sign
in | di | ca | tor
(indicators)
NOUN An indicator is a measurement or value which
gives you an ideal of what something is like.
 vital economic indicators, such as inflation, growth
and the trade gap.
 [+of] The number of wells is a fair indicator of the
demand for water.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an indicator of something
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an indicator suggests / shows / points to something
a key / reliable / broad / leading indicator
a performance / stock / economic indicator
…………………………………………………………………
280. in | di | vid | ual
(individuals)
A. ADJECTIVE Individual means relating to one
person or thing, rather than to a large group.
 They wait for the group to decide rather than
making individual decisions.
 Aid to individual countries is linked to progress
towards.
 COLLOCATION :
individualfreedom/ responsibility / members
 SYNONYM : single
 ANTONYMS : collective, joint
B. NOUN An individual is a person.
 anonymous individuals who are doing good things
within our community.
 the rights and responsibilities of the individual.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a private / wealthy / healthy individual
a particular / certain / individual
an individual's right / need
 SYNONYMS : human being, person
 PHRASE
: individually and collectively
 SYNONYM : singly
 ANTONYMS : collectively, jointly
…………………………………………………………………
281. in | duce
(induces, inducing, induced)
VERB To induce a state or condition means to cause it.
 Doctors said surgery could induce a heart attack.
 an economic crisis induced by high oil prices.
 COLLOCATIONS :
induce a state / feeling / sense / change
induce a responses / reaction / heart attack / coma
induce sleep / vomiting / fear / panic / relaxation
 SYNONYMS : cause, trigger, precipitate
…………………………………………………………………
282. in | evi | table
ADJECTIVE If something is inevitable, it is certain to
happe n and cannot be prevented or avoided.
 [+that] If the case succeeds, it is inevitable that other
trials will follow.
 The defeat had inevitable consequences for British
policy.
 COLLOCATION :
an inevitable consequence / result / conclusion
 SYNONYMS : unavoidable, certain
 ANTONYM : avoidable
in | di | vid | ual | ly
ADVERB  There are 96 pieces and they are worth,
individually and collectively, a lot of money.
 Individually they're weak, but as a group they can be
devastating.
in | evi | tably
ADVERB  Technological changes will inevitably lead
to unemployment.
 inevitably the proposal is running into difficulties.
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 COLLOCATION :
inevitably result in / lead to / mean something
 SYNONYMS : unavoidably, certainly
in | evi | tabil | ity
(inevitabilities)
NOUN  [+of] a statement, which appeared to accept
the inevitability of war.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the inevitability of something
the inevitability of death / war
accept / acknowledge the inevitability of something
 SYNONYMS : attachment
 ANTONYM : inability
…………………………………………………………………
283. in | fer
(infers, inferring, inferred)
VERB If you infer that something is the case, you
decide that it is true on the basis of information that you
already have.
 [+that] I inferred from what she said that you have
not been well.
 By measuring the motion of the galaxies in a cluster,
astronomers can infer the cluster's mass.
 COLLOCATIONS :
infer the meaning / existence of something
reasonably infer
 SYNONYM : deduce
in | fer | ence
(inferences)
A. NOUN An inference is a conclusion that you draw
something by using information that you already have
about it.
 There were two inferences to be drawn from her
letter.
 [+that] A more reasonable inference is that his
evidence flows from a desire for self-preservation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
draw / make an inference
a reasonable / logical inference
 SYNONYMS : conclusion, deduction
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Inference is the act of
drawing conclusions about something on the basis of
information that you already have.
 It had an extremely tiny head and, by inference, a
tiny brain.
 The impression was conveyed to the jurymen,
whether it was unsupported statement, hearsay of
improper inference.
 COLLOCATION : by inference
 SYNONYM : deduction
…………………………………………………………………
284. infra | struc | ture
(infrastructures)
NOUN The infrastructure of a country, society, or
organization consists of the basic facilities such as
transport, communications, power supplies, and
buildings, which enable it to function.
 investment in infrastructure projects
 focus an improving existing infrastructure.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the infrastructure of something
have infrastructure in place
build / rebuild / improve / destroy infrastructure
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existing / basic infrastructure
transport / rail / telecommunications / security
infrastructure
infrastructure improvement / spending / investment
…………………………………………………………………
285. in | her | ent
ADJECTIVE The inherent qualities of something are te
necessary and natural parts of it.
 There are inherent risks to operating any business,
whether it is a franchise or not.
 doubt whether he realized the inherent contradiction
in his own argument.
286. in | hib | it
(inhibits, inhibiting, inhibited)
VERB If something inhibits an event or process, it
prevents it or slow it down.
 Excessive trace elements, such as copper in the soil
will inhibit plant growth.
 The high cost of borrowing is inhibiting investment by
industry in new equipment.
 COLLOCATIONS :
inhibit growth / development
inhibit activity / production / formation
 SYNONYMS : hamper, hinder, interfere with
 ANTONYM : encourage, aid
 [+in] the dangers inherent in an outbreak of war.
 COLLOCATIONS :
inherent in something
an inherent risk / danger / problem / weakness /
flaw
an inherent quality / characteristic / part /
contradiction
 SYNONYMS : intrinsic, integral
in | her | ent | ly
ADVERB  Aeroplanes are not inherently dangerous.
 There is nothing inherently wrong with pleasure.
 COLLOCATIONS :
in | hi | bi | tion
the fact or process of
preventing something or slowing it down.
 [+of] Nicotine's many actions include both
stimulation and inhibition of the nervous system,
depending on dosage.
 The study of enzyme inhibition has had practical
benefits.
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
 COLLOCATIONS :
the inhibition of something
the inhibition of growth
…………………………………………………………………
287. ini | tial
inherently dangerous / unstable / risky
ADJECTIVE You use initial to describe something that
inherently wrong / evil / bad / unfair / unequal
happens at the beginning of a process.
 The initial reaction has been excellent.
 The aim of this initial meeting is to clarify the issue.
 SYNONYM : intrinsically
…………………………………………………………………
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263
 COLLOCATIONS :
an initial reaction/ response / impression / diagnosis
an initial offering / purchase / investment / meeting
the initial stages / results / success
 SYNONYMS : first, preliminary
 ANTONYM : last
ini | tia | tion
ini | tial | ly
reason for initiation of lifelong drug treatment.
ADVERB Initially means soon after the beginning of a
 COLLOCATIONS :
process or situation, rather than in the middle at the end
of it.
 Forecasters say the gales may not be as bad as they
initially predicted.
 COLLOCATIONS :
initially refuse / deny / oppose / reject something
initially propose/ plan/ schedule / predict something
 SYNONYM : originally
 ANTONYM : finally
…………………………………………………………………
288. ini | ti | ate
(initiates, initlating, initiated)
VERB If you initiates something, you start it or cause it
to happen.
 They wanted to initiate a discussion on economics.
 A peace process was initiated by the Indian prime
minister in April.
 COLLOCATIONS :
initiate a process / action / transaction / change /
move
initiate a debate/ discussion/ conversation /
investigation
initial proceedings / contact / talks
 SYNONYMS : instigate, set in motion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The initiation of something is
the starting of it.
 [+of] They announced the initiation of a rural
development programme.
 [+of] Hypertension is perhaps the most common
the initiation of something
the initiation of proceedings / negotiations /
intercourse
 SYNONYMS : instigation, launch
ini | tia | tive
(initiatives)
NOUN An initiative is an important act or statement that
is intended to solve a problem.
 [+ to-inf] Government initiatives to help young people
have been inadequate.
 There's talk of a new peace initiative.
 COLLOCATIONS :
announce / launch / introduce an initiative
welcome / support / back an initiative
a new / major / bold initiative
a diplomatic / strategic / private initiative
a peace / business / marketing initiative
a finance / policy / education initiative
…………………………………………………………………
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265
289. in | jure
(injures, injuring, injured)
VERB If you injure a person or animal, you damage
some part of their body.
 A number of bombs have exploded, seriously injuring
at least five people.
 Stiff penalties for motorists who kill, main, and injure.
 COLLOCATIONS :
seriously / critically / badly injure something
a bomb / explosion / blast / fire injures people
 SYNONYM : maim
in | jured
ADJECTIVE  The other injured man had a superficial
stomach wound.
 Many of them will have died because they were so
badly injured.
 COLLOCATIONS :
injured in / by something
injured in a crash / accident / attack
badly / seriously / critically injured
an injured passenger / officer / solider / driver
an injured shoulder / knee / ankle
 PHRASE : killed or injured
 SYNONYMS : maimed, wounded
 COLLOCATIONS :
an injury to something
suffer / cause / escape injury
a bodily / minor / internal / life-threatening injury
a personal / serious / sever injury
a knee / shoulder / ankle injury
 SYNONYM : wound
…………………………………………………………………
290. in | no | va | tion
(innovations)
A. NOUN An innovation is a new method of doing
something
 The vegetation burger was an innovation which
was rapidly exported to Britain.
 [+of] the transformation wrought by the
technological innovations of the industrial age.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Innovation is the
introduction of new ideas, methods, or things.
 We must promote originality and encourage
innovation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the innovations of a period
technological / technical / product innovation
foster / encourage / stifle innovation
 SYNONYMS : novelty, creativity
 ANTONYM : tradition
in | ju | ry
(injuries)
NOUN  Four police officers sustained serious injures
in the explosion.
 The two other passengers escaped serious injury.
 [+to] a serious injury to his left leg.
in | no | va | tive
ADJECTIVE  products which are more innovative
than those of their competitors.
 He was one of the most creative and innovative
engineers of his generation.
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267
 COLLOCATIONS :
292. in | sert
(insects, inserting, inserted)
an innovative design / approach / solution / idea
VERB If you insert an object into something, you put
an innovative method / project / product / scheme
the object inside it.
technologically innovative
 [+into] tubes that are inserted into diseased arteries.
 SYNONYMS: new, original, state-of-the-art, creative
 ANTONYM : traditional
 COLLOCATIONS :
insert something into something
…………………………………………………………………
insert a needle / pin / tube / catheter
291. in | put
surgically / carefully / gently insert
(input, inputting)
A. NOUN Input is information that is put into a
computer. An input is a connection where information
…………………………………………………………………
293. in | sight
(insights)
enters a computer or other device.
NOUN If you gain insight or an insight into a complex
 an error in data input
situation or problem, you gain an accurate and deep
 an amplifier with an input socket.
understanding of it.
 COLLOCATIONS :
 [+into] The project would give scientists new insights
an input jack / socket / device
into what is happening to the Earth's atmosphere.
stereo / audio / video / data input
 COLLOCATIONS :
 ANTONYM
: output
B. VERB If you input information into a computer, you
feed it in, for example by typing it on a keyboard.
insight into something
offer / give / provide / gain an insight
a fascinating/ valuable / fresh / unique / rare insight
 [+onto] All this information had to be input onto
 SYNONYMS : awareness, understanding
the computer.
 ANTONYM
 COLLOCATIONS :
input something onto / into something
: ignorance
…………………………………………………………………
294. in | spect
(inspects, inspecting, inspected)
input data / information
A. VERB If you inspect something, you look at every
 SYNONYMS : type, enter
part of it carefully in order to find out about it or
…………………………………………………………………
check that it is all right.
 Safety engineers will periodically inspect the boiler
and other machinery for structural defects.
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269
B. VERB When an official inspects a place or a group of
people, they visit it and check it carefully, for
example in order to find out whether regulations are
being obeyed.
 Each hotel is inspected and, if it fulfills certain
criteria, is recommended.
 UN nuclear officials inspected four suspected
nuclear weapons sites.
 COLLOCATIONS :
inspect damage
inspect a site / facility / property
visually / carefully / periodically / regularly inspect
something
 SYNONYMS : examine, check
in | spec | tion
(inspection)
NOUN  [+of] He had completed his inspection of the
doors.  [+of] Officers making a routine inspection of
the vessel found fifty kilograms of the drug.
 demands for weapons inspections.

COLLOCATIONS :
an inspection of something
an inspection of a site / plant / vehicle / facility
resume / conduct / pass an inspection
a weapons / arms / safety inspection
a routine / close inspection
an inspection team / regime / report
an inspection reveals something

SYNONYMS : examination, check, inquiry
…………………………………………………………………
295. in | stance
(instances)
A. PHRASE You use for instance to introduce a
particular event, situation, or person that is an
example of what you are talking about.
 There are a number of improvement, for instance,
both mouse buttons can now be used.
 TB is an infinitely bigger problem than, for
instance, AIDS.
 SYNONYM : for example
B. NOUN An instance is a particular example or
occurrence of something.
 The committee reported numerous instances where
key information was not shared.
 [+of] an investigation into a serious instance of
corruption.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an instance of something
a rare / isolated / particular / specific / reported /
recorded instance
numerous / several instances
document / cite / record / report an instance
 SYNONYMS : example, case, occurrence
…………………………………………………………………
296. in | sti | tute
(institutes)
NOUN An institute is an organization set up to do a
particular type of work, especially research or teaching.
You can also use institute to refer to the building the
organization occupies.
 The National Cancer Institute
 an elite research institute devoted to computer
software.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
found / establish an institute
a research / training institute
 SYNONYMS : organization, foundation
in | sti | tu | tion
(institutions)
NOUN An institution is a large important organization
such as a university, church, or bank.
 [+of] the Institution of Civil Engineers
 The Hong Bank is Hong Kong largest financial
institution.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the institution of something
a financial / banking / lending institution
a research / educational / academic / cultural /
religious institution
 SYNONYMS : organization, establishment
…………………………………………………………………
297. instruct
(instructs, instructing, instructed)
A. If you instruct someone to do something, you
formally tell them to do it, a formal use.
 The family has instructed solicitors to use Thomson
for compensation.
 Go and have a word with her, Ken, Webb
instructed.
 I want you to instruct them, that they've got three
months to get the details sorted out.
B. Someone who instructs people in a subject or skill
teaches it to them.
 He instructed family members in nursing
techniques.
in |struc |tion
(instructions)
A. An instruction is something that someone tells you to
do.
 Many Labour MPs defied a party instruction to
vote against the Bill.
B. If someone gives you instruction in a subject or skill,
they teach it to you; a formal use.
 Each candidate is gives instruction in safety.
 All schoolchildren must now receive some religious
instructions.
C. Instructions are clear and detailed information on
how to do something. This book given institutions for
making a wide range of skin and hand creams.
instructional
(Instructional)
ADJECTIVE books or films are meant to teach people
something or to offer them help with a particular
problem.
 Instructional material designed to help you with your
lifestyle.
 You may wish to take advantage of our instructional
session.
instructive
ADJECTVE Something that is instructive gives useful
information. It's instructive to compare his technique
with Alan Benneti's.
 an entertaining and instructive documentary.
instructor
(instructors)
An instructor is someone who teaches a skill such as
driving or skiing. In American Englsh, Instructor can
also be used to refer to schoolteacher or to a low-ranking
university teacher.
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273
 I recommend that you drive under tutition from an
approved driving instructor.
in | struc | tion
(instructions)
PLURAL NOUN Instructions are clear and detailed
information on how to do something.
 Always read the instructions before you start taking
the medicine.
 an instruction manual for a camera.
 COLLOCATIONS :
instructions regarding something
strict / detailed / written / specific instructions
step-by-step / simple instructions
an instruction manual / booklet
 SYNONYM : directions
…………………………………………………………………
298. in | te | gral
ADJECTIVE Something that is an integral part of
something is an essential part of that thing.
 Rituals and festivals form an integral part of every
human society.
 The municipal park an integral role in urban Chinese
life.
 [+to] Anxiety is integral to the human condition.
 COLLOCATIONS :
integral to something
an integral part / component/ element / aspect / role
 SYNONYMS : basic, fundamental, intrinsic
…………………………………………………………………
299. in | te | grate
(integrates, integrating, integrated)
A. VERB If someone integrates into a social group, or is
integrated into it, they behave in such a way that they
become part of the group or are accepted into it.
 [+into] reforms to help immigrants integrate better
into British society.
 [+with] integrating the kids with the community,
finding them a role, is essential.
 COLLOCATIONS :
integrate into / with something
integrate into society
integrate with a community
B. VERB If you integrate one thing with another, or one
thing integrates with another, the two things become
closely linked or form part of a whole idea or system.
You can also say that two things integrate.
 [+with] integrating the pound with other European
currencies could cause difficulties.
 [+into] Little attempt was made to integrate the
parts into a coherent whole.
 COLLOCATIONS :
integrate something with / into something
integrate a component/application/ system/database
integrate data / information / knowledge / efforts
 SYNONYMS :
fuse, incorporate, merge, assimilate, combine
 ANTONYMS : separate, divide
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in | te | gra | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the integration of
disabled people into mainstream society.
 an aim to promote racial integration.
 closer European integration
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The integrity of something
such as a group of people or a text is its state of being
a unit whole. [FROMAL]
 Kerensky declared that he would maintain Russia's
territorial integrity.
 [+of] Separatist movements are a threat to the
integrity of the nation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
integration of / with / into something
racial / economic / European integration
close / further integration
facilitate / promote / achieve integration
an integration process / issue
 SYNONYMS : fusion, incorporation, assimilation
 ANTONYMS : separation, division
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATIONS :
the integrity of something
maintain / protect / preserve something's integrity
undermine / threaten something's integrity
territorial / structural integrity
 SYNONYM : unity
…………………………………………………………………
300. in | teg | rity
301. in | tel | li | gence
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you have integrity, you
are honest and firm in your moral principal.
 I have always regarded him as a man of integrity.
 [+of] The game relies on the integrity of the
individual to show consideration for other players
and to abide by the rules.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the integrity of something
question / maintain / protect / preserve someone's
integrity
undermine/ compromise/ restore someone's integrity
personal / professional / moral integrity
artistic / intellectual / cultural / academic integrity
 PHRASE : honesty and integrity
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN

She's
a
woman
of
exceptional intelligence.
 [+of] It is designed to make the most of the
intelligence of a well trained and motivated workforce.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the intelligence of something
human / artificial / emotional intelligence
 SYNONYMS : intellect
 ANTONYM : stupidity, ignorance
in | tel | li | gent
ADJECTIVE A person or animal that is intelligent has
the ability to think, understand, and learn things quickly
and well.
 Susan's a very bright and intelligent woman.
 lively and intelligent conversation
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277
 the opinion that whales are as intelligent as human
beings
 COLLOCATIONS :
an intelligent reader / audience / class / being
highly intelligent
 SYNONYMS : bright, clever, sharp, smart
 ANTONYM : stupid
in | tense | ly
 The fast-food business is intensely
competitive.
 It was suddenly intensely silent.
ADVERB
ADERB  They are incapable of thinking intelligently
 COLLOCATIONS :
intersely competitive / personal / private
burn / suffer intensely
intensely focused
 SYNONYMS : acutely, vividly, extremely
 ANTONYM : mildly
about politics.
 voting systems that are intelligently designed.
in | ten | sity
in | tel | li | gent | ly
 COLLOCATIONS :
behave / respond / act intelligently
speak / talk / write intelligently
 SYNONYM : cleverly
 ANTONYM : stupidly
…………………………………………………………………
302. in | tense
ADJECTIVE Intense is used to describe something that
is very great or extreme in strength or degree.
 He was sweating from the intense heat.
 His threats become more intense, agitated, and
frequent.
 COLLOCATIONS :
intense heat / pain / pressure / scrutiny / fighting
intense debate / speculation / negotiations
intense competition / rivalry
 SYNONYM : extreme
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  The attack was anticipated
but its intensity came as a shock.
 [+of] the intensity of the mother's unforgiving anger.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the intensity of something
emotional / heightened / sheer / fierce intensity
 SYNONYMS : acuteness, vividness, extremity
 ANTONYM : mildness
in | ten | sity
(intensities)
NOUN  The attack was anticipated but its intensity
came as a shock.
 [+of] A detector measured the intensity of the light.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the intensity of something
the intensity of a feeling / emotion / flavor
the intensity of light / heat / pain
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in | ten | si | fy (intensities, intensifying, intensified)
VERB If you intensity something or if it intensifies, it
becomes greater in strength, amount, or degree.
 Britain is intensifying its efforts to secure the release
of the hostages.
 The conflict is almost bound to intensity.
 Groups of refugees are on the move following
intensified fighting in the region.
 COLLOCATIONS :
intensify pressure/ competition/ efforts/ speculation
intensify a campaign / debate/ attack / war / conflict
intensify a hunt for someone
fighting/ violence/ competition / pressure intensifies
a war / battle / attack / feeling intensifies
 SYNONYM : increase
 ANTONYM : decrease
…………………………………………………………………
303. inter | act
(interacts, interacting, interacted)
A. VERB When people interact with each other or
interact, they communicate as they work or spend
time together.
 While the other children interacted and played
together. Ted ignored them.
 [+with] rhymes and songs to help parents interact
with their babies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
interact with something
interact directly / socially / easily
 SYNONYM : communicates
B. VERB When people interact with computers, or
when computers interact with other machine,
information or instructions are exchanged.
 [+with] Millions of people want new, simplified
ways of interacting with a computer.
 There will be a true global village in which
telephones, computers and televisions interact.
C. VERB When one thing interacts with another or two
things interact, the two things affect each other's
behaviour or condition.
 You have to understand how cells interact.
 [+with] Atoms within the fluid interact with the
minerals that form the grains.
 COLLOCATIONS :
interact with something
interact with a protein / environment / object
inter | ac | tion
(interactions)
A. NOUN  [+with] This can sometimes lead to
somewhat superficial interactions with other people.
 [+among] our experience of informal social
interaction among adults.
 COLLOCATIONS :
interaction with something
interaction between / among people
social / human / personal interaction
face-to-face / interpersonal / direct interaction
 SYNONYM : communication
B. NOUN  experts on human-computer interaction
 Our children, tomorrow's consumers, are used to
real-time interaction and a "point and click"
environment.
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C. NOUN  [+between] the interaction between
physical and emotional illness.
 There is a slimmer body of research on drug
interactions and correct dosages.
 COLLOCATIONS :
interaction between something
interaction between genes / proteins / cells
a complex interaction
inter | ac | tive
ADJECTIVE An interactive computer program or
television system is one which allows direct
communication between the user and the machine.
 This will make video games more interactive than
ever.  high speed internet services and interactive
teleivision.
 COLLOCATIONS :
interactive television
an interactive presentation / map / guide / display
…………………………………………………………………
304. inter | medi | ate
ADJECTIVE An intermediate stage, level, or position is
one that occurs between two other stages, levels, or
positions.
 a process commencing at the primitive stage and
leading, through an intermediate stage, to modernity.
 hourly trains to Perugia, Assisi and intermediate
stations.
 COLLOCATION :an intermediate stage
 SYNONYM : middle
 ANTONYMS : initial, final
…………………………………………………………………
305. in | ter | nal
A. ADJECTIVE Internal is used to describe things that
exist or happen inside a country or organization.
 The country stepped up internal security.
 We now have a Europe without internal borders.
 an internal mail box
 COLLOCATIONS :
internal affair / security / politics
an internal inquiry / investigation / review / flight
 SYNONYM : domestic
 ANTONYMS : external, foreign
B. ADJECTIVE Internal is used to describe things that
exist or happen inside a particular person, object, or
place.
 massive internal bleeding
 disorders which affects the skin and internal
organs alike.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an internal organ
internal bleeding
 ANTONYM : external
in | ter | nal | ly
ADVERB  Evening primrose oil is used on the skin as
well as taken internally.
 an internally consistent theory.
 COLLOCATION :
internally consistent / inconsistent / displaced
 ANTONYM : externally
…………………………………………………………………
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306. in | ter | pret
(interprets, interpreting, interpreted)
VERB If you interpret something in a particular way,
you decide that this is its meaning or significance.
 [+as] The whole speech might well be interpreted as
a coded message to the Americans.
 methods of gathering interpreting data.
307. in | ter | val
 COLLOCATIONS :
interpreted as something
interpreted data / results / meaning
widely / correctly interpreted
 SYNONYM : understand
 COLLOCATIONS :
an interval of something / time
an interval between things
 SYNONYM : gap
B. PHRASE If something happens at intervals, it
happens several times with gaps or pauses in between.
 The subjects were monitored at intervals during
their adult life.
 SYNONYMS : regularly, periodically
…………………………………………………………………
308. inter | vene (intervenes, intervening, intervenced)
VERB If you intervene in a situation, you become
involved in it and try to change it.
 This situation calmed down when police intervened.
 [+in] The Government is doing nothing to intervene
in the crisis.
in | ter | pre | ta | tion
(interpretations)
NOUN An interpretation of something is an opinion
about what it means
 The opposition put a different interpretation on the
figure.
 [+of] a disagreement on the interpretation of
scientific data.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an interpretation of something
an interpretation of data
an interpretation of a law / rule / event
a literal / strict / subjective interpretation
differing / conflicting / varying interpretations
offer / reject an interpretation
put an interpretation on something
 PHRASE
: interpretation and analysis
 SYNONYMS : understanding, reading
…………………………………………………………………
(intervals)
A. NOUN An interval between two events or dates is the
period of time between them.
 [+of] The ferry service has restarted often an
interval of 12 years.
 [+of] There was a long interval of silence.
 COLLOCATIONS :
intervene in something
intervene personally / directly
intervene in a dispute / conflict / war / row / crisis
intervene in a case / affair / matter / situation /
process
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Inter | ven | tion
 Soviet-style communism failed, not because it was
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+in] the role of the United
intrinsically evil but because it was flawed.
States and its intervention in the internal affairs of many
countries.
 [+in] The impact of American military intervention in
Europe was not felt for a year.
 COLLOCATIONS :
intervention in something / somewhere
government / state / foreign / divine intervention
humanitarian/ armed/ military/medical intervention
direct / timely intervention
…………………………………………………………………
309. in | trin | sic
 COLLOCATIONS :
intrinsically wrong / evil
intrinsically valuable / rewrding
 SYNONYMS : basically, fundamentally, inherently
…………………………………………………………………
310. in | vest
(invests, investing, invested)
A. VERB If you invest in something, or if you invest a
sum of money, you use your money in a way that you
hope will increase its value, for example by paying it
into a bank, or buying shares or property.
ADJECTIVE If something has intrinsic value or
 [+in] He invested all our profits in gold shares.
intrinsic interest, it is valuable or interesting because of
its basic nature or character, and not because of its
connection with other things. [FORMAL]
 The paintings have no intrinsic value except as
curiosities.
 The rate is determined by intrinsic qualities such as
the land's slope.
B. VERB When a government or organization invests in
 COLLOCATIONS :
intrinsic value / worth / merit / importance
an intrinsic part / quality / factor
 SYNONYMS : basic, fundamental, inherent
something, it gives or lends money for a purpose that
it considers useful or profitable.
 [+in] the British government's failure to invest in
an integrated transport system.
 Why does Japan invest, on average, twice as much
capital per worker per year than the United States ?
 COLLOCATIONS :
invest in something
invest in stocks / bonds / securities / equities
invest in infrastructure / technology / equipment
in | trin | il | cal | ly
invest money / capital / assets
ADVERB  There is nothing intrinsically wrong with a
invest a sum / amount
voluntary approach but there is a great concern that it
will not work.
primarily / principally / heavily / directly invest
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in | vest | ment
(investments)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Investment is the activity of
investing money.
 The government must introduce tax incentives to
encourage investment.
B. NOUN An investment is an amount of money that
you invest, or the thing that you invest it in.
 [+of] an investment of twenty-eight million
pounds.
 [+in] Total foreign investment in America still
constitutes only about 5% of U.S assets.
 COLLOCATIONS :
investment in something / somewhere
an investment of EX
investment in stocks/ bonds/ infrastructure/
technology
attract / encourage / stimulate investment
foreign / private / direct / capital / property
investment
an investment bank/ strategy/ banker/ adviser/
dealer
investment banking / income
 PHRASE : savings and investments
in | ves | tor
(investors)
NOUN An investor is a person or organization that buys
stocks or shares, or pays money into a bank in order to
receive a profit.
 [+in] The main investor is the project is the French
bank Credit Nations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an investor in something
a foreign / private / retail / individual investor
 SYNONYMS : banker, lender
…………………………………………………………………
311. in | ves | ti | gate
(investigates, investigating,
investigated)
VERB If you investigate, something, you study or
examine it carefully to find out the truth about it.
 Research in Oxford is now investigating a possible
link between endometriosis and the immune system.
 [+how] Police are still investigating how the accident
happened.
 COLLOCATIONS :
investigate a link / case / incident / complaint /
allegation
thoroughly / fully / properly investigate
 SYNONYM : examine, explore, study, analyze
in | ves | ti | ga | tion
(investigations)
NOUN  [+into] He ordered an investigation into the
affair.  Brain functions are measurable and open to
scientific investigation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an investigation into something
conduct / launch / undertake an investigation
a criminal / police / murder / scientific / internal
investigation
 SYNONYMS : examination, study, analysis
…………………………………………………………………
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312. in | voke
(invokes, invoking, invoked)
A. VERB If you invoke a law, you state that you are
taking a particular action because that law allows or
tells you to.
 The judge invoked an international law that
protects refugees.
 The 18 NATO ambassadors invoked the mutual
defence clause.
 COLLOCATIONS :
invoke a law / clause / rule
invoke legislation
B. VERB If something such as a piece of music invokes
a feeling or an image, it causes someone to have the
feeling or to see the image. Many people consider this
use to be incorrect.
 The music invoked the wide open spaces of the
prairies.
 The poem invokes the horrors of the Irish potato
famine.
 COLLOCATIONS :
invoke a memory / image
a poem / poet invokes something
 SYNONYMS : evoke, conjure up
…………………………………………………………………
313. in | volve
(involves, involving, involved)
A. VERB If a situation or activity involves something,
that thing is a necessary part or consequence of it.
 [+ V-ing] Nicky's job as a public relations director
involves spending quite a lot of time with other
people.
 the risks involved in the procedure.
 COLLOCATION :
involve risk / work / money
 SYNONYM : entail
B. VERB If a situation or activity involves someone,
they are taking part in it.
 If there was a cover-up, it involved people at the
very highest levels of government.
 a riot involving a hundred inmates.
 COLLOCATIONS :
be involved in something
be actively / directly / heavily involved
deeply / emotionally involved
 SYNONYM : include
in | volve | ment
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Your involvement in something
is the fact that you are taking part in it.
 [in] There was a strong popular feeling for human
involvement in space travel.
 [+with] She disliked his involvement with the group.
 COLLOCATIONS :
someone's involvement in / which something
active / direct / heavy involvement
deep / emotional / romantic involvement
…………………………………………………………………
314. iso | late
(isolates, isolating, isolated)
A. VERB If you isolates something such as an idea or a
problem, you separate it from others that it is
connected with, so that you can concentrate on it or
consider it on its own.
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 attempts to isolate a single factor as the cause of
the decline of Britain.
B. VERB To isolate a substance means to obtain it by
separating it from other substances using scientific
processes.
 We can use genetic engineering techniques to
isolate the gene that is responsible.
 [+from] Researchers have isolated a new protein
from the seeds of poppies.
C. VERB To isolate a sick person or animal means to
keep them apart from other people or animals, so that
their illness does not spread.
 [+from] Patients will be isolated from other people
for between three days and one month after treatment.
 COLLOCATIONS :
isolate something / someone from something
isolate something / someone from the world / society
isolate a gene / virus / protein / cell
 SYNONYM : separate
 ANTONYM : integrate
iso | la | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN isolation is when someone or
something is separated from other people or things.
 [+of] The epidemic finally stopped in mid-2003, due
to stringent isolation of cases.
iso | lat | ed
ADJECTIVE An isolated example is an example of
something that is not very common.
 They said the allegations related to an isolated case of
cheating.
 COLLOCATION :
an isolated incident / case / example
 SYNONYMS : rare, single, unique
 ANTONYM : common
…………………………………………………………………
315. is | sure
(issues)
NOUN An issue is an important subject that people are
arguing about or discussing.
 A key issue for higher education in the 1990's is the
need for greater diversity of courses.
 Is it right for the Church to express a view on political
issues ?
 COLLOCATIONS :
become / debate / address an issue
raise / discuss / resolve an issue
a complicated / controversial / sensitive issue
a legal / political / serious / unresolved issue
a key / important / difficult / critical issue
a money / safety / election / security issue
 SYNONYMS : subject, matter
…………………………………………………………………
316. item
(items)
NOUN An item is one of a collection or list of objects.
 The most valuable item on show will be a Picasso
drawing.
 [+of] Only one item of hand luggage is permitted.
 a recent news item in a magazine.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
an item of / on / in something
an item of clothing / equipment / furniture
an item of interest / value
an item on a list / agenda / menu
a news / newspaper item
a luxury / household / food item
…………………………………………………………………
J
317. job
(jobs)
A. NOUN A job is the work that someone does to earn
money.
 A healthy person usually has a better chance of
getting a job than someone in poor health.
 Thousands have lost their jobs.
 overseas job vacancies.
 COLLOCATIONS :
get / find / have / lose a job
create / cut jobs
a full-time / part-time / permanent / temporary job
a good / new / top / well-paid job
a teaching / factory / construction job
a job vacancy
job creation / cuts / losses / satisfaction
the job market
B. NOUN A job is a particular task.
 [+of] the job of putting together a coalition.
 Save major painting jobs for the spring or summer.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the job of something
do / start / finish a job
 SYNONYMS : task, assignment
…………………………………………………………………
318. jour | nal
(journals)
NOUN A journal is a magazine, especially one that deals
with a specialized subject.
 All our results are published in scientific journals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a scholarly / academic / respected / prestigious
journal
a scientific / medical / literary journal
a peer-reviewed / online / quarterly journal
…………………………………………………………………
319. jus | ti | fy
(justifies, justifying, justified)
VERB To justify a decision, action, or idea means to
show or prove that it is reasonable or necessary.
 No argument can justify a war.
 Ministers agreed that this decision was fully justified
by economic conditions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
justified by something
entirely / wholly / amply justified
morally / ethically / rationally / economically /
scientifically justified
justify a war / invasion / action / expense
 PHRASES :
the end justifies the means
justify something on (the) grounds of something
 SYNONYMS : rationalize, explain, legitimize
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jus | ti | fi | ca | tion
(justifications)
NOUN A justification for something is an acceptable
reason or explanation for it.
 [+for] The only justification for a zoo is educational.
 Most believed that the war lacked justification.
 COLLOCATIONS :
justification for something
justification for a war / invasion / action / murder
provide / offer / find / lack justification
ample/ sufficient/ rational/ moral/ legal justification
 SYNONYMS : explanation, reason, excuse
…………………………………………………………………
L
320. la | bel
(labels, labelling, labeled)
VERB If you label a diagram, chart, picture etc, you
write information saying what each part is or what each
part represents.
 You could be asked to label diagrams.
 There is a map, with key targets circled in red and
clearly labeled.
 COLLOCATIONS : clearly labelled
 Label is also a noun.  The pattern is obvious as we
look at all of the pictures and their labels in figure 7.3
…………………………………………………………………
321. la | bour
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Labour is used to refer to the
workers of a country or industry, considered as a group.
[in AM, use labour]
 Latin America lacked skilled labour.
 Immigrants arrived in the 1950s to deal with Britain's
postwar labour shortages.
 COLLOCATIONS :
skilled / semi-skilled / unskilled / cheap labour
the labour market / force
a labour shortage / dispute
labour relations
…………………………………………………………………
322. lay | er
(layers)
NOUN A layer of a material or substance is a quantity or
piece of it that covers a surface or that is between two
other things.
 [+of] The eyelids are protective layers of skin.
 [+over] holes appearing in the ozone layer over the
polar regions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a layer of / over something
a layer over something
a thin / thick / protective layer
the top / bottom / upper / lower layer
the ozone layer
form a layer
…………………………………………………………………
323. lec | ture
(letures)
NOUN A lecture is a talk someone gives in order in
order to teach people about a particular subject, usually
at a university or college.
 [+by] He attended a series of lectures by Professor
Eric Robinson.
 [+on] He gave a three-hour lecture on Goethe.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
B. ADJECTIVE An action or situation that is legal is
a lecture by something
allowed or required by law.
a lecture on something
 What I did was perfectly legal.
give / deliver / attend a lecture
 drivers who have more than the legal limit of
a lecture tour / series / hall / theatre / room
 SYNONYM : talk
lec | tur | er
alcohol.
 COLLOCATIONS :
perfectly / entirely legal
(lectures)
NOUN A lecturer is a teacher at a university or college.
 [+in] She's a lecturer in law at Southampton
University.
 there was an opening for a senior lecturer.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a lecture in something
a university / college lecturer
a senior / visiting / guest lecturer
 RELATED WORDS : teacher, professor, tutor
the legal limit
a legal requirement
 SYNONYMS : lawful, permissible
 ANTONYMS : illegal, unlawful
le | gal | ly
ADVERB  It could be a bit problematic, legally
speaking.
 A lorry driver can legally work eighty-two hours a
…………………………………………………………………
week.
324. le | gal / li:gal /
 COLLOCATIONS :
A. ADJECTIVE Legal is used to describe things that
legally binding / enforceable / liable
relate to the law.
legally oblige / entitle / require someone to do
 He vowed to take legal action.
something
 the British legal system
legally recognize something
 I sought legal advice on this.
legally married
 COLLOCATIONS :
act / operate / work legally
legal action / advice / fees / costs
 PHRASE : morally or legally
a legal battle / challenge / expert / adviser
 SYNONYMS : illegally, unlawfully
legal rights / proceedings
the legal profession / system
…………………………………………………………………
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325. leg | is | late
(legislates, legislating, legislated)
VERB When a government or state legislates, it passes a
new law. [FROMAL]
 [+against] Most member countries have already
legislated against excessive overtime.
 [+to-inf] You cannot legislate to change attitudes.
 COLLOCATION :
legislate on / for / against something
leg | is | la | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Legislation consists of a law or
laws passed by a government [FORMAL]
 [+ to-inf] The government has introduced draft
legislation to increase the maximum penalty for car theft.
 [+on] European legislation on copyright.
 COLLOCATIONS :
legislation on something
pass/ introduce/ enact/ propose/ approve legislation
change / amend / oppose / block / veto legislation
draft / emergency legislation
leg | is | la | tive
ADJECTIVE Legislative means involving or relating to
the process of making and passing laws. [FORMAL]
 Today's hearing was just the first step in the
legislative process.
 the country's highest legislative body.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a legislative body / assembly / council / committee
legislative change / power
the legislative process
 RELATED WORD : legal
…………………………………………………………………
326. levy
(levies, levying, levied)
A. NOUN A levy is a sum of money that you have to pay,
for example as a tax to the government.
 [+on] an annual motor way levy on all drivers.
 [+on] plans to impose a flat-rate levy on all
businesses involved with the sale of food.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a levy on something / someone
impose / propose / introduce / pay a levy
a compulsory / annual / £ 100 levy
a levy surcharge / increase / payment
 SYNONYMS : tax, change
B. VERB If a government or organization levies a tax or
other sum of money, it demands it from people or
organizations.
 [+ on] They levied religious taxes on Christian
commercial transactions.
 Taxes should not be levied without the authority of
Parliament.
 COLLOCATIONS :
levy something on something / someone
levy a fine / fee / tax / charge / penalty
 SYNONYMS : tax, charge
…………………………………………………………………
327. lib | er | al
(liberals)
A. ADJECTIVE Someone who has liberal views
believes people should have a lot of freedom in
deciding how to behave and think.
 She is known to have liberal views on divorce and
contraception.
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 Traditional values were challenged in the 1960 s by a
more liberal attitude.
 COLLOCATIONS :
liberal views / values
a liberal attitude
 Liberal is also a noun.  a nation of free-thinking
liberals
B. ADJECTIVE A liberal system allows people or
organizations a lot of political or economic freedom.
 a liberal democracy with a multiparty political
system.
 They favour liberal free-market policies.
 COLLOCATION :
a liberal democracy / society / state / policy
 Liberal is also a noun.
 These kinds of price controls go against all the
financial principles of the free market liberals.
 Even the bleeding-heart liberals must surely
realize that in a war zone accasionally innocents get
killed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a liberal government/ party/ leader/ MP / candidate
socially / relatively / politically liberal
a bleeding-heart/ tax-and-spend/free-market liberal
 RELATED WORD : conservative
lib | er | al | ize (liberalizes, liberalizing, liberalized)
VERB When a country or government liberalizes, or
liberalizes its laws or its attitude, it becomes less strict
and allows people more freedom in their actions. [in
BRIT, also use liberalise]
 authoritarian states that have only now begun to
liberalise.
 the diseasion to liberalize travel restrictions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
liberalize trade / laws / rules / society
liberalize a regime / economy
 SYNONYMS : relax, ease, moderate
lib | er | ali | za | tion /libralar'zenfan /
[in BRIT, also use
liberalization]  [+of] the liberalization of divorce
laws in the late 1960s.
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
 COLLOCATIONS :
the liberalization of something
the liberalization of trade
the liberalization of a law / economy
 SYNONYMS : relaxation, easing, moderation
…………………………………………………………………
328. li | cence
(licences)
NOUN A licence is an official document which gives you
permission to do, use sell, or own something. [in AM,
use license]
 Payne lost his driving licence a year ago for drinkdriving.
 [+to-inf] It gained a licence to operate as a bank in
1981.
 COLLOCATIONS :
issue / grant / revoke / suspend a licence
a driving / fishing / gun licence
a software / entertainment / gaming / liquor licence
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a television / radio / marriage licence
a valid licence
a licence application / fee / holder
 SYNONYM : permit
li | cense
(licenses, licensing, licensed)
VERB To license a person or activity means to give
official permission for the person to do something or for
the activity to take place.
 This is a proposal
…………………………………………………………………
329. like | wise
ADVERB You use likewise when you are comparing two
methods, states, or situations and saying that they are
similar.
 All attempts by the Socialists to woo him back were
spurned. Similar overtures from the right have likewise
been rejected.
 The V2 was not an ordinary weapon: it could only be
used against cities. Likewise the atom bomb.
 SYNONYM : similarly
…………………………………………………………………
330. link
(links, linking, linked)
A. NOUN If there is a link between two things or
situations, there is a relationship between them, for
example because one thing causes or affects the other.
 [+between] the link between smoking and lung
cancer.
 [+with] Police are investigating potential links
with the bombing of a car on Monday.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a link between something
a link with something
uncover / investigate a link
a direct / close / possible / strong link
 SYNONYMS : connection, relationship, association
B. VERB If someone or something links two things or
situations, there is a relationship between them, for
example because one thing causes or affects the other.
 [+with] The study further strengthens the evidence
linking smoking with early death.
 The detention raised two distinct but closely linked
questions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
link something with / to something
closely/ directly/ inextricably/ intimately / allegedly
linked
evidence / speculation / rumour links things
a study links things
link a death / murder / incident / suspect / group to
something
…………………………………………………………………
331. lo | cate
(locates, locating, located)
A. VERB If you locate something or someone, you find
out where they are ; a formal use.
 The scientists want to locate the position of the
gene on a chromosome.
 We've simply been unable to locate him.
B. If you locate something in a particular place, you put
it there or build it there; a formal use.
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305
 Atlanta was voted the best city in which to locate a
business by more than 400 chief executives.
 Tudor Court represents your apportunity to locate
at the heart of the new Birmingham.
lo | cat | ed
ADJECTIVE if something is located in a particular
place, it is present or has been built there. [FORMAL]
 The restaurant is located near the cathedral.
 [+within] A boutique and beauty salon are
conveniently located within the groups.
 COLLOCATIONS :
located in / near / within a place
conveniently / centrally located
 SYNONYM : situated
lo | ca | tion
(locations)
NOUN A location is the place where something happens
or is situated.
 The first thing he looked at was his office's location.
 Macau's newest small luxury hotel has a beautiful
location.
 [+of] finding the exact location of the church.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the location of something
a location for something
reveal / identify / pinpoint / determine the location
of something
a different / specific / exact / remote / geographical
location
a prime / central / ideal / exotic location
a secret / undisclosed / seaside / waterfront location
…………………………………………………………………
332. log | ic
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Logic is a method of reasoning
that involves a series of statements, each of which must
be true if the statement before it is true.
 Apart from criminal investigation techniques, students
learn forensic medicine, philosophy and logic.
 to prove God's existence by means of deductive logic.
logi | cal
A. ADJECTIVE In a logical argument or method of
reasoning, each must be true it the step before it is
true.
 Only when each logical step has been checked by
other mathematicians will the proof be accepted.
 While this is a fair and logical argument.
 COLLOCATION :a logical step / argument
B. ADJECTIVE The logical conclusion or result of a
series of facts or events is the only one which can
come from it, according to the rules of logic.
 If the climate gets drier, then the logical
conclusion is that even more drought will occur.
 a society that dismisses God as a logical
impossibility.
 COLLOCATION :
a logical conclusion / result /extension / progression
logi | cal | ly
ADVERB  From that it followed logically that he
would not be meeting Hildegarde.  My professional
training has taught me to look at things logically.
…………………………………………………………………
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307
M
333. main | tain
(maintains, maintaining, maintained)
A. VERB If you maintain something, you continue to
have it, and do not let it stop or grow weaker.
 The Department maintains close contacts with the
chemical industry.
 Such extrovert characters try to maintain
relationships no matter how damaging these
relationships may be.
 emergency powers to try to maintain law and
order.
B. VERB If you maintain something at a particular rate
or level, you keep it at that rate or level.
 [+at] The government was right to maintain
interest rates at a high level.
 [+at] action is required to ensure standards are
maintained at as high a level as possible.
 COLLOCATIONS :
maintain something at a level
maintain standards / interest / levels / discipline /
control / silence
maintain contacts / relationships
 PHRASE : maintain law and order
 COLLOCATIONS :
the maintenance of something
the maintenance of peace/ standards / order / health
the maintenance of the equipment/ building / facility
 SYNONYMS : upkeep, continuation
…………………………………………………………………
334. ma | jor
ADJECTIVE You use major when you want to describe
something that is more important, serious, or significant
than other things in a group or situation.
 The major factor in the decision to stay or to leave
was usually professional.
 Drug abuse is a major problem in the city.
 Exercise has a major part to play in preventing
disease.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a major event / concern / project
a major problem / factor / change
 PHRASE : play a major part in something
 SYNONYMS : key, crucial, central, primary
 ANTONYM : minor
ma | jor | ity / ma'dzoriti, AM-dzo:r /
NOUN The majority of people or things in a group is
main | te | nance
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you ensure the maintenance
of a state, process, or object, you make sure that they
remain in a good or favourable condition.
 [+ of] the maintenance of peace and stability in Asia.
 [+of] the importance of natural food to the
maintenance of health.
more than half of them.
 Before the war a majority opposed invasion, yet 51%
now think it was justified.
 [+of] The vast majority of our cheeses are made with
pasteurized milk.
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309
 COLLOCATIONS :
the majority of something
the majority of voters / people / citizens / members
the majority of the population / electorate
a vast / great / overwhelming / slim majority
the majority support / favour / endorse / reject /
oppose something
 PHRASE
: in the majority
 ANTONYM : minority
…………………………………………………………………
335. ma | nipu | late
(mainpulstes, manipulating,
manipulsted)
A. VERB If you say that someone manipulates an event
or situation, you disapprove of them because they use
or control it for their own benefit, or cause it to
develop in the way they want.
 He said that the state television was trying to
manipulate the election outcome.
 They felt he had been cowardly in manipulating the
system to avoid the draft.
 COLLOCATIONS :
manipulate an outcome / opinion
manipulate the media
skillfully/ easily/ fraudulently / cynically manipulate
something
B. VERB If you manipulate something that require skill,
such as a complicated piece of equipment or a
difficult idea, you operate it or process it.
 The technology uses a pen to manipulate a
computer.
 The puppets are expertly manipulated by LizWalker.
 His mind moves in quantum leaps, manipulating ideas
and jumping on to new ones as soon as he can.
 COLLOCATIONS :
manipulate a puppet / gadget / object
deftly / skilfully manipulate something
 SYNONYMS : work, handle
ma | nipu | la | tion
NOUN  Science that requires only the simplest of
mathematical manipulations
 accusations of political manipulation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
alleged / fraudulent manipulation
genetic / statistical manipulation
involve / avoid / require manipulation
…………………………………………………………………
336. manu | al
ADJECTIVE Manual work is work in which you use
your hands or your physical strength rather than you
mind.
 skilled manual workers
 They work in factory or manual jobs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
manual work / labour
a manual job / worker / labourer
 SYNONYMS : blue-collar, physical
 ANTONYM
: clerical, white-collar
…………………………………………………………………
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311
337. mar | gin
(margins)
A. NOUN A margin is the difference between two
amounts, especially the difference in the number of
votes or points between the winner and the loser in an
election or other contest.
 They could end up with a 50-point winning margin.
 The Sunday Tiems remains the brand leader by a
huge margin.
 The margin in favour was 280-to-153.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a margin of x
a gross / winning / narrow / slim / wide margin
a profit margin
B. NOUN The margin of a written or printed page is the
empty space at the side of the page.
 She added her comments in the margin.
 [+of] The wood-eating insects also don't like the
taste of ink and prefer the binding and the margin of
the pages.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the margin of something
in the margin
C. NOUN The margin of a place or area is the extreme
edge of it.  the low coastal plain along the western
margin.  [+of] These islands are on the margins of
human habitation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the margin of something
on the margins
 SYNONYMS : edge, periphery
mar | gin | al
ADJECTIVE If you describe something as marginal,
you mean that it is small or not very important.
 This is a marginal improvement on October.
 The role of the opposition party proved marginal.
…………………………………………………………………
338. ma | ture
A. VERB When a child or young animal matures, it
becomes an adult.
 Children are maturing earlier physically and are
more exposed to, and targeted by the media.
 The eggs hatched and the chicks matured.
 COLLOCATION :mature physically / sexually
 SYNONYM : develop
B. VERB When something matures, it reaches a state of
complete development.
 When the trees matured they were cut in certain
areas.
 Their songwriting has matured.
 SYNONYM : develop
C. VERB If someone matures, they become more fully
developed in their personality and emotional
behavior.
 Many colleges actually recommend a year off
before starting classes as a means to mature
emotionally.
 [+as] You can see how he has matured as a person
over the last 12 months.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mature as something
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313
mature as a person / individual
maxi | mum
mature intellectually / mentally / emotionally /
A. ADJECTIVE You use maximum to describe an
amount which is the largest that is possible, allowed,
or required.
 The maximum sentence for supplying illegal drugs
is life imprisonment.
 China headed the table with maximum points.
 Maximum is also a noun.
 [+of] The law provides for a maximum of two
years in prison.
 COLLOCATION :a maximum of something
 ANTONYM : minimum
B. ADJECTIVE You use maximum to indicate how great
an amount is.
 the maximum amount of information.
 It was achieved with minimum fuss and maximum
efficiency.
 a maximum security prison.
spiritually
 SYNONYM : grow up
…………………………………………………………………
339. max | im | ize
VERB If you maximize something, you make it as great
in amount or importance as you can. [in BRIT, also use
maximize]  In order to maximize profit the firm would
seek to maximize output.
 They were looking for suitable ways of maximizing
their electoral support.
 COLLOCATION :
maximize profit / revenue / appreciation / efficiency
 SYNONYM : minimize
maxi | mi | za | tion
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
[in
BRIT,
also
use
maximization]
 a pricing policy that was aimed at profit
maximization.
 [+of] Craftsmanship was conceived as a amount of
human fulfillment which could not survive where the
maximization of profits was the primary end.
 COLLOCATION :
the maximization of something
 SYNONYM : minimization
 COLLOCATIONS :
maximum efficiency / security / flexibility
the maximum sentence / penalty / speed / amount /
height / weight
 ANTONYM : minimum
…………………………………………………………………
340. mecha | nism
(mechanisms)
NOUN In a machine or piece of equipment, a
mechanism is a part, often consisting of a set of smaller
parts, which performs a particular function.
 the locking mechanism.
 A bomb has been detonated by a special mechanism.
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315
 COLLOCATIONS :
operate / trigger a mechanism
a locking / release / firing mechanism
 SYNONYM : device
…………………………………………………………………
341. me | dia
NOUN You can refer to television, radio, newspapers,
and magazines as the media.
 It is hard work and not a glamorous job as portrayed
by the media.
 bias in the news media
 the intensive media coverage of the issue.
 COLLOCATIONS :
in the media
the foreign / local / international media
the mass / mainstream / news media
the media report / cover / portray something
media attention / coverage / reports
a media correspondent / mogul / analyst
 PHRASE : in / under the media spotlight
 SYNONYM : press
…………………………………………………………………
342. me | di | ate
(mediates, mediating, mediated)
A. VERB If someone mediates between two groups of
people, or mediates an agreement between them,
they try to settle an argument between them by talking
to both group and trying to find things that they can
both agree to.
 [+between] My mon was the one who mediated
between Zelda and her mom.
 [+between] United Nations officials have mediated
a series of peace meetings between the two sides.
 [+in] The Vatican successfully mediated in a
territorial dispute between Argentina and Chile in
1984.
 U.N peacekeepers mediated a new cease-fire.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mediate between people
mediate in something
mediate a dispute / crisis
mediate talks
 SYNONYM : arbitrate
B. VERB If something mediates a particular process or
event, it allows that process or event to happen and
influences the way in which it happens. [FORMAL]
 the thymus, the organ which mediates the response
of the white blood cells.
 People's responses to us have been mediated by
their past experience of life.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mediated by something
a cell / organism / mechanism mediates something
mediate a response / allergy
mediate behaviour
 SYNONYM : influence
me | dia | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+between] The agreement
provides for United Nations mediation between the two
sides.
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317
 [+of] There is still a possibility the two sides could
reach a compromise through the mediation of a third
party.
 [+of] This works through the mediation of the central
nervous system.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mediation between something
the mediation of someone / something
try / accept / attempt / require mediation
international / third-party / federal mediation
a mediation effort / process / session
 SYNONYM : arbitration
…………………………………………………………………
343. medi | cal
ADJECTIVE Medical means relating to illness and
injuries and to their treatment or prevention.
 Several police officers received medical treatment for
cuts and bruises.
 the medical profession.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the medical profession / establishment
medical attention / treatment / care
medical staff / students / examiners / experts
medi | cal | ly
ADVERB  I am not medically qualified.
 She was deemed medically fit to travel.
 COLLOCATIONS :
medically qualified / trained / certified
medically fit / unfit
medi | cine
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Medicine is the treatment of
illness and injuries by doctors and nurses.
 He pursued a career in medicine.
 I was interested in alternative medicine and becoming
an aromatherapist.
 Psychiatry is an accepted branch of medicine.
 COLLOCATIONS :
alternative / complementary / herbal medicine
veterinary / homeopathic / forensic medicine
conventional / orthodox medicine
practice / study medicine
a branch / field / area of medicine
 SYNONYM : health care
…………………………………………………………………
344. me | dium
(mediums, media)
A. NOUN A medium is a way or means of expressing
your ideas or of communicating with people.
 [+of] In Sierra Leone, English is used as the
medium of instruction for all primary education.
 But Artaud was increasingly dissatisfied with film
as a medium.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a medium of something
a medium of instruction/ exchange/ communication
the medium of television / film / radio
 SYNONYM : means
B. NOUN A medium is a substance or material which is
used for a particular purpose or in order to produce a
particular effect.
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319
 Blood is the medium in which oxygen is carried to
all parts of the body.
 [+of] Hyatt has found a way of creating these
qualities using the more permanent medium of oil
paint.
 COLLOCATION :the medium of something
 SYNONYMS : material, substance
…………………………………………………………………
345. men | tal
A. ADJECTIVE Mental means relating to the process of
thinking.
 the mental development of children
 intensive mental effort.
 COLLOCATION :
mental development / effort / processes
B. ADJECTIVE Mental means relating to the state or the
health of a person's mind.
 The mental state that had created her psychosis
was no longer present.
 mental health problems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mental health / illness / impairment
mental anguish / distress
men | tal | ly
ADVERB  the way the person functions physically,
emotionally and mentally at work.
 an inmate who is mentally disturbed
 the needs of the mentally ill
 COLLOCATIONS :
mentally ill / handicapped / incompetent / alert
prepare / focus mentally
mentally tired / relaxed / prepared
 PHRASES :
mentally and physically
mentally and emotionally
…………………………………………………………………
346. meth | od
(methods)
NOUN A method is a particular way of doing something.
 [+of] The pill is the most efficient method of birth
control.
 new teaching methods
 [+of] Child pschologists have devised many ingenious
methods of investigating this.
 Experts will use a variety of scientific methods to
measure fatigue levels.
 COLLOCATIONS :
use / employ / adopt / devise / develop a method
teaching / faming / cooking methods
a method of something
a method of teaching / execution / calculation /
communication
a scientific / proven / statistical / efficient method
a preferred/ usual / conventional / tradition method
devise / employ / adopt / test a method
a teaching / cooking / testing / detection method
 SYNONYMS : mode, manner, procedure
meth | od | ol | ogy
(methodologies)
NOUN A methodology is a system of methods and
principles for doing something, for example for teaching
or for carrying out research. [FORMAL]
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321
 Teaching methodologies vary according to the topic.
 In their own work they may have favoured the use of
methodology different from mine.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a teaching / research / experimental methodology
employ / devise / develop a methodology
…………………………………………………………………
347. mi | grate
(migrates, migrating, migrated)
A. VERB If people migrate, they move from one place
to another, especially in order to find work or to live
somewhere for a short time.
 [+ to] People migrate to cities like Jakarta in
search of work.
 Farmers have learned that they have to migrate if
they want to survive.
 COLLOCATIONS :
migrate from / to somewhere
migrate from the countryside
a family / ancestor / peasant migrates
 SYNONYM : move
B. VERB When birds, fish, or animals migrate, they
move at a particular season from one part of the world
or from one part of a country to another, usually in
order to breed or to find new feeding grounds.
 Most birds have to fly long distances to migrate.
 a dam system that kills the fish as they migrate
from streams to the ocean.
 COLLOCATION :
migrate from / to somewthere
a whale / bird / fish / animal migrates
migrate north / south / inland
 SYNONYM : migrate for winter
mi | gra | tion
(migrations)
NOUN  [+ of] the migration of Soviet Jews to Israel.
 [+ of] the migration of animals in the Serengeti
 COLLOCATIONS :
the migration of someone / something
the migration of birds / workers / jobs
ease / force / prevent / encourage migration
bird / labour / mass / large - scale / illegal migration
annual / seasonal / winter / spring migration
a migration pattern / route / issue / policy
 SYNONYMS : movement, shift
…………………………………………………………………
348. mili | tary
(militaries)
A. ADJECTIVE Military means relating to the armed
forces of a country.
 Military action may become necessary
 Military personnel will help with the relief efforts.
 last year's military coup
 COLLOCATIONS :
a military commander / base / force / presence
military personal/ action/ intelligence / intervention
a military operation / offensive / coup
 SYNONYMS : armed forces, army
 ANTONYM : civilian
B. NOUN The military are the armed forces of a
country, especially officers of high rank.
 The military has overthrown the government.
 Did you serve in the military?
 COLLOCATIONS :
in the military
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323
serve in the military
involve / equip / deploy the military
the British / American / Israeli / Turkish military
the military oust / overthrow a government
the military invade / enter a country
 SYNONYM : army
 RELATED WORD : navy , air force
…………………………………………………………………
349. mini | mal
ADJECTIVE Something that is minimal is very small in
quantity, value or degree.
 The co-operation between the two is minimal.
 One aim of these reforms is effective defence with
minimal expenditure.
 COLLOCATION :
minimal impact/ effect/ damage / risk / expenditure
 ANTONYM : maximal
mini | mal | ly
ADVERB  He was paid, but only minimally.
 minimally invasive techniques.
 COLLOCATIONS :
minimally invasive / stressful / inconvenient
minimally satisfactory / acceptable
…………………………………………………………………
350. mini | mize
(minimixes, minimixing, minimixed)
VERB If you minimize a risk, problem, or unpleasant
situation, you reduce it to the lowest possible level, or
prevent it increasing beyond that level. [in BRIT, also
use minimize]
 Concerned people want to minimize the risk of
developing cancer.
 Many of these problems can be minimized by sensible
planning.
 COLLOCATIONS :
minimize a risk / impact / effect
minimize damage
 ANTONYM : maximize
…………………………………………………………………
351. mini | mum
ADJECTIVE You use minimum to describe an amount
which is the smallest that is possible, allowed, or
required.
 If found guilty, she faces a minimum sentence of ten
years and 30 lashes.
 a rise in the minimum wage
 Minimum is also a noun.
 [+of] This will take a minimum of one hour,
 To provide welfare at a level greater than this bare
minimum discourages self-reliance.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a minimum of something / an amount
the minimum amount / height / requirement / wage
/ sentence
a bare / absolute / required / stated minimum
…………………………………………………………………
352. min | is | try
(ministries)
NOUN In Britain and some other countries, a ministry is
a government department which deals with a particular
thing or area of activity, for example trade, defence, or
transport.
326
325
 [+of] the Ministry of Justice
 a spokesman for the Agriculture Ministry
 COLLOCATIONS :
the ministry of something
the Ministry of Agriculture / Education / Foreign
affairs
the foreign ministry
…………………………………………………………………
353. mi | nor | ity
(minorities)
A. NOUN If you talk about a minority of people or
things in a larger group, you are referring to a number
of them that forms less than half of the larger group,
usually much less than half.
 [+of] Nursery provision covers only a tiny
minority of working mothers.
 These children are only a small minority.
 In the past conservatives have been in the minority.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a minority of people / things
in a / the minority
the minority of the population
the minority of voters / individuals / citizens
a small / tiny / sizeable / significant minority
 ANTONYM : majority
B. NOUN A minority is a group of people of the same
race, culture, or religion who live in a place where
most of the people around them are of a different race,
culture, ore religion.
 the region's ethnic minorities
 Students have called for greater numbers of women
and minorities on the faculty
 COLLOCATIONS :
ethnic / racial / religious minorities
Christian / Muslim minorities
minority rights
mi | nor
ADJECTIVE You use minor when you want to describe
something that is less important, serious, or significant
than other things in a group or situation.
 She had a minor role in the film.
 Officials say the problem is minor, and should be
quickly overcome
 COLLOCATIONS :
a minor problem / matter / incident / setback
minor things / details / surgery / damage
a minor ailment / injury / wound / accident
a minor road / league / role
 SYNONYMS : unimportant, small
 ANTONYMS : major, important
…………………………………………………………………
354. mode
(modes)
A. NOUN A mode of life or behaviour is a particular
way of living or behaving. [FORMAL]
 [+of] the capitalist mode of production.
 He switched automatically into interview mode.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a mode of something
a mode of transport / production / transmission /
expression / dress
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327
B. NOUN On some cameras or electronic devices, the
different modes available are the different programs
or settings that you can choose when you use them.
 when the camera is in manual mode
 in automatic mode, shutter priority and aperture
priority are selected by the mere touch of a button
next to the control dial.
 COLLOCATIONS : manual / automatic mode
…………………………………………………………………
355. modi | fy
(modifies, modifying, modified)
VERB If you modify something, you change it slightly,
usually in order to improve it.
 The club members did agree to modify their
recruitment policy.
 The plane was a modified version of the C-130.
 COLLOCATIONS :
modify food / crops / ingredients
genetically / chemically modified
extensively / significantly modified
 SYNONYM : alter
modi | ca | tion
(modifications)
NOUN  Relatively minor modifications were required.
 behavior modification techniques
 COLLOCATIONS :
genetic/evolutionary/ dietary/ behavior modification
a minor / slight modification
 SYNONYMS : alteration, change
…………………………………………………………………
356. moni | tor
(monitors, monitoring, monitored)
A. VERB If you monitor something, you regularly check
its development or progress, and sometimes comment
on it.
 Officials had not been allowed to monitor the
voting.
 Senior managers can then use the budget as a
control document to monitor progress against the
agreed actions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
closely / strictly / regularly / carefully monitored
monitor progress / activity / effectiveness
monitor the situation
B. NOUN A monitor is a machine that is used to check
or record things, for example processes or substances
inside a person's body.
 The heart monitor shows low levels of
consciousness.
 A blood glucose monitor at a local drug store costs
around $ 25.
 COLLOCATION :
a heart / heart-rate / glucose monitor
…………………………………………………………………
357. mo | tive
(motives)
NOUN You motive for doing it.
 [+for] Police have ruled out robbery as a motive for
the killing.
 [+of] the motives and objectives of British foreign
policy.
 The doctor's motive was to bring an end to his
patient's suffering.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
a motive of something
a motive of someone / something
a motive for a crime / attack / killing / shooting /
murder
question / establish / suggest / understand a motive
a possible / apparent / clear / ulterior motive
 SYNONYMS : reason, grounds, motivation
…………………………………………………………………
358. mu | tu | al
ADJECTIVE You use mutual to describe a situation,
feeling or action that is experienced, felt, or done by both
of two people mentioned.
 The East and the West can work together for their
mutual benefit and progress.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mutual trust / a traction / benefit
mutual suspicion / dislike / hostility
 SYNONYMS : shared, reciprocal
mu | tu | al | ly
ADVERB  Attempts to reach a mutually agreed
solution had been fruitless.
 A meeting would take place at a mutually convenient
time.
 COLLOCATIONS :
mutually beneficial / advantageous
mutually satisfactory / convenient
…………………………………………………………………
N
359. ne | gate
(negates, negating, negated)
VERB If one thing negates another, it causes that other
thing to lose the effect or value that it had. [FROMAL]
 These weaknesses negated his otherwise progressive
attitude towards the staff.
 An amendment to the bill effective negated federal
regulations that require organic feed for farm animals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
negate a benefit / need / advantage / effect
completely / largely / effectively negate something
 SYNONYMS : nullify, invalidate, cancel, neutralize
 ANTONYMS : confirm, affirm
ne | ga | tion
NOUN [FORMAL]
 [+of]Unintelligible legislation is the negation of the
rule of law and of parliamentary decmocracy.
 The very foundation of this agency is a complete
negation of the Quebec identity.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the negation of something
the negation of democracy
 SYNONYMS : opposite, denial, contradiction
 ANTONYMS : confirmation, affirmation
…………………………………………………………………
360. net | work
(networks)
A. NOUN A network of lines, roads, veins or other long
thin things is a large number of them which cross
each other or meet at many points.
 [+of] Strasbourg, with its rambling network of
medieval streets.
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 [+of] a rich network of blood vessels and nerves
 COLLOCATIONS :
a network of something
a network of tunnels / rivers / canals / pipelines
 SYNONYMS : web, grid
B. NOUN A network of people or institutions is a large
number of them that have a connection with each
other and work together as a system.
 [+of] a network of local church people and other
volunteers.  He is keen to point out the benefits
which the family network can provide.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a network of people / things
a terrorist / corporate / operator network
create / build / establish / expand a network
 SYNONYM : system
C. NOUN A particular network is a system of things
which are connected and which operate together.
 a computer network with 154 terminals
 Huge sections of the rail network are out of action.
 COLLOCATIONS :
install / operate a network
a wireless / mobile / cable network
a television / computer / radio / phone network
a broadcasting / storage / communications network
a rail / railway / transport / distribution network
a network operator / provider / connection
network equipment / infrastructure / capacity
 SYNONYM : system
…………………………………………………………………
361. neu | tral
A. ADJECTIVE If a person or country adopts a neutral
position or remains neutral, they do not support
anyone in a disagreement, war, or contest.
 They'll meet on neutral territory.
 [+in] Those who had decided to remain neutral in
the struggle now found themselves required to take
side.
 COLLOCATIONS :
neutral in something
remain neutral
a neutral stance / position / zone
neutral territory / ground
politically neutral
 SYNONYMS : impartial, unbiased
 ANTONYM : biased
B. ADJECTIVE Neutral is used to describe something
that is neither negative nor positive.
 Pure water is neutral with a pH of 7.
 ICI is making profit of £190m on the sale, which
will have a neutral impact on its earnings.
…………………………………………………………………
362. never | the | less
ADVERB You use nevertheless when saying something
that contrasts with what has just been said. [FORMAL]
 Most marriages fail after between five and nine years.
Nevertheless, people continue to get married.
 There had been no indication of any loss of mental
faculties. His whole life had nevertheless been clouded
with a series of illnesses.
 SYNONYMS : nonetheless, even, so, still, yet
…………………………………………………………………
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363. none | the | less
365. nor | mal
ADVERB Nonetheless means the same as nevertheless.
ADJECTIVE Something that is normal is usual and
[FROMAL]
ordinary, and is what people expect.
 The two countries resumed normal diplomatic
relations.
 [+for] Some of the shops were closed but that's quite
normal for a Thursday afternoon.
 In November, Clean's bakery produced 50 percent
more bread than normal.
 There was still a long way to go. Nonetheless, same
progress had been made.
 Many a country awash in violence has nonetheless
managed the transition to democracy.
 a second-hand gift, but nonetheless pleasurable for its
recipient.
 SYNONYMS : nevertheless, however
…………………………………………………………………
364. norm
(norms)
A. NOUN Norms are ways of behaving that are
considered normal in a particular society.
 [+of] the commonly accepted norms of democracy.
 [+that] a social norm that says drunkenness is
inappropriate behaviour.
 SYNONYMS : average, rule, value
B. NOUN A norm is an official standard or level that
organizations are expected to reach.
 an agency which would establish European norms
 COLLOCATIONS :
normal for something
normal conditions/ development/ behavior/ practice
a normal pressure / level / feeling / situation / life
a normal procedure / routine / cell
seem / look / appear normal
perfectly / quite / relatively / completely normal
 PHRASES :
as normal
return to normal
back to normal
 SYNONYM
: usual
 ANTONYMS : unusual, abnormal
and co-ordinate national policies to halt pollution.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a norm of something
the norms of behaviour
a cultural / democratic / social / accepted norm
accept / establish / meet the norms of something
 SYNONYMS : standard, rule
…………………………………………………………………
nor | mal | ly
ADVERB If you say that something normally happens or
that you normally do a particular thing, you mean that it
is what usually happens or what you usually do.
 All airports in the country are working normally
today.
 Social progress is normally a matter of struggles and
conflicts.
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 Normally, the transportation system in Paris carries
 Notwithstanding is also an adverb.
950,000 passengers a day.
 His relations with colleagues, differences of
 COLLOCATIONS :
opinion notwithstanding, were unfailingly friendly.
function / behave / operate / develop normally
 SYNONYMS : in spite of, despite
eat / breathe / act normal
…………………………………………………………………
 SYNONYMS : as normal, as usual
368. nu | clear
 ANTONYM : abnormally
A. ADJECTIVE Nuclear means relating to the nuclei of
…………………………………………………………………
atoms, or to the energy released when these nuclei are
366. no | tion
split or combined.
(notions)
NOUN A notion is an idea or belief about something.
 a nuclear power station
 [+of] We each have a notion of just what kind of
 nuclear energy
person we'd like to be.
 nuclear physics

[+that]
I
reject
absolutely
the
notion that
 COLLOCATIONS :
privatisation of our industry is now inevitable.
a nuclear power / station / plant / facility
 COLLOCATIONS :
nuclear power / energy / waste / material
a notion of something
nuclear physics
the notion of justice / equality / identity
B. ADJECTIVE Nuclear means relating to weapons that
a preconceived notion
explode by using the energy released when the nuclei
dismiss / reject / challenge a notion
of atoms are split or combined.
 SYNONYMS : idea, concept
 They rejected a demand for the removal of all
…………………………………………………………………
nuclear weapons from U.K soil.
367. not | with | stand | ing
 nuclear testing.
PREPOSITION If something is true notwithstanding
something else, it is true in spite of that other thing.
[FORMAL]
views they both held.
Millen
a nuclear weapon / test / programme
 SYNONYM : atomic
 He despised William Pitt, notwithstanding the similar

 COLLOCATION :
expected
they
notwithstanding his absence.
would
take
action
…………………………………………………………………
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O
369. ob | jec | tive
(objectives)
A. NOUN Your objective is what you are trying to
achieve.
 Our main objective was the recovery of the child
safe and well.
 Our objective is to become the number-one digital
corporation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the primary / key objective
achieve / set / meet an objective
 SYNONYMS : purpose, aim, goal
B. ADJECTIVE Objective information is based on facts.
 He had no objective evidence that anything
extraordinary was happening.  It is futile to look for
objective causes of drug addition.
 COLLOCATION :objective evidence/ truth/ reality
 SYNONYM : factual
 ANTONYM : subjective
C. ADJECTIVE If someone is objective, they base their
opinions on facts rather than on their personal
feelings.
 I believe that a journalist should be completely
objective.
 I would really like to have your objective opinion
on this.
 COLLOCATIONS :
completely / supposedly / truly objective
an objective opinion / account
 SYNONYMS :
impartial, unbiased, unprejudiced, open-minded
 ANTONYM : subjective
ob | jec | tiv | ly
ADVERB Something that is done objectively is done
according to facts rather than opinions or emotions.
 We simply want to inform people objectively about
events.
 Try to view situations more objectively, especially
with regard to work.
 COLLOCATION :
measure / assess / report / view something
objectively
 SYNONYM : impartially
 ANTONYM : subjectively
ob | jec | tiv | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Objectivity is a lack of bias,
personal opinion, or emotion.
 The poll, whose objectivity is open to question, gave
the party a 39% share of the vote.
 The psychiatrist must learn to maintain an unusual
degree of objectivity.

COLLOCATIONS :
maintain / lack / lose objectivity
journalistic / scientific / professional objectivity
 SYNONYM : impartiality
 ANTONYM : subjectivity
…………………………………………………………………
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370. ob | tain
(obtains, obtaining, obtained)
VERB To obtain something means to get it or achieve it.
[FORMAL]
 Evans was trying to obtain a false passport.
 The perfect body has always been difficult to obtain.
 COLLOCATIONS :
obtain help / approval / permission
obtain information / documents / financing
obtain something easily / fraudulently / illegally
 SYNONYMS : get, acquire, achieve
…………………………………………………………………
371. ob | vious
A. ADJECTIVE If something is obvious, it is easy to see
or understand.
 the need to rectify what is an obvious injustice.
 Determining how the Democratic challenger would
conduct his presidency isn't quite so obvious.
B. If you describe something that someone says as
obvious, you are being critical of it because you think
it is unnecessary or shows lack of imagination.
 There are some very obvious phrases that we all
know or certainly should know better than to use.
obviousness
obviously
A. You use obviously when you are stating something
that you expect your listener to know already.
 Obviously, they've had sponsorship from some big
companies.
 There are obviously exceptions to this.
B. You use obviously to indicate that something is easily
noticed, seen, or recognized.
 They obviously appreciate you very much.
 She's so obviously cleverer and prettier than I am.
C. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  Francis smiled
agreement, irritated by the obviousness of his
answer. If you say that someone is stating the
obvious, you mean that they are saying something
that everyone already knows and understands.
 It may be stating the obvious, but most teleworking
at present is connected with computers.
…………………………………………………………………
372. oc | cu | py
(occupies, occupying, occupied)
A. VERB The people who occupy a building or a place
are the people who live or work there.
 There were over 40 tenants, all occupying one
wing of the hospital.
 Land is, in most instances, purchased by those who
occupy it.
 COLLOCATIONS :
occupy land
occupy a building / floor
 SYNONYM : inhabit
B. VBERB If someone or something occupies a
particular place in a system, process, or plan.
 We occupy a quality position in the market place.
 Men still occupy positions of power than women.
 COLLOCATION :occupy a position
 SYNONYM : hold
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C. VERB If something occupies a particular area or
place, it fills or covers it, or exists there.
 Even quite small aircraft occupy a lot of space.
 Bookshelves occupied most of the living room
walls.
 COLLOCATIONS :
occupy space
occupy a wall / floor
…………………………………………………………………
373. oc | cur
(occur, occurring, occurred)
A. VERB When something occurs, it happens.
 [+at] If headaches only occur at night, lack of
fresh air and oxygen is often the cause.
 [+when] The crash accurred when the crew shut
down the wrong engine.
 COLLOCATIONS :
occur at a time
changes / problems / incidents occur
naturally / normally occur
B. VERB When something occurs in a particular place, it
exists or is present there.
 The cattle disease occurs more or less anywhere in
Africa where the fly occurs.
 [+on] These snails do not occur on low-lying coral
islands or atolls.
 COLLOCATIONS :
occur in / on somewhere
frequently / naturally / normally occur
 SYNONYM : exist
oc | cur | rence
(occurrences)
NOUN An occurrence is something that happens.
[FORMAL]
 Complaints seemed to be an everybody occurrence.
 [+of] There is no general agreed explanation for the
occurrence of hallucinations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the occurrence of something
prevent/ reduce/ increase the occurrence of something
a common / rare / daily / everyday occurrence
 SYNONYMS :
incident, happening, event, phenomenon
…………………………………………………………………
374. odd
ADJECTIVE Odd numbers, such as 3 and 17, are those
which cannot be divided exactly by the number two.
 Multiplying an odd number by an odd number always
gives an odd number.
 There's an odd number of candidates.
 COLLOCATION :an odd number
 ANTONYM : even
…………………………………………………………………
375. off | set
(offsets, offsetting)
VERB If one thing is offset by another, the effect of the
first thing is reduced by the second, so that any
advantage or disadvantage is cancelled out.
 [+by] The increase in pay costs was more than offset
by higher productivity.
 The move is designed to help offset the shortfall in
world oil supplies caused by the U.N embargo.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
offset by something
partially/ partly/ largely/ somewhat offset something
offset the loss / cost / impact / effect of something
 SYNONYMS : balance, counteract
…………………………………………………………………
376. on | going
B. NOUN An option is one of a number of subjects
which a student can choose to study as a part of his or
her course.
 Several options are offered for the student's senior
year.
 You may choose options such as Conversation,
Grammar, or Examination Preparation.
ADJECTIVE An ongoing situation has been happening
for quite a long time and seems likely to continue for
some time in the future.
 There is an ongoing debate on the issue.
 That research is ongoing.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an ongoing debate / process / effort / war
an ongoing investigation / dispute / discussion /
debate
ongoing research
 SYNONYM : continuing
…………………………………………………………………
377. op | tion
(options)
A. NOUN An option is something that you can choose to
do in preference to one or more alternative.
 He's argued from the start that America and its
allies are putting too much emphasis on the military
option.
 What other options do you have ?
 COLLOCATIONS :
the preferred / viable option
a military / straight option
 SYNONYMS : alternation, choice
op | tion | al
ADJECTIVE If something is optional, you can choose
whether or not you do it or have it.
 Finally, it becomes economic to offer the customer
optional extras.
 The violin part is more than an optional
accompaniment.
 COLLOCATION :an optional extra
 ANTONYM : compulsory
…………………………………………………………………
378. ori | ent
(orients, orienting, oriented)
or orientate
VERB When you orient yourself to a new situation or
course of action, you learn about it and prepare to deal
with it. [FORMAL]
 [+ towards / to] You will need the time to orient
yourself to your new way of eating.
 [+towards / to] orienting students to new ways to
thinking about their participation in classroom learning.
 [+in] Anxiety comes from not being able to orient
yourself in your own existence.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
orient someone to / towards / in something
orient yourself
 SYNONYMS : accustom, familiarize
ori | ent | ed
ADJECTIVE If someone is oriented towards or
oriented to a particular things or person, they are mainly
concerned with that thing or person.
 [+towards] It seems almost inevitable that North
African economies will still be primarily oriented
towards Europe.
 [+to] Most students here are oriented to computers.
 COLLOCATION :oriented to / towards something
ori |en | ta | tion
(orientations)
NOUN If you talk about the orientation of an
organization or country, you are talking about the kinds
of aims and interests it has.
 a marketing orientation
 To a society which has lost its orientation he has
much to offer.
 The movement is liberal and social democratic in
orientation.
 COLLOCATION :orientation towards something
 SYNONYM : inclination
…………………………………………………………………
379. out | come
(outcomes)
NOUN The outcome of an activity, process, or situation
is the situation that exists at the end of it.
 Mr.Singh said he was pleased with the outcome.
 [+of] It's too early to know the outcome of her illness.
 a successful outcome.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the outcome of something
await/ predict/ decide/ affect/ influence the outcome
the likely outcome
a successful outcome
 SYNONYMS : result, conclusion
…………………………………………………………………
380. out | put
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Output is used to refer to
something that a person or thing produces.
 Govrnment statistics show the largest drop in
industrial output for ten years.
 [+of] The gland enlarges in an attempt to increase
the output of hormone.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the output of something
boost / increase / reduce / cut output
output rises / fails
industrial/ agricultural / economic/ manufacturing/
oil / power output
total / annual output
 ANTONYM : input
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The output of a computer or
other device is the information or signals that it
displays on a screen or prints on paper as a result of a
particular program.
 You run the software, you look at the output, you
make modifications.
 [+from] Screen copy is the output from a computer
as seen as a screen.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
the output from something
digital / computer output
an output device
 ANTONYM : input
…………………………………………………………………
381. over | all
ADJECTIVE You use overall to indicate that you are
talking about a situation in general or about the whole of
something.
 the overall rise in unemployment.
 A company must have both an overall strategy and
local strategies for each unit.
 It is usually the woman who assumes overall care of
the baby.
 Overall is also an adverb.  The review omitted some
studies. Overall, however, the evidence was
persuasive.  The college has few ways to assess the
quality of education overall.
 COLLOCATIONS :
overall spending / revenue
an overall impression / strategy / performance
an overall majority / increase
 SYNONYM : general
 ANTONYM : specific
…………………………………………………………………
382. over | lap
(overlaps, overlapping, overlapped)
VERB If one idea or activity overlaps another, or
overlaps with another, they involve some of the same
subjects, people, or periods of time.
 [+with] Christian holy week overlaps with the
beginning of the Jewish holiday of Passover.
 The needs of patients invariably overlap.
 [+by] Their life-spans overlapped by six years.
 COLLOCATIONS :
overlap with something
overlap by an amount
 SYNONYM : coincide
…………………………………………………………………
383. over | seas
A. ADJECTIVE You use overseas to describe things that
involve or are in foreign countries usually across sea
or an ocean.
 He has returned to South Africa from his long
overseas t rip.
 overseas trade figures.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an overseas trip / travel / tour / market / operation
overseas aid
 SYNONYM : foreign
 RELATED WORD : domestic
B. ADJECTIVE An overseas student or visitor comes
from a foreign country, usually across a sea or an
ocean.
 Every year nine million overseas visitors come to
London.
 firmly targeted at overseas buyers.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an overseas student / visitor / investor / buyer
 SYNONYM : foreign
…………………………………………………………………
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349
P
 COLLOCATIONS :
a paradigm of something
384. pan | el
(panels)
A. NOUN A panel is a small group of people who are
chosen to do something, for example to discuss
something in public or to make a decision.
 [+of] He assembled a panel of advise him.
 The advisory panel disagreed with the decision.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a panel of something
a panel of experts / judges / scientists
a house / senate / congressional / review / advisory /
independent panel
a panel investigates / reviews / judge something
a panel recommends / rules / concludes that
B. NOUN A panel is a flat rectangular piece of wood or
other material that forms part of a larger object such
as a door.
 the frosted glass panel set in the centre of the door.
 The craft relies on the solar panels for energy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a solar / wooden / glass panel
a flat / removable / front / decorative panel
assemble / install / attach a panel
…………………………………………………………………
385. para | digm
(paradigms)
NOUN A paradigm is a model for something which
explains it or shows how it can be produced. [FORMAL]
 [+of] a new paradigm of production
 a course that challenges the traditional paradigm
adopted in conventional faculties.
a new / dominant / scientific paradigm
shift / change / adopt / challenge a paradigm
 SYNONYMS : model, pattern
…………………………………………………………………
386. para | graph
(paragraphs)
NOUN A paragraph is a section of a piece of writing. A
paragraph always begins on a new line and contains at
least one sentence.
 The length of a paragraph depends on the information
it conveys.
 Paragraph 81 sets out the rules that should apply if a
gift is accepted.
 COLLOCATION :
a brief / opening / introductory / closing paragraph
 SYNONYM : section
…………………………………………………………………
387. par | al | lel
ADJECTIVE If two lines, two objects, or two lines of
movement are parallel, they are the same distance apart
along their whole length.
 Sometimes the crystals join together in parallel lines.
 [+with] The Andes form a mountain range parallel
with the coast.
 COLLOCATIONS :
parallel with / to something
parallel lines
…………………………………………………………………
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388. pa | ram | eter
(parameters)
NOUN Parameters are factors or limits which affect the
way that something can be done or made. [FORMAL]
 [+of] That would be enough to make sure we fell
within the parameters of our loan agreement.
 some of the parameters that determine the taste of a
wine.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the parameters of something
within the parameters of something
define / set / establish parameters
broad / certain / various / acceptable parameters
 SYNONYM : limits
…………………………………………………………………
389. par | tici | pate
(participates, participating,
participated)
VERB If you participate in an activity, you take part in
it.
 [+in] Hundreds of faithful Buddhists participated in
the annual ceremony.
 [V-ing] lower rates for participating corporations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
participate in something
participate in a discussion/ activity / debate / process
participate equally / willingly / effectively
par | tici | pa | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+in] participation in
religious activities.
 [+of] a higher level of participation of women in the
labour force.
 COLLOCATIONS :
participation in something
participation of / by someone
participation in a discussion / activity / debate /
process
 SYNONYMS : involvement, inclusion
 ANTONYM : exclusion
par | tici | pant
(participants)
NOUN The participants in an activity are the people
who take part in it.
 40 of the course participants are offered employment
with the company
 Conference participants agreed that Canada faces an
urgent situation with respect to health-care provision.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a participant in something
a participant in a discussion / activity / debate /
process
a willing / active / enthusiastic participant
 ANTONYM : observer
part | ner
(partners, partnering, partnered)
A. Your partner is the person you are married to or are
having a romantic or sexual relationship with.
 Wanting other friends doesn't mean you don't love
your partne.
 his choice of marriage partner.
B. Your partner is the person you are doing something
with, for example dancing with or playing with in a
game against two other people.
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 to dance with a partner
 My partner for the event was the marvelous
American player .. a partner in crime.
C. The partners in a firm or bsiness are the people who
share the ownership of it.
 He's a partner in a Chicago law firm.
 her business partner Max Hampshire.
D. The partner of a country or organization is another
country or organization with which they have an
alliance or agreement.
 Spain has been one of Cuba's major trading
partners.
 the main coalition partner in the Slovak
government.
E. If you partner someone, you are their partner in a
game or in a dance.
 He had partnered the famous Russian balleriana.
 He will be partnered by Ian Baker, the defending
champion.
 He partnered Andre Agassi to victory.
Part | ner | ship
(partnerships)
NOUN Partnership or a partnership is a relationship in
which two or more people, organizations, or countries
work together as partners.
 the partnership between Germany's banks and its
businesses.
 Alex and Mikhail were in partnership then: Mikhail
handled the creative side; Alex was the financier.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a partnership between people
a partnership with someone
in partnership
a private/ strategic/ creative/ successful / important
partnership
form / forge / create / strengthen a partnership
 SYNONYMS: relationship, association, collaboration
…………………………………………………………………
391. pas | sive
A. ADJECTIVE If you describe someone as passive, you
mean that they do not take action but instead let
things happen to them.
 His passive attitude made things easier for me.
 Even passive acceptance of the regime was a kind
of collaboration.
 COLLOCATIONS :
passive acceptance / obedience
a passive attitude
 ANTONYM : active
B. ADJECTIVE Passive resistance involves showing
opposition to the people in power in your country by
not co-operating with them and protesting in nonviolent ways.
 They made it clear that they would only exercise
passive resistance in the event of a military takeover.
 a policy of passive resistance or peaceful
demonstration for political purposes.
 SYNONYM : peaceful
 ANTONYM : active
…………………………………………………………………
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392. per | ceive
(perceives, perceiving, perceived)
per | cep | tible
VERB If you perceive someone or something as doing or
ADJECTIVE Something that is perceptible can only just
being a particular things, it is your opinion that they do
be seen or noticed.
this thing or that they are that thing.
 a perceptible shift in US policy.
 [+as] Stress is widely perceived as contributing to
 There was no perceptible difference in temperature.
coronary heart disease.
 COLLOCATIONS :
 [+as] Bioterrorism is perceived as a real threat in the
a perceptible shift/ change/ difference/ improvement
United States.
barely / scarcely / hardly perceptible
 COLLOCATIONS :
 SYNONYMS : discernible, noticeable
perceive something / someone as something
 ANTONYMS : indiscernible, imperceptible
perceive something as a threat / risk / challenge
commonly/ widely/ generally/ traditionally perceived
 SYNONYMS : believe, consider
per | cep | tibly
ADVERB  After 1865 the growth of national craft
unions quickened perceptibly.
per | cep | tion
(perceptions)
 America's attitude to European issues shifted
NOUN Your perception of something is the way that
perceptibly as a result of the end of the Cold War.
you think about it or the impression you have of it.
 COLLOCATION :
 [+of] He is interested in how our perceptions of death
alter / shift / tighten / widen perceptibly
affect the way we live.
 SYNONYMS : discernibly, noticeably
 [+among] There was still a perception among the
 ANTONYM
: imperceptibly
public that the city was unsafe.
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATIONS :
393. per cent
(percent)
a perception of something
ADVERB If an amount is 10 per cent (10 %) of a larger
a perception among people
amount, it is equal to 10 hundredths of the larger amount.
a common / growing / general perception
 [+of] 20 to 40 per cent of the voters are undecided.
reinforce / heighten / foster / counter / alter /
 There has been a ten per increase in the number of
challenge a perception
new students.
 SYNONYMS : impression, understanding
 The cholesterol level fell 45 per cent when colestipol
was combined with niacin.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
X per cent of something
a X per cent increase / decrease
fall / rise X per cent
per | cent | age
(percentages)
NOUN A percentage is a fraction of a amount expressed
as a particular number of hundredths of that amount.
 [+of] Only a few vegetable origin foods have such a
high percentage of protein.
 [+of] A large percentage of the population speaks
fluent English.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a percentage of something
a percentage of the population / workforce /
household
a large / high / sizeable / significant / small / tiny /
low percentage
 SYNONYMS : proportion, amount
…………………………………………………………………
394. pe | ri | od
(periods)
A. NOUN A period is a length of time.
 [+of] This crisis might last for a long period of
time.
 [+of] a period of a few months
 for a limited period only.
B. NOUN A period in the life of a person, organization,
or society is a length of time which is remembered for
a particular situation or a activity.
 [+of] a period of economic good health and
expansion.
 [+of] He went through a period of wanting to be
accepted.
 The South African years were his most creative
period.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a period of something
a period of transition / uncertainty / calm
a limited/ short / long / extended / prolonged period
a holiday / notice / transition period
enter / go through / enjoy a period
 PHRASE : a period of time
 SYNONYMS : duration, time, spell, while
…………………………………………………………………
395. per | sist
(persists, persisting, persisted)
VERB If something undesirable persists, it continues to
exist.
 Contact your doctor if the cough persists.
 [+for] These problems persisted for much of the
decade.
 [+in] The ceremony still persists in some parishes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
persist for a time
persist in a place
a rumour / symptom / doubt persists
fighting / speculation / suspicion persists
still / obstinately / stubbornly persist
 SYNONYMS : continue, exist, endure
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per | sis | tent
ADJECTIVE Something that is persistent continues to
exist or happen for a long time: used especially about
bad or undesirable states or situations.
 Her position as national leader has been weakened by
persistent fears of another coup attempt.
 The public has to be reassured that children are safe
from persistent predatory offenders.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a persistent rumour / offender
a persistent infection / cough / headache
persistent speculation / refusal / rain
more / increasingly / stubbornly persistent
 SYNONYMS :
continuous, constant, relentless, perpetual, incessant
per | sis | tent | ly
ADVERB  The allegations have been persistently
denied by ministers.
 People with rail season tickets will get refunds if
trains are persistently late.
 COLLOCATIONS :
persistently refuse / fail / deny something
persistently high / low / dangerous / weak
…………………………………………………………………
396. per | spec | tive
(perspectives)
NOUN A particular perspective is a particular way of
thinking about something, especially one that is
influenced by your beliefs or experiences.
 [+on] two different perspectives on the nature of
adolescent development.
 [+of] Most literature on the subject of immigrants in
France has been written from the perspective of the
French themselves.
 I would like to offer a historical perspective.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a perspective on something
the perspective of someone
from the perspective of someone / something
a historical / feminist / sociological perspective
a different / new / fresh perspective
 SYNONYMS : viewpoint, position
…………………………………………………………………
397. phase
(phases)
NOUN A phase is a particular stage in a process or in the
gradual development of something.
 [+of] This autumn, 6000 residents will participate in
the first phase of the project.
 The crisis is entering a crucial, critical phase.

COLLOCATIONS :
a phase of something
enter / commence / begin / undergo a phase
mark / herald / signal a phase
a first / initial / early phase
a transitional / experimental / developmental phase
a crucial / critical / decisive phase

SYNONYMS : stage, period
…………………………………………………………………
398. phe | nom | enon
(phenomena)
NOUN A phenomenon is something that is observed to
happen or exist. [FORMAL]
 scientific explanations of natural phenomena.
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 The drought-causing el Nino weather phenomenon
may strike again this season.
 COLLOCATIONS :
examine / observe / study / investigate a phenomenon
a natural / supernatural / scientific phenomenon
a meteorological / cultural / global phenomenon
a widespread / familiar / common phenomenon
…………………………………………………………………
399. phi | loso | phy
(philosophies)
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Philosophy is the study or
creation of theories about basic things such as the nature
of existence, knowledge, and thought, or about how
people should live.
 He studied philosophy and psychology at Cambridge.
 traditional Chinese philosophy
 COLLOCATION :
eastern/ ancient / Greek philosophy
phi | loso | pher
(philosophers)
NOUN A philosopher is a person who studies or writes
about philosophy.
 the Greek philosopher Plato
 However, many philosophers have argued that
freedom is an illusion.
…………………………………………………………………
400. physic | cal
ADJECTIVE Physical qualities, actions, or things are
connected with a person's body, rather than with their
mind.
 the physical and mental problems caused by the
illness.
 Physical activity promotes good health.
 COLLOCATIONS :
physical activities / exercise / exertion
physical strength / fitness
a physical symptom / disability / illness
physical contact / pain / abuse / attraction
purely physical
 SYNONYM : bodily
 ANTONYMS : mental, emotional, psychological
physic | cal | ly
ADVERB  You may be physically and mentally
exhausted after a long flight.
 disabled people who cannot physically use a telephone
 COLLOCATIONS :
physically fit / active / disabled / ill / sick
physically incapable / unable / impossible
physically abused / assaulted / attacked
physically drained / exhausted
mature / heal / develop physically
 SYNONYM : bodily
 ANTONYMS: mentally,emotionally, psychologically
…………………………………………………………………
401. plus
A. CONJUNCTION You say plus to show that one
number or quantity is being added to another.
 36 plus 5 squared is 61.
 They will pay about $ 673 million plus interest.
 COLLOCATIONS :
X plus y is / equals Z
X plus interest / VAT / tax
 ANTONYM : minus
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B. ADJECTIVE Plus before a number or quantity means
that the number or quantity is greater than zero.
 The aircraft was subjected to temperatures of
minus 65 degrees and plus 120 degrees.
 ANTONYM : minus
…………………………………………………………………
402. poli | cy
(policies)
NOUN A policy is a set of ideas or plans that is used as a
basis for making decisions, especially in polities,
economics, or business.
 plans which include changes in foreign policy and
economic reforms
 the U.N's policy-making body
 COLLOCATIONS :
foreign / monetary / economic / fiscal / social /
public policy
defence / energy / transport / immigration policy
a new / official policy
policy making
a policy maker / adviser / committee / analyst
a policy shift / change
 PHRASE : policy and procedure
 SYNONYMS : procedure, approach, protocol
…………………………………………………………………
403. por | tion
(portions)
NOUN A portion of something is a part of it.
 [+of] Damage was confined to a small portion of the
castle.
 [+of] The protein portion of the enzyme is referred to
as an apoprotein.
 [+of] the verbal and mathematics portions of the test.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a portion of something
a large / major / sizable / small portion
a substantial / significant / considerable portion
 SYNONYM : part
…………………………………………………………………
404. pose
(poses, posing, posed)
A. VERB If something poses a problem or a danger, it is
the cause of that problem or danger.
 This could pose a threat to jobs in the coal
industry.
 His ill health poses serious problems for the future.
 COLLOCATIONS :
pose something of something / someone
pose a threat/ risk / challenge / problem to
something/ someone
 SYNONYM : present
B. VERB If you pose a question, you ask it, if you pose
an issue that needs considering, you mention the
issue. [FORMAL]
 the moral issues posed by new technologies.
 Islam poses the ultimate question: "What is
intelligence and what does it really mean to be
intelligent ?"
 COLLOCATION :pose a question / issue
 SYNONYM : put forward
…………………………………………………………………
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405. posi | tive
po | ten | tial | ly
ADJECTIVE A positive fact, situation, or experience is
ADVERB  Clearly this is a potentially dangerous
pleasant an helpful to you in some way.
 The project will have a positive impact on the
economy.
 Working abroad should be an exciting and positive
experience for all concerned.
 The positive in a situation is the good and pleasant
aspects of it.
 Work on the positive, creating beautiful, loving and
fulfilling relationship.
situation.
 Potentially this could damage the reputation of the
whole industry.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a positive experience/ outcome/ effect/ result /
influence / impact
overwhelmingly / extremely / generally positive
 SYNONYMS : beneficial, advantageous
 ANTONYM : negative
…………………………………………………………………
406. po | ten | tial
ADJECTIVE You use potential to say that someone or
something is capable of developing into the particular
kind of person or thing mentioned.
 The firm has identified 60 potential customers at home
and abroad.
 We are aware of the potential problems and have
taken every precaution.
 COLLOCATIONS :
potential growth / earnings / savings
a potential threat / conflict / danger
a potential customer / candidate / recruit
 SYNONYM : possible
 COLLOCATIONS :
potentially dangerous / lethal / fatal
potentially damage/ contaminate / harm someone /
something
 SYNONYM : possibly
 ANTONYM : inability
…………………………………………………………………
407. prac | ti | tion | er
(practitioners)
NOUN Doctors are sometimes referred to as
practitioners or medical practitioners. [FORMAL]
 Some orthodox medical practitioners claim that a
balanced diet will provide all the necessary vitamins.
 If in doubt consult a qualified practitioner.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a general/ qualified/ medical/ alternative practitioner
consult / visit a practitioner
a practitioner prescribes / treats something
…………………………………………………………………
408. pre | cede
(precedes, preceding, preceded)
VERB If one event or period of time precedes another, it
happens before it. [FORMAL]
 Intensive negotiations between the main parties
preceded the vote.
 [+by] The earthquake was preceded by a loud roar
and lasted 20 seconds.
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 [V-ing] Industrial orders had already fallen in the
preceding months.
 COLLOCATIONS :
immediately / usually / always / often precede
something
precede a date / chapter / arrival
a period / month / warning precedes something
prec | edent
(precedents)
NOUN If there is precedent for an action or event, it has
happened before, and this can be regarded as an
argument for doing it again. [FORMAL]
 [+for] The trial could set an important precedent for
dealing with large numbers of similar cases.
 There are plenty of precedents in Hollywood for
letting people out of contracts.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a precedent for something
set / establish / create / follow a precedent
a dangerous / historical / length precedent
 COLLOCATIONS :
precedence over something
precedence over law
a historical precedence
take / give precedence
 SYNONYM : priority
…………………………………………………………………
409. pre | cise
A. ADJECTIVE You use precise to emphasize that you
are referring to an exact thing, rather than something
vague.
 The precise location of the wreck was discovered
in 1988.
 He was not clear on the precise nature of his
mission.
 We will never know the precise details of his death.
B. ADJECTIVE Something that is precise is exact and
accurate in all its details.
 They speak very precise English.
 His comments were precise and to the point.
prec | edence
 COLLOCATIONS :
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If one takes precedence over
precise details / figures / English
another. It is regard as more important than the other
things.
 [+over] The shocking, glamorous, or the extreme is
always given precedence over the true and the
mundane.
 [+over] As the King's representative he took
precedence over everyone else on the island.
the precise moment / nature / location
precise information / instructions / measurements
a precise definition / description
 PHRASE : precise and to the point
 SYNONYMS : exact, accurate
 ANTONYMS : imprecise, inexact, inaccurate, vague
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pre | cise | ly
A. ADVERB Precisely means accurately and exactly.
 Nobody knows precisely how many people are still
living in the camp.
 The meeting began at precisely 4.00 p.m.
 COLLOCATIONS :
at precisely x o'clock
know / ascertain / calculate something precisely
measure / specify / define something precisely
 PHRASE : precisely and accurately
 SYNONYMS : exactly, accurately
 ANTONYMS : imprecisely, inaccurately
B. ADVERB You can use precisely to emphasize that a
reason or fact is the only important one there is, or
that it is obvious.
 Children come to zoos precisely to see captive
animals.
 That is precisely the result the system is designed
to produce.
pre | ci | sion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  The interior is planned with
military precision.
 COLLOCATIONS :
with precision
military / surgical / geometric / absolute precision
 SYNONYMS : exactness, acuracy
 ANTONYMS : imprecision, inaccuracy
…………………………………………………………………
410. pre | dict
(predicts, predicting, predicted)
VERB If you predict an event, you say that it will
happen.
 Chinese seismologists have predicted earthquakes this
year in Western China.
 [+that] Some analysis were predicting that online
sales during the holiday season could top $ 10 billion.
 [+when] tests that accurately predict when you are
most fertile.
 COLLOCATIONS :
predict an event / outcome
predict a fall/ drop/ decline/ rise / recovery / upturn
a forecaster/ economist / analyst predicts something
predict something accurately/ confidently / correctly
impossible / difficult / possible to predict
widely / rightly / wrongly predicted
 SYNONYMS : forecast, foresee
pre | dic | tion
(predictions)
NOUN  [+about] He was unwilling to make a
prediction about which books would sell in the coming
year.
 Weather prediction has never been a perfect science.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a prediction about / of something
make / confirm / defy / dismiss a prediction
weather / climate / earthquake prediction
a reliable / accurate prediction
 SYNONYMS : forecast, prophesy
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371
pre | dict | able
ADJECTIVE  This was a predictable reaction, given
the bitter hostility between the two countries.
 The result was entirely predictable.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a predictable reaction / outcome / consequence
entirely / wholly / fairly predictable
 PHRASE : predictable and formulaic
 ANTONYM : unpredictable
…………………………………………………………………
411. pre | domi | nant
ADJECTIVE If something is predominant, it is more
important or noticeable than anything else in a set of
people or things.
 The third survivor is Hope, who manifests the
predominant symptoms of multiple personality disorder.
 The predominant theme of this book is the idea of the
sacred or god.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a predominant symptom / characteristic
a predominant theme / role
 SYNONYM : main
pre | domi | nant | ly
ADVERB  The landscape has remained predominantly
rural in appearance.
 a predominantly female profession.
 Although it is predominantly a teenage problem, acne
can occur in early childhood.
 COLLOCATIONS :
rely / focus predominantly on something
consist / compose predominantly of something
predominantly Muslim / white / black / male /
Christian
 SYNONYMS : mainly, largely
…………………………………………………………………
412. pre | limi | nary
ADJECTIVE Preliminary activities or discussions take
place at the beginning of an event, often as a form of
preparation.
 Preliminary results show the Republican party with
11 percent of the vote.
 Preliminary talks on the future of the bases began
yesterday.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a preliminary report / hearing / agreement
preliminary results / talks / discussions
 SYNONYM : initial
 ANTONYM : concluding
…………………………………………………………………
413. pre | sume
(presumes, presuming, presumed)
VERB If you presume that something is the case, you
think that it is the case, although you are not certain.
 I presume you're here on business.
 In Madagascar, nearly half of 176 indigenous palm
species are endangered or presumed extinct.
 [+ to-inf] areas that have been presumed to be safe.
 [+that] It is presumed that the hormone melatonin is
involved.
 COLLOCATIONS :
presume guilt / innocent
presumed dead/ extinct/ decreased/ guilty/ innocent/
responsible
wrongly / safely / widely / commonly presumed
 SYNONYM : assume
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pre | sump | tion
(presumptions)
NOUN A presumption is something that is accepted as
true but is not certain to be true.
 the presumption that a defendant is innocent until
proved guilty.
 stories that challenge presumptions and
preconceptions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the presumption of something
the presumption of guilt / innocence / rationality
a widespread / general / initial presumption
challenge / adopt / end a presumption
 SYNONYM : assumption
…………………………………………………………………
414. pre | vi | ous
A. ADJECTIVE A previous event or thing is one that
happened or existed before the one that you are
talking about.
 She has a teenage daughter from a previous
marriage.
 Previous studies have shown that organic farming
methods can benefit the wildlife around farms.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a previous government / marriage / occasion
previous convictions/ studies/ estimates / experience
 SYNONYMS : earlier, former
 ANTONYMS : current, later, subsequent
B. ADJECTIVE You refer to the period of time or the
thing immediately before the one that you are talking
about as the previous one.
 It was a surprisingly dry day after the rain of the
previous week.
 COLLOCATION :
the previous day / week / month / year
 SYNONYM : preceding
 ANTONYM : following
pre | vi | ous | ly
ADVERB  Guyana's railways were previously owned
by private companies.
 a collection of previously unpublished poems.
 He had first entered the House 12 years previously.
 COLLOCATIONS :
previously unknown/ unseen / unpublished /
undisclosed
previously reported / announced / started / forecast
previously owned / held
 SYNONYMS : earlier, formerly
 ANTONYMS : currently, subsequently
…………………………………………………………………
415. pri | ma | ry
A. ADJTCTIVE You use primary to describe something
that is very important. [FROMAL]
 His misunderstanding of language was the primary
cause of his other problems.
 The family continues to be the primary source of
care and comfort for people as they grow older.
 COLLOCATION :
a primary aim / concern / focus /reason / cause /
source
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375
B. ADJECTIVE Primary is used to describe something
that occurs first.
 It is not the primary tumour that kills, but
secondary growth elsewhere in the body.
 COLLOCATION :
a primary tumour / election / ballot / school
 SYNONYMS : main, principal
 RELATED WORD : secondary
pri | mari | ly
ADVERB You use primarily to say what is mainly true
in a particular situation.
 a book aimed primarily at high-energy physicists.
 Public order is primarily on urban problem.
 COLLOCATIONS :
primarily because something
primarily aimed at / designed for someone
primarily focused on / concerned with something
 SYNONYMS : mainly, principally, chiefly
…………………………………………………………………
416. prime / praim /
ADJECTIVE You use prime to describe something that
is most important in a situation.
 Political stability, meanwhile, will be a prime
concern.
 It could be a prime target for guerrilla attack.
 The prime objective of the organization is to increase
profit.
 COLLOCATION :
a prime concern / target / objective / candidate
 SYNONYMS : main, principal
…………………………………………………………………
417. prin | ci | pal
ADJECTIVE
Principal means first in order of
importance.
 the ocuntry's principal source of foreign exchange
earnings.
 Their principal concern is bound to be that of winning
the next general election.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a principal concern / aim / objective / cause
a principal architect / dancer / conductor / speaker /
adviser / analyst
 SYNONYMS : main, chief
prin | ci | pal | ly
ADVERB Principally means more than anything else.
 This is principally because the major export markets
are slowing.
 Embryonic development seems to be controlled
principally by a very small number of master genes.
 COLLOCATION :principally because
 SYNONYMS : mainly, chiefly
…………………………………………………………………
418. prin | ci | ple
(principles)
A. NOUN The principles of a particular theory or
philosophy are its basic rules or laws.
 [+of] a violation of the basic principles of
Marxism.
 The doctrine was based on three fundamental
principles.
B. NOUN Scientific principles are general scientific
laws which explain how something happens or works.
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377
 These people lack all understanding of scientific
principles.
 [+of] the principles of quantum theory.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the principles of something
scientific / universal / basic / fundamental /
democratic principles
apply / uphold / accept principles
violate / undermine / abandon principles
 SYNONYMS : rule, law
C. PHRASE If you agree with something, or believe that
something is possible, in principle, you agree in
general terms to the idea of it, although you do not yet
know if it will be possible.
 I agree with in principle but I doubt if it will
happen in practice.
 Even assuming this to be in principle possible, it
will not be achieved soon.
 COLLOCATIONS :
agree / approve in principle
accept something in principle
possible in principle
 SYNONYM : in theory
 ANTONYM : in practice
…………………………………………………………………
419. pri | or
A. ADJECTIVE You use prior to indicate that
something has already happened, or must happen,
before another event takes place.
 Prior knowledge of the program is not essential.
 For the prior year, they reported net income of
$1.1 million.
 COLLOCATIONS :
prior approval / permission / consent / agreement
prior knowledge / experience
a prior engagement / arrangement
the prior period / week / month / year
 SYNONYM : previous
B. PHRASE If something happens prior to a particular
time or event, it happens before that time or event.
[FORMAL]
 Prior to his Japan trip, he went to New York.
 This is the preliminary investigation prior to the
official inquiry.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a day / hour / week / month /year prior to something
 SYNONYM : before
 ANTONYM : after
…………………………………………………………………
420. pri | or | ity
(priorities)
NOUN If something is a priority, it is the most important
thing you have to do or deal with, or must be done or
dealt with before everything else you have to do.
 You may be surprises to find that your priorities
change after having a baby.
 The government's priority is to build more power
plants.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a priority for someone
a first / top / high / low priority
a budget / funding / research / policy priority
set / establish / identify / change a priority
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379
 PHRASES :
422. pro | cess
give priority to sth something
take / place priority over sth something
pri | ori | tize
(prioritizes, prioritizing, prioritized)
VERB If you prioritize something, you treat it as more
important than other things. [in BRIT, also use
prioritise]
 The government is prioritizing the service sector,
rather than investing in industry and production.
 put emotion aside to prioritize spending.
pri | ori | ti | za | tion
[in BRIT, also use
prioritization]  [+of] the government's prioritization
of resource allocation.
 The plan does not suggest prioritization base on age.
 COLLOCATION :the prioritization of something
…………………………………………………………………
421. pro | ceed
(proceeds, proceeding, proceeded)
VERB If you proceed with a course of action, you
continue with it. [FORMAL]
 [+with] The group proceeded with a march they knew
would lead to bloodshed.
 The trial has been delayed until November because
the defence is not ready to proceed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
proceed with something
proceed with caution
proceed with a prosecution / plan / negotiation
 SYNONYM : continue
 ANTONYMS : stop, discontinue
…………………………………………………………………
UNCOUNTABLE
NOUN
(processes)
A. NOUN A process is a series of action which are
carried out in order to achieve a particular result.
 There was total agreement to start the peace
process as soon as possible.
 [+of] The best way to proceed is by a process of
elimination.
B. NOUN A process is a series of things which happen
naturally and result in a biological or chemical
change.
 It occurs in elderly men, apparently as part of the
ageing process.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a process of something
a process of elimination/ reconciliation/ consultation
/ integration
a learning / selection / decision-making process
the peace / reform process
a political / democratic / legal process
the healing / ageing process
a gradual / long / slow / complicated process
start/ begin/ repeat / accelerate / complete a process
put / have a process in place
 SYNONYMS : course, procedure
…………………………………………………………………
423. pro | fes | sion | al
A. ADJECTIVE Professional means relating to a
persons work, especially work that requires special
training.
 His professional career started at Liverpool
University.
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B. ADJECTIVE Professional people have jobs that
require advanced education or training.
 highly qualified professional people like doctors
and engineers.
 Professional is also a noun.
 My father wanted me to become a professional and
have more stability.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a professional career / qualification
professional development / help / advice
thoroughly / highly professional
 SYNONYM : qualified
 ANTONYM : amateur
…………………………………………………………………
424. pro | hib | it
(prohibits, prohibiting, prohibited)
VERB If a law or someone in authority prohibits
something, they forbid it or make it illegal. [FORMAL]
 a law that prohibits tobacco advertising in
newspapers and magazines.
 Fishing is prohibited.
 [+from] Federal law prohibits foreign airlines from
owning more than 25 % of any U.S airline.
 COLLOCATIONS :
prohibited from doing something
the constitution / law / government prohibits
something
prohibit discrimination / smoking / drugs
strictly / expressly / currently prohibited
 SYNONYM : forbid
 ANTONYM : permit
pro | hi | bi | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] the prohibition of
women on air combat missions
 [+of] the prohibition of alcohol
 COLLOCATION :
the prohibition of something/someone
…………………………………………………………………
425. proj | ect
(projects)
NOUN A project is a task that requires a lot of time and
effort.
 Money will also go into local development projects in
Vietnam.
 a research project on alternative health care.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a research / development / construction /
conservation project
a major / massive / innovative / long-term project
fund / finance / support a project
approve / launch / start / undertake / complete a
project
a project manager / director
 SYNONYM : scheme
…………………………………………………………………
426. pro | mote
(promotes, promoting, promoted)
A. VERB If people promote something, they help or
encourage it to happen, increase, or spread.
 You don't have to sacrifice environmental
protection to promote economic growth.
 COLLOCATIONS :
promote awareness / growth / tourism
actively / vigorously / strongly promote something
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 SYNONYM : encourage
 ANTONYM : discourage
B. VERB If a firm promotes a product, it tries to increase
the sales or popularity of that product.
 He has announced a full British tour to promote
his second solo album.
 [+as] a special St Lucia week where the island
could be promoted as a tourist destination.
 COLLOCATIONS :
promote something as something
a retailer / advert / billboard / website promotes
something
promote a product
heavily/ vigorously/ aggressively promote something
 PHRASE : promote and market
pro | mo | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] The government has
pledged to give the promotion of democracy higher
priority.
 disease prevention and health promotion
 COLLOCATIONS :
the promotion of something
the promotion of democracy / equality / diversity
health / trade / tourism / product promotion
 PHRASES :
promotion and advertising
promotion and marketing
…………………………………………………………………
427. pro | por | tion
(proportions)
A. NOUN A proportion of a group or an amount is a
part of it. [FORMAL]
 [+of] A large proportion of the dolphins in that
area will eventually die.
 [+of] A proportion of the rent is met by the city
council.
B. NOUN The proportion of one kind of person or thing
in a group is the number of people or things of that
kind compared to the total number of people or things
in the group.
 [+of] The proportion of women in the profession
had risen to 17.3 %
 [+of] A growing proportion of the population is
living alone.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a proportion of something
a large / high / substantial / significant / small / tiny
proportion
a proportion of the population / workforce /
electorate
a proportion of the rent / budget / income
 SYNONYMS : amount, part, percentage
C. PHRASE If something is small or large in proportion
to something else, it is small or large when compared
with that thing.
 Children tend to have relatively larger heads than
adults in proportion to the rest of their body.
 Japan's contribution to the UN budget is much
larger in proportion to its economy than that of
almost any other country.
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 COLLOCATION :
small / large in proportion to something
 SYNONYM : in relation to
…………………………………………………………………
428. pros | pect
(prospects)
A. NOUN If there is a prospect of something happening,
there is a possibility that it will happen.
 [+of] The prospect of finding a job is slim at
present.
 [+for] The prospects for peace in the country's
eight-year civil war are becoming brighter.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the prospect of something
the prospect for something
the prospect of war/ survival / recession /
employment
the prospect for peace / recovery / growth / success
B. NOUN A particular prospect is something that you
expect or know is going to happen.
 [+of] They now face the prospect of having to
wear a cycling helmet by law.
 Starting up a company may be a daunting
prospect.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the prospect of something
relish / welcome / savour / face / dread /
contemplate the prospect
a pleasant / promising / attractive / bleak /
daunting / grim prospect
pro | spec | tive
A. ADJECTIVE You use prospective to describe
someone who wants to be the thing mentioned or who
is likely to be the thing mentioned.
 The story should act as a warning to other
prospective buyers.
 his prospective employers
 COLLOCATION :
a prospective buyer / student / employer / customer
 SYNONYMS : future, would-be
B. ADJECTIVE You use prospective to describes
something that is likely to happen soon.
 the term of the prospective deal
 prospective economic growth
 COLLOCATION :a prospective deal / sale
 SYNONYM : anticipated
…………………………………………………………………
429. proto | col
(protocols)
A. NOUN A protocol is a set of rules for exchanging
information between computers.
 an open source email encryption protocol.
 A serious problem with the most commonly used
internet communications protocol has been revealed
by computer experts.
 COLLOCATION :
a wireless / internet / encryption /network protocol
B. NOUN A protocol is a written record of a treaty or
agreement that has been made by two or more
countries. [FORMAL]
 the Montreal Protocol to phase out use and
production of CFCs.
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 [+on] There are also protocols on the testing of
nuclear weapons.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a protocol on something
sign / ratify / breach / develop a protocol
 SYNONYM : accord
…………………………………………………………………
430. psy | chol | ogy
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Psychology is the scientific
study of the human mind and the reasons for people's
behaviour.  Professor of Psychology at Bedford
College  research in educational psychology
 COLLOCATIONS :
educational / evolutionary psychology
clinical / cognitive psychology
evolutionary / developmental / cognitive /
behavioural psychology
Jungian / Freudian psychology
study / teach psychology
a psychology professor / lecturer / department /
degree
pshycho | logi | cal
ADJECTIVE Psychological means concerned with a
person's mind and thoughts.
 John received constant physical and psychological
abuse from his father.
 Rabyn's loss of memory is a psychological problem,
rather than a physical one.
 COLLOCATIONS :
psychological abuse / trauma / distress
a psychological profile / insight / evaluation /
disorder
 PHRASE : psychological and physical
 SYNONYM : mental
psy | cholo | gist
(psychologists)
NOUN A psychologist is a person who studies the
human mind and tries to explain why people behave in
the way that they do.
 Psychologists tested a group of six-year-olds with a
video.
 COLLOCATIONS :
consult / employ / contact a psychologist
a psychologist studies / assesses / analyses something
a psychologist interviews / evaluates / counsels
someone
a clinical / forenisic / educational psychologist
…………………………………………………………………
431. pub | li | ca | tion
(publications)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The publication of a book
or magazine is the act of printing it and sending it to
shops to be sold.
 [+of] the publication of an article in a physics
journal.
 [+of] the online publication of the census
 COLLOCATIONS :
the publication of something
the publication a book / report / journal / article
online / weekly / monthly publication
prohibit / delay / ban / await / resume publication
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B. NOUN A publication is a book or magazine that has
been published.
 the ease of access to scientific publications on the
internet.
 The magazine, which will be a quarterly
publication,
has
received
sponsorship
from
companies in the US.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a publication on something
a publication on a topic / subject
a weekly / monthly / quarterly publication
a digital / online / scientific / specialist publication
…………………………………………………………………
432. pub | lish
(publishes, publishing, published)
VERB When a company publishes a book or magazine,
it prints copies of it, which are sent to shops to be sold. If
someone publishes a book or an article that they have
written, they arrange to have it, published.
 Dr Peters published the findings of his detailed
studies last year.
 The research was published online in the latest British
Medical Journal.
 COLLOCATIONS :
publish something on / in something
published by someone
published in a journal / newspaper / report / article
published online / on a website / on the internet
publish a book / report / article / paper
publish findings / figures / research
…………………………………………………………………
433. pur | chase
(purchases , purchasing, purchased)
A. VERB When you purchase something, you buy it.
[FORMAL]
 Nearly three out of every 10 new car buyers are
purchasing their vehicles online.
 [+from] Most of those shares were purchased from
brokers.
 COLLOCATIONS :
purchases something from / through someone/
something
a customer / buyer / consumer purchases something
purchase shares / property / land
purchase something online
 ANTONYM : sell
B. NOUN A purchase is something that you buy.
[FORMAL]
 The latest data reveals that nine in every 10
internet users have made a purchase online.
 Discounts are available for bulk purchases.
 COLLOCATIONS :
make / complete / refund a purchase
online / bulk purchase
…………………………………………………………………
434. pur | sue
(pursues, pursuing, pursued)
A. VERB If you pursue an activity, internet, or plan, you
carry it out or follow it. If you pursue a particular
topic, you try to find out more about it by asking
questions. [FORMAL]
 He said Japan would continue to pursue the
policies laid down at the London summit.
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 If your original request is denied, don't be afraid to
pursue the matter.
 COLLOCATIONS :
pursue a policy / internet / career
pursue a matter / question / claim
 COLLOCATIONS :
the pursuit of something
the pursuit of a plan / activity / project
the pursuit of truth / excellence / perfection /
knowledge
 PHRASE : in (the) pursuit of sth
 SYNONYMS : follow, follow up
 ANTONYMS : drop, abandon
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Q
B. VERB If you pursue a particular aim or result, you
make efforts to achieve it, often over a long period of
time. [FORMAL]
 The implication seems to be that it is impossible to
pursue
economic
reform
and
democracy
 Europe must pursue aggressively its programme of
standard of something, rather than to its quantity.
 There are qualitative differences in the way children
and adults think.
economic reform.
 That's the whole difference between quantitative and
 COLLOCATIONS :
qualitative research.
pursue a result / aim / objective / agenda
 COLLOCATIONS :
pursue reform / diplomacy / business
aggressively / actively / vigorously pursue something
(pursuits)
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The pursuit of something is the
process of trying to achieve it. The pursuit of an
activity, interest, or plan consists of all the things that
you do when you are carrying it out.
 [+of] a young man whose relentless pursuit of
excellent is conducted with single-minded determination
 [+of] The vigorous pursuit of policies is no guarantee
of success.
ADJECTIVE Qualitative means relating to the nature or
[FORMAL]
simultaneously.
pur | suit
435. quali | ta | tive
a qualitative difference / distinction
a qualitative assessment / evaluation / study
qualitative research / analysis
 PHRASE : qualitative and quantitative
 RELATE WORD : quantitative
quali | ta | tive | ly
ADVERB  The new media are unlikely to prove
qualitatively different from the old.
 a group with minimal demands for housing, both
quantitatively and qualitatively.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
qualitatively different / distinct / superior / inferior
assess / evaluate something qualitatively
 PHRASE : qualitatively and quantitatively
 RELATED WORD : quantitatively
…………………………………………………………………
436. quote
(quotes, quoting, quoted)
A. VERB If you quote someone as saying something,
you repeat what they have written or said.
 [+as] He quoted Mr Polay as saying that peace
negotiation were already underway.
 Mawby and Gill (1987) quote this passage from the
Home Office White Paper, 1964.
 [+from] O'Regan cites one exception, quoting from
a paper on cancer of the cervix.
 COLLOCATIONS :
quoted as saying something
quote from something
quote from a book / report
quote a passage / verse / source
 SYNONYMS : cite, reference
 RELATED WORD : paraphrase
B. NOUN A quote from a book, poem, play or speech is
a passage or phrase from it.
 [+from] The article starts with a quote from an
unnamed member of the Cabinet.
 The quote is attributed to the Athenean philosopher
Socrates.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a quote from something / someone
attribute a quote
 SYNONYMS : quotation, citation
 RELATED WORD : paraphrase
quo | ta | tion
(quotations)
NOUN A quotation is a sentence or phrase taken from a
book, poem, or play, which is repeated by someone else.
 [+from] He illustrated his argument with quotations
from Pasternak.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a quotation from something / someone
a biblical / indirect quotation
 SYNONYMS : quote, citation
 RELATED WORD : paraphrase
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R
437. radi | ll
ADJECTIVE Radical changes and differences are very
important and great in degree.
 The country needs a period of calm without more
surges of radical change.
 The Football League has announced its proposals for
a radical reform of the way football is run.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a radical departure / overhaul / change / reform
truly / politically / genuinely radical
 SYNONYMS : fundamental
radi | cal | ly
ADVERB  The power of the presidency may be
radically reduced in certain circumstances.
 two large groups of people with radically different
beliefs and cultures.
 proposals for radically new models.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
change / alter / overhaul something radically
radically different / new
 SYNONYM : fundamentally
…………………………………………………………………
438. ran | dom
ADJECTIVE A
random sample or method is one in
which all the people or things involved have an equal
chance of being chosen.
 The survey used a random sample of two thousand
people across England and Wales.
 The competitors will be subject to random drug
testing.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a random sample / check / selection / test
random testing
 ANTONYM
: targeted
ran | dom | ly
ADVERB  interviews with a randomly selected sample
of thirty girls aged between 13 and 18
 They were randomly allotted to one or other of two
groups.
 COLLOCATIONS :
randomly selected / chosen / picked
randomly assigned / allocated
…………………………………………………………………
439. range
(ranges, ranging, ranged)
A. NOUN A range of things is a number of different
thigns of the same general kind.
 [+of] Office workers face a wide range of health
and safety problems.
 [+of] The two men discussed a range of issues.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a range of things
a range of products / services / activities
a range of issues / options / colours
a wide / broad / limited / narrow range
offer / cover / provide a range
 SYNONYMS : variety, selection, collection
B. NOUN A range is the complete group that is included
between two points on a scale of measurement or
quality.
 The average age range is between 35 and 55.
 products available in this price range.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a range between X and Y
age / price / product range
the full / normal / whole range
C. VERB If things range between two points or range
from one point to another, they vary within these
points on a scale of measurement or quality.
 They range in price from $3 to $15.
 The cars were all new models and ranged from
sports cars to Cadillacs.
 [+between] temperatures ranging between 5 and
20C.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
range from something to something
range between something and something
things range widely
temperatures / prices / ages / products range widely
 SYNONYM : vary
…………………………………………………………………
440. ra | tio
(ratios)
NOUN A ratio is a relationship between two things when
it is expressed in numbers or amounts. For example, if
there are ten boys and thirty girls in a room, the ratio of
boys to girls is 1:3, or one to three.
 [+of] In 1978 there were 884 students at a lecturer /
student ratio of 1.15.
 [+of] The bottom chart shows the ratio of personal
debt to personal income.
 The adult to child ratio is 1 to 6.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a ratio of something
a ratio of X to Y
calculate / adjust a ratio
a high / constant / low ratio
a price-earnings / power-to-weight / pupil-teacher
ratio
 SYNONYM : proportion
 ANTONYM : inability
…………………………………………………………………
441. ra | tion | al
ADJECTIVE Rational decisions and thoughts are based
on reason rather than on emotion.
 He's asking you to look at both sides of the case and
come to a rational decision.
 Mary was able to short-circuit her stress response by
keeping her thoughts calm and rational.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a rational decision / argument / explanation /
approach
rational thought / analysis / debate
perfectly rational
 PHASE : calm and rational
 SYNONYMS : sensible, logical
 ANTONYM : irrational
…………………………………………………………………
442. re | act
(reacts, reacting, reacted)
A. VERB When you react to something that has
happened to you, you behave in a particular way
because of it.
 [+to] They reacted violently to the news.
 It's natural to react with disbelief if you child is
accused of bullying.
 COLLOCATIONS :
react to / with something
react to news/ information/ situation/ announcement
/ decision
react with fury / anger / horror / disbelief
markets / investors / fans react
react angrily / swiftly / strongly / positively
 SYNONYM : respond
B. VERB When one chemical substance reacts with
another, or when two chemical substances react, they
combine chemically to form another substance.
 [+with] Calcium reacts with water.
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399
 Under normal circumstances, these two gases
react readily to produce carbon dioxide and water.
 COLLOCATIONS :
react with something
react readily / quickly / slowly / normally
re | ac | tion
(reactions)
A. NOUN Your reaction to something that has happened
or something that you have experienced is what you
feel, say, or do because of it.
 [+to] Reaction to the visit is mixed.
 [+of] The initial reaction of most participants is
fear.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a reaction to something
the reaction of someone
provoke / trigger / cause / prompt a reaction
a positive / negative / mixed adverse reaction
an emotional / angry reaction
a knee-jerk / initial / immediate / gut reaction
 SYNONYM : response
B. NOUN A chemical reaction is a process in which two
substances combine together chemically to form
another substance.
 [+ between] Ozone is produced by the reaction
between oxygen and ultra-violet light.
 Catalysts are materials which greatly speed up
chemical reactions.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a reaction between things
a chemical / chain reaction
speed up / slow down / monitor / observe / cause
reaction
…………………………………………………………………
443. re | cov | er
(recovers, recovering, recovered)
A. VERB When you recover from an illness or an
injury, you become well again.
 [+from] He is recovering from a knee injury.
 A policeman was recovering in hospital last night
after being stabbed.
 He is fully recovered from the virus.
 COLLOCATIONS :
recover from something
recover from a virus / infection / illness / injury /
operation
a patient recovers
a recovering addict / alcoholic
fully / completely / quickly recover
 SYNONYM : recuperate
 ANTONYM : relapse
B. VERB If something recovers from a period of
weakness or difficulty, it improves or gets stronger
again.
 The stock market index fell by 80 % before it began
to recover.
 [+from] He recovered from a 4-2 deficit to reach
the quarter-finals.
 COLLOCATIONS :
recover from something
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recover from a recession / slump / setback /
downturn
a market / economy recovers
 SYNONYM : rally
re | cov | ery
(recoveries)
NOUN If a sick person makes a recovery, he or she
become well again.
 [+from] He made a remarkable recovery from a shin
injury.
 He had been given less than a one in 500 chance of
recovery by his doctors.
 COLLOCATIONS :
recovery from something
a rapid / remarkable / miraculous / full / complete
recovery
a recovery process / room / rate
…………………………………………………………………
444. re | fine
(refines, refining, refined)
A. VERB When a substance is refined, it is made pure
by having all other substances removed from it.
 Oil is refined to remove naturally occurring
impurities.
 All white sugar is refined, however, this refined
sugar may then be ground or coloured.
 COLLOCATION :
refine oil / uranium / gasoline / sugar
 SYNONYM : process
B. VERB If something such as a process, theory, or
machine is refined, it is improved by having small
changes made to it.
 Surgical techniques are constantly being refined.
 Twentieth century botanists have continually
refined these classifications.
 COLLOCATIONS :
refine a technique / procedure / skill
continually / constantly / greatly cefine something
 SYNONYM : improve
…………………………………………………………………
445. re | gime
(regines)
NOUN If you refer to a government or system of running
a country as a regime, you are critical of it because you
think it is not democratic and uses unacceptable methods.
 the collapse of the Fascist regime at the end of the
war
 Pujol was imprisoned and tortured under the Franco
regime.

COLLOCATIONS :
a communist / authoritarian / strict / dictatorial /
brutal regime
overthrow / impose a regime
a regime collapses / falls / crumbles

SYNONYMS : government, system, administration
…………………………………………………………………
446. re | gion
(regions)
NOUN A region is a large area of land that is different
from other areas of land, for example because it is one of
the different parts of a country with its own customs and
characteristics, or because it has a particular
geographical feature.
 Barcelona, capital of the autonomous region of
Catalonia
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 a remote mountain region
 COLLOCATIONS :
tour / visit / explore a region
affect / destabilize / devastate / dominate a region
divide / surround a region
a mountain/ mountainous/ industrial/ mining region
a barren / icy / remote / coastal region
a disputed / autonomous / troubled region
a border / frontier / desert / farming region
 SYNONYMS : area, province, country
re | gion | al
ADJECTIVE  the autonomous regional government of
Andalucia.  Many people in Minnesota and Tennessee
have noticeable regional accents.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a region assembly / government / council
regional authority / elections / issues
regional security / peace / conflicts
regional differences / variations
a regional dialect / accent
a regional centre / airport / airline / office
a regional director / co-ordinator / manager
regional conference / headquarters
 SYNONYMS : local, district, provincial
…………………………………………………………………
447. reg | is | ter
(registers, registering, registered)
A. VERB If you register to do something, you put your
name on an official list.
 [+ to-inf] Thousands lined up to register to vote.
 [+for] Many students register for these courses to
widen skills for use in their current job.
 registered voters.
 COLLOCATIONS :
register for / with something
register with a dentist / authority / agency / embassy
register for a service / election
a register voter / adviser / subscriber / nurse
officially register
 SYNONYMS : enrol, enlist, sign up
B. VERB If you register something, you have it recorded
on an official list.
 In order to register a car in Japan, the owner must
have somewhere to park it.
 They registered his birth.
 a registered charity
 COLLOCATIONS :
a registered trademark / logo / firearm / charity
register a birth / complaint
officially registered
 SYNONYMS : license, record
C. VERB When something registers on a scale or
measuring instrument, it shows on the scale or
instrument. You can also say that something registers
a certain amount or level on a scale or measuring
instrument.
 [+on] It will only register on sophisticated X-ray
equipment.
 The earthquake registered 5-3 points on the
Reichter scale.
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 The scales registered a gain of 1.3 kilograms.
 COLLOCATIONS :
register on something
register on a radar / scale
a sensor registers something
a tremor / earthquake registers X
register a gain / increase / decline
barely register

SYNONYM : show
reg | is | tra | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The registration of something
such as a person's name or the details of an event is the
recording of it an official list.
 [+of] They have campaigned strongly for compulsory
registration of dogs.
 With the high voter registration, many will be voting
for the first time.
 fill in the registration forms
 COLLOCATIONS :
the registration of something
the registration of dogs / guns / firearms / interest
448. regu | late
(regulates, regulating, regulated)
VERB To regulate an activity or process means to
control it, especially by mean of rules.
 The powers of the European Commission to regulate
competition are increasing.
 [V-ing] As we get older the temperature - regulating
mechanisms in the body tend to become a little less
efficient.
 [V-ing] regulating cholesterol levels
 COLLOCATIONS :
regulate a use / activity / industry
a law / state / government regulates something
 SYNONYMS : control, manage
regu | lat | ed
ADJECTIVE  a planned, state-regulated economy
 It's a treatment that can carry risks, and in Britain
it's strictly regulated.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a regulated company / industry / utility / economy
strictly / tightly / heavily / highly / fully regulated
 SYNONYM : controlled
 ANTONYM : non-regulated
voter / vehicle / car registration
initial / compulsory / online registration
a registration form / requirement / number /
process / fee
 SYNONYM : licensing
…………………………………………………………………
regu | la | tor
(regulators)
NOUN A regulator is a person or organization appointed
by a government to regulate an area of activity such as
banking or industry.
 Congress is being asked to investigate why it took so
long for government regulators to shut the plant down.
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407
 An independent regulator will be appointed to ensure
fair competition.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ask / satisfy / concern / convince the regulator
a regulator approves / investigates / blocks / order
something
a national/ provincial / state / independent regulator
a financial / security / competition regulator
a rail / telecoms / energy regulator
regu | la | tory
ADJECTIVE  the U.K's financial regulatory system
 This new regulatory regime was designed to protect
the public.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a regulatory system / regime / body / agency /
authority
a regulatory requirement / framework
regulatory approval / reform
…………………………………………………………………
449. re | inforce
(reinforces, reinforcing, reinforced)
A. VERB If something reinforces a feeling, situation, or
process, it makes it stronger or more intense.
 A stronger European Parliament would, they fear,
only reinforce the power of the larger countries.
 This sense of privilege tends to be reinforced by the
outside world.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reinforce a perception / view / impression / belief
mutually / powerfully / constantly / further
reinforce something
 SYNONYM : strengthen
 ANTONYM : weaken
B. VERB If something reinforces an idea or point of
view, it provides more evidence or support for it.
 The delegation hopes to reinforce the idea that
human rights are not purely internal matters.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reinforce a notion / message / stereotype
powerfully / further reinforce something
 SYNONYM : support
 ANTONYM : undermine
re | inforce | ment
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] I am sure that this
meeting will contribute to the reinforcement of peace and
security all over the world.
 [+for] What the teacher now has to do is remove the
reinforcement for this bad behaviour.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the reinforcement of / for something
need / provide reinforcement
positive / negative / constant reinforcement
 SYNONYM : support
…………………………………………………………………
450. re | ject
(rejects, rejecting, rejected)
VERB If reject something such as a proposal a request,
or an offer, you do not accept it or you do not agree to it.
 Seventeen publishers rejected the manuscript before
Jenks saw its potential.
 reject the possibility of failure.
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409
 COLLOCATIONS :
voters / shareholders reject something
a board/ parliament / union / committee reject
something
a judge / jury / court rejects something
reject a proposal / idea / offer / suggestion / claim /
call
flatly/ firmly/ unanimously/ angrily reject something
reject something outright
 SYNONYMS : deny, turn, down, decline
 ANTONYMS : accept, approve
 How much can the President relax his grip over the
nation ?
 Some analyst believe that the government soon will
begin relaxing economic controls.
 COLLOCATIONS :
relax a rule / regulation / approach
relax control
 SYNONYM : loosen
 ANTONYM : tighten
re | laxa | tion / ri:lae'kserfan /
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of/in] the relaxation of
re | jec | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] The rejection of such
initiatives indicates that voters are unconcerned about
the environment.
 the chances of criticism and rejection
 COLLOCATIONS :
the rejection of something
prevent / fear / avoid / face / risk rejection
overwhelming / repeated / initial rejection
 PHRASE : a letter of rejection
 SYNONYM : denial
 ANTONYM : acceptance, approval
…………………………………………………………………
451. re | lax
(relaxes, relaxing, relaxed)
VERB If you relax a rule or your control over something,
or if it relaxes, it becomes less firm or strong.
 Rules governing student conduct relaxed somewhat in
recent years.
travel restrictions.
 This year's pork price crash was directly related to
the relaxation of laws prohibiting pig meat imports.
 COLLOCATIONS :
relaxation of /in something
relaxation of a rule / restriction / regulation / law
 SYNONYM : easing
 ANTONYM : tightening
…………………………………………………………………
452. re | lease
(releases, releasing, released)
A. VERB If a person or animal is released from
somewhere they have been locked up or looked after,
they are set free or allowed to go.
 [+from] He was released from custody the next
day.
 [+from] He is expected to be released from
hospital today.
 He was released on bail.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
released from something
released from hospital / prison / jail / custody
a prisoner / detainee / patient is released
police / kidnappers release someone
 PHRASE : released someone on bail
 SYNONYMS : set free, free, liberate
 ANTONYM : imprison
 Release is also a noun.  [+of] He called for the
immediate release of all political prisoners.
 [+from] Serious complications have delayed his
release from hospital.
 COLLOCATIONS :
release from something
the release of someone
release from hospital / prison / jail / custody
the release of a prisoner / hostage
immediate / imminent / early release
call for / demand / secure someone's release
 SYNONYMS : liberation, discharge
 ANTONYM : imprisonment
B. VERB If someone in authority releases something
such as a document or information, they make it
available.
 They're not releasing any more details yet.
 Figures released yesterday show retail sales were
down in March.
 COLLOCATIONS :
release a document / transcript
release figures / details
officially release something
 SYNONYMS : issue, publish, announce
 Release is also a noun.  [+of] Action had been
taken to speed up the release of cheques.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the release of something
the release of a document / transcript
the official release of something
a press release
 SYNONYMS : issue, publication, announcement
C. VERB If something releases gas, heat, or a substance,
it cause it to leave its container or the substance that it
was part of and enter the surrounding atmosphere or
area.
 a weapon which release toxic nerve gas
 The contraction of muscles uses energy and
releases heat.
 COLLOCATIONS :
release chemicals / toxins / adrenaline / hormones
release something accidentally / simultaneously
 SYNONYM : discharge
 Release is also a noun.  [+of] Under the agreement,
releases of cancer-causing chemicals will be cut by
about 80 per cent.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the release of something
the release of chemicals / toxins / adrenaline /
hormones
the accidental / simultaneous release of something
 SYNONYM : discharge
…………………………………………………………………
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413
453. rel | vant
454. re | luc | tance
ADJECTIVE Something that is relevant to a situation or
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  Ministers have shown
person is important or significant in that situation or to
that person.
 [+to] Is socialism still relevant to people's lives ?
 We have passed all relevant information on to the
police.
 COLLOCATIONS :
relevant to someone / something
directly / highly / especially relevant
relevant information / experience
a relevant qualification / document / article
the relevant authorities
 SYNONYM : pertinent
extreme reluctance ot explain their position to the media.
 ANTONYM : irrelevant
rel | evince
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+to] Politician's private
lives have no relevance to their public roles.
 [+to] There are additional publications of special
relevance to new graduates.
 COLLOCATIONS :
relevance to someone / something
the relevance of something
question / determine the relevance of something
lack / have relevance
have little relevance
contemporary / social / practical relevance
particular / direct / immediate relevance
 SYNONYM : appropriateness
 ANTONYM : irrelevance
…………………………………………………………………
 British officials have indicated reluctance to quickly
lift the ban.
 COLLOCATIONS :
show / express reluctance
overcome / indicate / explain someone's reluctance
growing / increasing reluctance
initial / apparent / marked / understandable
reluctance
 SYNONYM : unwillingness
 ANTONYM : willingness
re | luc | tant
ADJECTIVE If you are reluctant to do something, you
are unwilling to do it and hesitate before doing it, or do it
slowly and without enthusiasm.
 Mr Spero was reluctant to ask for help.
 The police are very reluctant to get involved in this
sort of thing.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reluctant to admit / discuss / accept something
reluctant to talk / invest / comment / act
a reluctant hero / ally / reader / witness
initially / increasingly / understandably reluctant
 SYNONYM : unwilling
 ANTONYM : willing
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415
re | luc | tant | ly
ADVERB  We have reluctantly agreed to let him go.
 Rescuers reluctantly ended their search Thursday
morning.
 COLLOCATION :
reluctantly agree / accept / decide / admit
 SYNONYMS : unwillingly, grudgingly
 ANTONYM : willingly
…………………………………………………………………
455. rely
(relies, relying, relied)
VERB If you rely on someone or something, you need
them and depend on them in order to live or work
properly.
 [+ on/upon] They relied heavily on the advice of their
professional advisers.
 [+on/upon] The Association relies on member
subscriptions for most of its income.
 COLLOCATIONS :
rely on / upon something / someone
rely on someone / something for something
manufacturers / employers / farmers rely on
someone / something
rely heavily on someone / something
rely on support/ technology / donations / volunteers
 SYNONYM : depend
re | li | ant / ri'larant /
ADJECTIVE A person or thing that is reliant on
something needs it and often cannot live or work without
it.
 [+on/upon] These people are not wholly reliant on
Western charity.
 [+on / upon] Lithuania is heavily reliant on Moscow
for almost all its oil.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reliant on / uon something
reliant on technology / tourism / aid / exports / oil
heavily / less / increasingly / too reliant
become reliant on something
 SYNONYM : dependent
 ANTONYM : independent
re | li | ance
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN A person's or thing's reliance on
something is the fact that they need it and often cannot
live or work without it.
 [+on]the country's increasing reliance on foreign aid.
 [+upon] The attack did signal a growing reliance
upon political assassination in the Province.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reliance on / upon something
place / increase / reduce reliance on something
growing / continuing reliance
heavy / great / excessive / undue / total reliance
 SYNONYM : dependence
…………………………………………………………………
456. re | move
(removes, removing, removed)
VERB If you remove something from a place, you take it
away. [WRITTEN]
 [+from] attempts to remove carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.
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417
 [+from] Three bullets were removed from his wounds.
 COLLOCATIONS :
remove something from somewhere
surgically / forcibly / carefully / completely remove
something
remove a tumour / organ / layer / lump
remove tissue / skin / fat
remove a barrier / restriction / reference
 SYNONYMS : take away, take out, extract
re | mov | al
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] The removal of a
small lump turned out to be major surgery.
 The most common type of oxidation involves the
removal of hydrogen atoms from a substance.
 COLLOCATIONS :
removal of something
stain / rubbish / hair removal
surgical / immediate / complete removal
a removal tool / system
a removal cost / process / centre
 PHRASE : removal and replacement
 SYNONYMS : extraction, eradication
…………………………………………………………………
457. re | quite
(requires, requiring, required)
A. VERB If you require something or if something is
required, you need it or it is necessary. [FORMAL]
 If you require further information, you should
consult the registrar.
 [+ to-inf] This isn't the kind of crisis that requires
us to drop everything else.
 COLLOCATIONS :
require surgery / treatment / attention
require information / effort / investment
 SYNONYM : need
B. VERB If a law or rule requires you to do something,
you have to do it. [FORMAL]
 [+ to-inf] The rules also require employers to
provide safety training.
 [+that] The law now requires that parents serve on
the committees that plan and evaluate school
programs.
 [+of] Then he'll know exactly what's required of
him.
 COLLOCATIONS :
require something of someone
the law / regulations require something
require someone to pay / provide / attend / report
 SYNONYMS : order, demand, oblige, instruct
re | quire | ment
(requirements)
A. NOUN A requirement is a quality or qualification
that you must have in order to be allowed to do
something or to be suitable for something.
 Its products met all legal requirements.
 [+ for] Graduate status is the minimum
requirement for entry to the teaching profession.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a requirement for something
a requirement for membership / entry
meet / satisfy / fulfill / impose / set a requirement
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419
the minimum requirement
a legal / statutory / essential requirement
entry / visa / registration / safety requirements
 SYNONYMS :
condition, qualification, stipulation, specification
B. NOUN Your requirements are the things that you
need. [FORMAL]
 Variations of this programme can be arranged to
suit your requirements.
 [+of] a packaged food which provides 100 percent
of your daily requirement of the vitamin.
 COLLOCATIONS :
requirement of something
daily / minimum / basic / essential requirement
 SYNONYMS : necessity, essential
…………………………………………………………………
458. re | search
(researches, researching, researched)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Research is work that
involves studying something and trying to discover
facts about it.
 65 percent of the 1987 budget went for nuclear
weapons research and production.
 money spent on cancer research.
 [+ into] a centre which conducts animal research
into brain diseases.
 COLLOCATIONS :
research into / on something
conduct / undertake / carry out research
fund / publish research
research suggests / shows / reveals / indicates
something


B.


market / cancer / animal research
scientific / biological / clinical / medical research
current / recent / experimental research
a research facility / scientist / laboratory
research findings / results / methods
a research report / paper / project / fellow
PHRASE : research and development
SYNONYMS : analysis, investigation
VERB If you research something, you try to discover
facts about it.
 She spent two years in South Florida researching
and filming her documentary.
 So far we haven't been able to find anything, but
we're still researching.
 a meticulously researched study
COLLOCATION :
thoroughly/ meticulously research something
SYNONYMS :
investigate, examine, explore, study, analyze
re | search | er
(researchers)
NOUN  He chose to join the company as a market
researcher.
 Researchers have found that vitamin A can protect the
lungs from cancer.
 COLLOCATIONS :
researchers find / say / believe / report something
a medical / senior / independent researcher
a market / university / cancer / sex researcher
 SYNONYMS : analyst, scientist
…………………………………………………………………
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421
459. re | side
(resides, residing, resided)
A. If someone resides somewhere, they live there or are
staying there; a formal use.
 Margaret resides with her invalid mother in a
London suburb.
 All single full-time students must reside in
university residence halls.
B. If a quality resides in something, it is in that thing; a
formal use.
 Happiness does not reside in strength or money.
 The military is based on the principle that the
ultimate authority resides in the armed forces.
resi | dence
(residences)
A. A residence is a house where people live [FORMAL]
 Mr Kohl's private residence.
B. N.U Your place of residence is the place where you
live, [FORMAL]
 PHRASES If someone is in residence in a place,
they are living there.
 If you take up residence
resi | dent
(residents)
NOUN The residents of a house or area are the people
who live there.
 The Archbishop called upon the government to build
more low cost homes for local residents.
 More than 10 percent of Munich residents live below
the poverty line.
 COLLOCATIONS :
residents of / in somewhere
evacuate / warn / advise residents
residents say / fear / complain about / want / report
something
former/ local/ permanent/ nearby / elderly residents
 SYNONYMS : inhabitant, citizen
…………………………………………………………………
460. re | solve
(resolves, resolving, resolved)
A. VERB To resolve a problem, argument, or difficulty
means to find a solution to it. [FORMAL]
 We must find a way to resolve these problems
before it's too late.
 They hoped the crisis could be resolved peacefully.
 COLLOCATIONS :
quickly / peacefully / amicably resolve something
resolve a dispute / conflict / crisis / issue / problem
 PHRASE : a way to resolve something
B. VERB If you resolve to do something, you make a
firm decision to do it. [FORMAL]
 [+ to-inf] She resolved to report the matter to the
hospital's nursing manager.
 The PM had finally resolved to retire.
 SYNONYM : decide
reso | lu | tion
(resolutions)
A. NOUN A resolution is a formal decision taken at a
meeting by means of a vote.
 He replied that the U.N had passed two major
resolutions calling for a complete withdrawal.
 [+on] a draft resolution on the occupied territories
 COLLOCATIONS :
pass / approve / propose a resolution
a resolution on something
 SYNONYM : decision
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423
B. NOUN The resolution of a problem or difficulty is the
final solving of it. [FORMAL]
 [+ to/of] the successful resolution of a dispute
involving U.N. inspectors in Baghdad.
 in order to find a peaceful resolution to the crisis.
 Most problems don't require instant resolution.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a resolution to / of something
a peaceful/ acceptable / speedy / alternative
resolution
conflict resolution
a resolution to / of a dispute / crisis / issue / problem
 SYNONYMS : solution, settlement
…………………………………………………………………
461. re | source
(resources)
A. NOUN The resources of an organization or person are
the materials, money, and other things that they have
and can use in order to function properly.
 Some families don’t have the resources to feed
themselves properly.
 There's a great shortage of resource materials in
many schools.
 COLLOCATIONS :
allocate / devote / commit / lack / strentch / limit
resources
human / financial / limited resources
resource management
 SYNONYMS : supplies
B. NOUN A country's resources are the things that it has
and can use to increase its wealth, such as coal, oil, or
land.
 resources like coal, tungsten, oil and copper.
 Today we are overpopulated, straining the earth's
resources.
 COLLOCATIONS :
natural / water / energy / mineral resources
the world's / earth's resources
a country's / nation's resources
 SYNONYMS : assets, materials
…………………………………………………………………
462. re | spond
(responds, responding, responded)
VERB When you respond to something that is done or
said, you react to it by doing or saying something
yourself.
 [+to] They are likely to respond positively to the
President's request for aid.
 [+with] The army responded with gunfire and tear
gas.
 COLLOCATIONS :
respond to / with something
respond positively / appropriately / immediately
a government / patient / audience responds
a paramedic / officer responds
 SYNONYM : react
re | sponse
(responses)
NOUN  [+ to/from] There has been no response to his
remarks from the government.
 Your positive response will reinforce her actions.
 The meeting was called in response to a request from
Venezuela.
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425
 COLLOCATIONS :
a response to / from something
a positive / immediate / initial / overwhelming
response
provoke / receive / trigger a response
 PHRASE : in response to sth
 SYNONYM : reaction
re | spond | ent
(respondents)
NOUN A respondent is a person who replies to
something such as a survey or set of questions.
 60 percent of the respondents said they disapproved
of the president's performance.
 Three hundred and fifty questionnaire respondents
were asked four questions.
 the medical background of the respondents.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ask respondent
survey / poll / questionnaire respondents
a respondent believes / reports / admits / says
something
respondents answers/ perceptions / attitude /
preferences / views
…………………………………………………………………
463. re | store
(restores, restoring, restored)
A. VERB To restore a situation or practice means to
cause it to exist again.
 The army has recently been brought in to restore
order.
 restore the statue quo
 The death penalty was never restored.
 COLLOCATION :
restore confidence/ order/ peace/ democracy
 SYNONYMS : bring back, reinstate, re-establish
 ANTONYM : abolish
B. VERB To restore someone or something to a
previous condition means to cause them to be in that
condition once again.
 [+to] We will restore her to health but it may take
time.
 He said the ousted president must be restored to
power.
 His country desperately needs Western aid to
restore its ailing economy.
 COLLOCATION :
restore something / someone to something
 SYNONYMS : reinstate, return
res | to | ra | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] His visit is expected to
lead to the restoration of diplomatic relations.
 They were committed to the eventual restoration of a
traditional monarchy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the restoration of something
the restoration of a monarchy / sovereignty /
democracy
oppose / support / demand / facilitate the restoration
of something
…………………………………………………………………
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427
464. re | strain
(restrains, restraining, restrained)
A. VERB If you restrain someone, you stop them from
doing what they intended or wanted to do, usually by
using your physical strength.
 One onlooker had to be restrained by police.
 One Labour MP was physically restrained during
an argument with a minister.
 the bare minimum of force necessary to restrain
the attackers.
 COLLOCATION :
forcibly / physically restrain someone
B. VERB To restrain something that is growing or
increasing means to prevent it from getting too large.
 The radical 500-day plan was very clear on how it
intended to try to restrain inflation.
 In the 1970s, the government tried to restrain
corruption.
 to restrain the growth in state spending.
 COLLOCATION :
restrain spending / growth / inflation / costs
 SYNONYMS : limit, check
 ANTONYM : encourage
re | straint
(restraints)
NOUN Restraints are rules or conditions that limit or
restrict someone or something.
 [+on] The Prime Minister is calling for new
restraints on trade unions.
 With open frontiers and lax visa controls, criminals
could cross into the country without restraint.
 free of any restraints which social convention might
impose.
 COLLOCATIONS :
restraints on something
restraints on expenditure / freedom
impose restraints
 SYNONYMS : limitation, check, constraint
 ANTONYM : freedom
…………………………………………………………………
465. re | strict
(restricts, restricting, restricted)
A. VERB If you restrict something, you put a limit on it
in order to reduce it or prevent it becoming too great.
 There is talk of raising the admission requirements
to restrict the number of students on campus.
 [+to] The French, I believe, restrict Japanese
imports to a maximum of 3 per cent of their market.
B. VERB To restrict the movement or actions of
someone or something means to prevent them from
moving or acting freely.
 Villagers say the fence would restrict public access
to the hills.
 These dams restricted the flow of the river
downstream.
 COLLOCATIONS :
restrict something of something
a law / regulation restricts something
restrict imports / freedom / movement / use
severely restrict
 SYNONYMS : limit, restrain
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429
re | stric | tion
(restrictions)
NOUN  [+on] Some restriction on funding was
necessary.
 [+of] the justification for this restriction of individual
liberty.
 [+on] the lifting of restrictions on political parties.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a restriction of / on something
restrictions on imports / trade
impose / place / lift a restriction
travel / investment / ownership / speed restrictions
 SYNONYMS : limitation, control
 ANTONYM : freedom
…………………………………………………………………
466. re | tain
(retains, retaining, retained)
VERB To retain something means to continue to have
that thing. [FORMAL]
 The interior of the shop still retains a nineteenthcentury atmosphere.
 Other countries retained their traditional and habitual
ways of doing things.
 COLLOCATION :
retain control/ power/ rights/ links /moisture / heat
 SYNONYMS : keep, maintain, preserve
 ANTONYM : lose
re | ten | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [FORMAL]
 [+of] They supported the retention of a strong central
government. .
 A deficiency in magnesium increases lead absorption
and retention.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the retention of something
the retention of organs / staff / power
cause / ensure the retention of something
improve/ increase/ reduce the retention of something
fluid / water / data / customer retention
 PHRASE : recruitment and retention
 ANTONYM : inaccurate
…………………………………………………………………
467. re | veal
(reveals, revealing, revealed)
VERB To reveal something means to make people aware
of it.
 She has refused to reveal the whereabouts of her
daughter.
 [+that] A survey of the British diet has revealed that a
growing number of people are overweight.
 [+how] No test will reveal how much of the drug was
taken.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reveal a secret / identity / plan
reveal details / information
a report / study / investigation / examination
reveals something
publicly/ sensationally/ exclusively reveal something
 SYNONYMS : disclose, divulge, uncover
 ANTONYM : hide
…………………………………………………………………
468. rev | enue
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Revenue is money that a
company, organization, or government receives from
people.
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431
 a boom year at the cinema, with record advertising
revenue and the highest ticket sales since 1980.
 The government would gain about $ 12 billion in tax
revenue over five years.
 Fishing is the main industry, with seal-hunting in
season an additional source of revenue.
 COLLOCATIONS :
generate / expect / increase / raise / boost revenue
revenue declines / grows / increases / falls
annual / total / net / average / additional revenue
advertising / tax / oil / tourism revenue
 SYNONYMS : profit, income, proceeds
 ANTONYM : expenditure
…………………………………………………………………
469. re | verse
(reverses, reversing, reversed)
A. VERB When someone or something reverses a
decision, policy, or trend, they change it to the
opposite decision, policy, or trend.
 They have made it clear they will not reverse the
decision to increase prices.
 The rise, the first in 10 months, reversed the
downward trend in Belgium's jobless rate.
 COLLOCATIONS :
reverse a decision / policy / ruling
a court reverses something
reverse a situation / trend / decline
 SYNONYMS : change, overrule, overturn
B. VERB If you reverse the order of a set of things, you
arrange them in the opposite order, so that the first
thing comes last.
 The normal word order is reversed in passive
sentences.
 COLLOCATION :reverse the order / direction
C. ADJECTIVE Reverse means opposite to what you
expect or to what has just been described.
 The wrong attitude will have exactly the reverse
effect.
 COLLOCATION :the reverse effect
 SYNONYM : opposite
re | ver | sal
(reversals)
NOUN A reversal of a process, policy, or trend is a
complete change in it.
 [+of] The Financial Times says the move represents
reversal of previous U.S policy.
 [+of] This market a 7 % increase on the previous year
and the reversal of a steady five-year downward trend.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a reversal of something
a reversal of a policy / position / trend
mark / represent / cause / experience / suffer a
reversal
a reversal occurs / comes
a dramatic / complete / sudden / sharp reversal
 ANTONYM : implementation
…………………………………………………………………
470. re | vise
(revises, revising, revised)
VERB If you revise something, you alter it to make it
better or more accurate.
 He soon came to revise his opinion of the profession.
 The United Nations has been forced to revise its
estimates of population growth upwards.
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433
 [+for] the work of revising articles for publication.
 The staff should work together to revise the school
curriculum.
 COLLOCATIONS :
revise something for something
a revised version / edition / estimate / figure / offer
revise a forecast / plan / rule / proposal
a government / official / analyst revises something
revise something upward / downward
 SYNONYMS : change, alter, amend
re | vi | sion
(revisions)
NOUN  The phase of writing that is actually most
important is revision.
 [+of] A major addition to the earlier revisions of the
questionnaire is the job requirement exercise.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a revision of something
revision of history / policy / rules / laws
need / require / undergo revision
propose / undertake / approve a revision
minor / substantial / extensive / radical revision
 SYNONYMS : editing, correction, alternation
…………………………………………………………………
471. revo | lu | tion
(revolutions)
A. NOUN A revolution is a successful attempt by a large
group of people to change the political system of their
country by force.
 The period since the revolution has been one of
political turmoil.
 after the French Revolution
 before the 1917 Revolution
 COLLOCATIONS :
a revolution begins / occurs / happens / fails
a quiet / peaceful / democratic / velvet revolution
the French / Russian Revolution
 SYNONYMS : revolt, uprising
B. NOUN A revolution in a particular area of human
activity is an important change in that area.
 [+in] The nineteenth century witnesses a
revolution in ship design and propulsion.
 the industrial revolution
 COLLOCATIONS :
a revolution in something
a revolution in technology/ communications/
medicine / thinking / undergo a revolution
a cultural/ industrial / digital / technology
revolution
 SYNONYMS : transformation, reformation
revo | lu | tion | ary
A. ADJECTIVE Revolutionary activities, organizations,
or people have the aim of causing a political
revolution.
 Do you know anything about the revolutionary
movement ?
 the Cuban revolutionary leader, Jose Marti.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a revolutionary movement / struggle / leader
revolutionary forces / change / upheaval
 SYNONYMS : rebel, radical
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435
B. ADJECTIVE Revolutionary ideas and developments
involve great changes in the way that something is
done or made.
 Invented in 1951, the rotary engine is a
revolutionary concept in internal combustion.
 COLLOCATION :
a revolutionary concept / invention / approach
 SYNONYMS : innovative, radical, ground-breaking
revo | lu | tion | ize (revolutionizes, revolutionizing,
revolutionized)
VERB When something revolutionizes an activity, it
causes great changes in the way that it is done. [in BRIT,
also use revolutionise]
 Over the past forty years plastics have revolutionized
the way we live.
 Automation revolutionized the olive industry in the
earth 1970s.
 COLLOCATIONS :
revolutionize a field / treatment / industry
revolutionize travel / communication
 SYNONYM : transform
…………………………………………………………………
472. rig | id
A. ADJECTIVE Laws, rules, or systems that are rigid
cannot be changed or varied, and are therefore
considered to be rather severe.
 Several colleges in our study have rigid rules about
student conduct.
 Hospital routines for nurses are very rigid.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a rigid structure / hierarchy / timetable
rigid discipline
 SYNONYMS : strict, inflexible
 ANTONYM : flexible
B. ADJECTIVE A rigid substance or object is stiff and
does not bend, stretch, or twist easily.
 rigid plastic containers
 These plates are fairly rigid.
 ANTONYM : flexible
rig | id | ly
ADVERB  The casts system was rigidly enforced.
 The soldiers stood rigidly, awaiting orders
 COLLOCATIONS :
rigidly hierarchical / segregated / conservative
adhere / enforce / control rigidly
stand / sit / stare rigidly
 SYNONYMS : strictly, stiffly
…………………………………………………………………
473. role
(roles)
NOUN If you have a role in a situation or in society, you
have a particular position and function in it.
 [+in] the drug's role in preventing more serious
effects of infection.
 [+ to-inf] Both sides have roles to play.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a role in / as something
the role of something
play / take / assume a role
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437
a key / lead / central / crucial / vital role
a major / active / important / significant role
a parental / positive / traditional / leadership role
a role model / play / reversal
…………………………………………………………………
474. route
(routes)
NOUN A route is away from one place to another.
 [+to] the most direct route to the town centre
 All escape routes were blocked by armed police.
 [+from] Tens of thousands lined the route from
Dublin airport.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a route to / from somewhere
take / follow / choose/ travel a route
establish / line / block a route
a main / direct / circuitous / alternative / scenic
route
a trade / escape / supply / bus route
a route map / network
…………………………………………………………………
S
475.
sce | nario
(scenarios)
NOUN If you talk about a likely or possible scenario, you
are talking about the way in which a situation may
develop.
 [+of] the nightmare scenario of a divided and
irrelevant Royal Family.
 Try to imagine all the possible scenarios and what
action you would take.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a scenario of something
envision / imagine / outline / present a scenario
a typical / likely / unlikely / possible scenario
a worst-case / nightmare / best-case scenario
 SYNONYM : situation
…………………………………………………………………
476. sched | ule
(schedules)
NOUN A schedule is a plan that gives a list of events or
tasks and the times at which each one should happen or
be done.
 He has been forced to adjust his schedule.
 We both have such hectic schedules.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a busy / hectic / tight schedule
a punishing / grueling / heavy schedule
adjust / rearrange / disrupt a schedule
 SYNONYM : timetable
…………………………………………………………………
477. scheme
(schemes)
NOUN A scheme is a plan or arrangement involving
many people which is made by a government or other
organization. [mainly BRIT, in AM, use program]
 schemes help combat unemployment
 a private pension scheme
 COLLOCATIONS :
a pension / compensation / insurance scheme
a housing / training / pilot scheme
devise / launch / propose a scheme
 SYNONYMS : plan, system, programme
…………………………………………………………………
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439
478. scope
NOUN The scope of an activity, topic, or piece of work is
the whole area which it deals with or includes.
 [+of] Mr Dobson promised to widen the
organisation's scope of activity.
 the scope of a novel
 COLLOCATIONS :
the scope of something
beyond the scope of a project / investigation /
inquiry
broaden / widen / expand / extend the scope of
something
 SYNONYMS : scale, extent, range
…………………………………………………………………
479. sec | tion
(sections)
NOUN A section of something is one of the parts into
which it is divided or from which it is formed.
 [+of] He said it was wrong to single out any section
of society for Aids testing.
 a large archestra, with a vast percussion section
 the Georgetown section of Washington, D.C.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a section of something
a section of society/ the community / the population
a section of a chapter
a separate / entire / special section
the relevant / preceding section
insert / amend a section
a percussion / brass / string section
 SYNONYM : part
 ANTONYM : whole
…………………………………………………………………
480. sec | tor
(sectors)
NOUN A particular sector of a country's economy is the
part connected with that specified type of industry.
 the nation's manufacturing sector
 the service sector of the Hong Kong economy
 COLLOCATIONS :
a sector of something
a sector of industry / the economy
the private / public / voluntary sector
the manufacturing / technology / service / banking /
retail sector
…………………………………………………………………
481. se | cure
(secures, securing, secured)
VERB If you secure something that you are want or
need, you obtain it, often after a lot of effort. [FORMAL]
 Federal leaders continued their efforts to secure a
ceasefire.
 Graham's achievements helped secure him the job.
 COLLOCATIONS :
secure a victory / conviction / place / win / deal
secure the approval / support / backing of someone
secure funding / peace
 SYNONYM : obtain
se | cure
ADJECTIVE A secure place is tightly locked or well
protected, so that people cannot enter it or leave it.
 We shall make sure our home is as secure as possible
from now on.
 The building has secure undercover parking for 27
vehicles.
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441
 COLLOCATIONS :
secure parking / accommodation
a secure unit / place / area / location
make something secure
 PHRASE : safe and secure
 SYNONYMS : safe, guarded, protected
se | cure | ly
ADVERB  He locked the heavy door securely and kept
the k ey in his pocket.
 territory once securely under the control of the rebels
 COLLOCATION :
fasten / store / lock / attach / fix something securely
 PHRASE : safely and securely
 SYNONYM : safely
…………………………………………………………………
482. seek
(seeks, seeking, sought)
VERB If you seek something, you try to find it or obtain
it. [FORMAL]
 Four people who sought refuge in the Italian embassy
have left voluntarily.
 [+for] Candidates are urgently sought for the post of
Conservative Party chairman.
 Always seek professional legal advice before entering
into any agreement.
 [+from] The couple have sought help from marriage
guidance counselors.
 COLLOCATIONS :
seek something from someone
be sought for something
seek help / advice / refuge / treatment
seek approval / permission / compensation
actively/ eagerly / urgently / desperately /
unsuccessfully seek
 SYNONYMS : look for, pursue
…………………………………………………………………
483. se | lect
(selects, selecting, selected)
VERB If you select something, you choose it from a
number of things of the same kind.
 Voters are selecting candidates for both U.S Senate
seats and for 52 congressional seats.
 a randomly selected sample of school children.
 COLLOCATIONS :
select for / from something
select for inclusion / testing / training
select from a list / shortlist / menu / range
select a candidate/ delegate/ winner / sample option
randomly / carefully / speci ally selected
 SYNONYMS : choose, pick out
se | lec | tion
(selections)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Selection is the act of
selecting one or more people or things from a group.
 Darwin's principles of natural selection.
 Dr.Sullivan's selection to head the Department of
Health was greeted with satisfaction.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a jury / team selection
natural / Darwinian selection
a selection process / panel / committee
 SYNONYM : choice
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443
B. NOUN A selection of people or things is a set of them
that have been selected from a larger group.
 [+of] a random selection of 1,300 Canadian
exporters.
 selections from Dickens' A Christmas Carol
 COLLOCATIONS :
a selection of something
a huge / limited / random selection
 SYNONYM : sample
…………………………………………………………………
484. se | quence
(sequences)
A. NOUN A sequence of events or things is a number of
events or things that come one after another in a
particular order.
.
 [+of] the sequence of events which led to the
murder.
 [+of] A flow chart display the chronological
sequence of steps in a process.
B. NOUN A particular sequence is a particular order in
which things happen or are arranged.
 the colour sequence yellow, orange, purple, blue,
green and white.
 The chronological sequence give the book on
element of structure.
 a simple numerical sequence
 COLLOCATIONS :
a sequence of thing
a sequence of events / letters / movements / steps
a chronological / logical / narrative / linear /
numerical sequence
 SYNONYMS : series
se | quen | tial
ADJECTIVE Something that is sequential follows a
fixed order. [FORMAL]
 the sequential story of the universe
 In this way the children are introduced to sequential
learning.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sequential reasoning / logic
a sequential narrative
 SYNONYMS : consecutive, in order
…………………………………………………………………
485. se | ries
(series)
NOUN A series of things or events is a number of them
that come one after the other.
 [+of] a series of meetings with students and political
leaders
 [+of] a series of explosions
 COLLOCATIONS :
a series of things
a series of events / meetings / interviews
a series of attacks / bombings / explosions
 SYNONYMS : succession, set, chain
…………………………………………………………………
486. sex | seks
(sexes)
A. NOUN The two sexes are the two groups, male and
female, into which people and animals are divided
according to the function they have in producing
young.
 an entertainment star who appeals to all ages and
both sexes
 differences between the sexes.
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445
 COLLOCATIONS :
the opposite / fair sex
same-single sex
 PHRASE : the sexes
 SYNONYM : gender
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Sex is the physical activity
by which people can produce young.
 He was very open in his attitudes about sex.
 Sex education in schools was made universal.
 Most diabetics have a normal sex life.
 COLLOCATIONS :
have sex
safe / unprotected / extramarital / under-age sex
a sex offender / scandal / life
 PHRASES :
sex and drugs
sex and violence
 SYNONYMS :
sexual intercourse, copulation, lovemaking
A. ADJECITVE Sexual means relating to the differences
between male and female people.
 Women's groups denounced sexual discrimination.
 COLLOCATION :
sexual harassment / discrimination / politics
…………………………………………………………………
487. shift
(shifts, shifting, shifted)
A. VERB If you shift something or if it shifts, it moves
slightly.
 He's shifted from foot to foot.
 [V-ing] Firefighters have been hampered by high
temperatures and shifting winds.
 COLLOCATIONS :
shift uncomfortably / restlessly / uneasily
shift one's weight / position
B. VERB If someone's opinion, a situation, or a policy
shifts or is shifted, it changes slightly.
 Attitudes to mental illness have shifted in recent
years.
sex | ual
 The emphasis should be shifted more towards
A. ADJECTIVE Sexual feelings or activities are
connected with the act of sex or with people's desire
for sex.
 Many marriage troubles spring from unsatisfactory
sexual relationship.
 incidents of domestic violence and sexual assault.
Parliament.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sexual intercourse / activity / desire / orientation
sexual assault / abuse
a sexual relationship / partner / fantasy
 COLLOCATION :
shift the force/emphasis/ balance
 SYNONYMS : alter, change, adjust
 Shift is also a noun.
 [+in] a shift in government policy.
 The migration towards technology as a service is a
cultural shift.
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447
 COLLOCATIONS :
a shift in something
a shift in focus/ emphasis/ power/ priorities /
attitudes
a sudden / major / cultural shift
 SYNONYM : change
…………………………………………………………………
488. sig | nifi | cant
A. ADJECTIVE A significant amount or effect is large
enough to be important or affect a situation to a
noticeable degree.
 A small but significant number of 11-year-olds are
illiterate.
 foods that offer a significant amount of protein.
 The study is too small to show whether this trend is
statistically significant.
B. ADJECTIVE A significant fact, event, or thing is one
that is important or shows something.
 Time would appear to be the significant factor in
this whole drama.
 a very significant piece of legislation.
sig | nifi | cant | ly
ADVERB  The groups differed significantly in two
areas.

America's
airlines
have
significantly
higher
productivity than European ones.
 Significantly, the company recently opened a huge
store in Atlanta.
 COLLOCATIONS :
significantly less / more / lower / higher / different
differ / fluctuate / vary / increase / improve
significantly
 SYNONYM : extremely
 ANTONYM : insignificantly
sig | nifi | cance
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The significance of something
is the importance that it has, usually because it will have
an effect on a situation or shows something about a
situation.
 [+of] Ideas about the social significance of religion
 COLLOCATIONS :
a significant amount / proportion / difference /
have changed over time.
improvement
a significant change / increase / effect / factor
a significant number of people / things
seem / prove / become significant
statistically significant
 SYNONYMS : important, large
 ANTONYMS : insignificant, minor
 COLLOCATIONS :
 The difference did not achieve statistical significance.
the significance of something
the significance of a discovery / event / occasion /
finding
cultural/ historical / political / religious significance
great / special / symbolic / statistical significance
attach significance to something
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449
downplay / understand / appreciate the significance
of something
assume / acquire significance
 SYNONYM : importance
 ANTONYM : insignificance
………………………………………………………………..
489. simi | lar
ADJECTIVE If one thing is similar to another, or if two
things are similar, they have features that are the same.
 [+to] The accident was similar to one hat happened
in 1973.
 a group of similar pictures.
 COLLOCATIONS :
similar to / in something
similar in size / style
a similar situation / incident / amount
similar circumstances
strikingly / remarkably similar
 SYNONYM : alike
 ANTONYM : different
simi | lar | ly
ADVERB  We tend to think and react similarly to
people our own age.
 Most of the men who now gathered round him again
were similarly dressed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
behave / react / respond similarly
similarly dressed / sized
 ANTONYM : differently
simi | lar | ity
(similarities)
NOUN  [+in] There was a very basic similarity in our
philosophy.
 The film bears some similarities to Spielberg's A.I.
 [+between] The similarities between Mars and Earth
were enough to keep alive hopes of some form of
Martian life.
 COLLOCATIONS :
similarity to / in something
similarities between things
bear a similarity of something
share similarities
a striking/ remarkable/ uncanny/ superficial
similarity
 ANTONYM : difference
…………………………………………………………………
490. simu | late
(simultates, simulating, simulated)
VERB If you simulate a set of conditions, you create
them artificially, for example in order to conduct an
experiment.
 The scientist developed one model to simulate a full
year of the globe's climate.
 Cars are tested to see how much damage they suffer in
simulated crashes.
 COLLOCATION :
simulate conditions / altitude / gravity
 SYNONYMS : replicate, reproduce, model
simu | la | tion
(simulations)
Simulation is the process of simulating
something or the result of simulating it.
 [+ of] Training includes realistic simulation of
casualty procedures.
NOUN
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451
 [+of] a simulation of the greenhouse effect.
 COLLOCATIONS :
simulation of something
computer simulation
a simulation model / tool
…………………………………………………………………
491. sit
(sites)
A. NOUN A site is a piece of ground that is used for a
particular purpose or where a particular thing
happens.
 He became a had carrier on a building site.
 a bat sanctuary with special nesting sites.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a construction / building site
a landfill / burial / caravan site
a nesting / heritage site
B. NOUN The site of an important event is the place
where it happened.
 [+ of] Scientists have described the Aral sea as the
site of the worst ecological disaster on Earth.
 Plymouth Hoe is renowned as the site where Drake
played bowls before tackling the Spanish Armada.
 COLLOCATION :the site of something
 SYNONYMS : position, spot, location
…………………………………………………………………
492. so-called
A. ADJECTIVE You use so-called to indicate that you
think a word or expression used to describe someone
or something is in fact wrong.
 These are the facts that explode their so-called
economic miracle.
 More and more companies have gone "green" and
started producing so-called environmentally-friendly
products.
 COLLOCATIONS : a so-called expert
B. ADJECTIVE You use so-called to indicate that
something is generally referred to by the name that
you are about to use.
 a summit of the world's seven leading market
economies, that so-called G-7.
 She was one of the so-called Gang of Four.
…………………………………………………………………
493. sole
A. ADJECTIVE The sole thing or person of a particular
type is the only one of that type.
 Their sole aim is to destabilize the Indian
government.
 It's the sole survivor of an ancient family of plants.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the sole purpose / aim / responsibility
a sole survivor
 SYNONYM : only
B. ADJECTIVE If you have sole charge or ownership of
something, you are the only person in charge of it or
who owns it.
 Many women are left as the sole providers in
families after their husband has died.
 Chief Hart had sole control over that fund.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sole possession / responsibility / custody
a sole proprietor / representative / bredwinner
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453
sole | ly
 Tourism, which is a major source of income for the
ADVERB If something involves solely one thing, it
city, may be seriously affected.
involves only this thing and no others.
 Too often we make decisions based solely upon what
we see in the magazine.
 This program is a production of NPR, which is solely
responsible for its content.
 COLLOCATIONS :
rely / concentrate / focus solely on something
based solely on something
solely responsible
 SYNONYM : only
…………………………………………………………………
494. some | what
ADVERB You use somewhat to indicate that something
is the case to a limited extent or degree. [FORMAL]
 The results are somewhat surprising.
 outcome variables differed somewhat in the three
groups.
 COLLOCATIONS :
somewhat surprising / unusual / different /
misleading
somewhat more / less / differently
differ / vary / ease / subside somewhat
 SYNONYM : slightly
 ANTONYM : extremely
…………………………………………………………………
495. source
(sources)
A. NOUN The source of something is the person, place
or thing which you get it from.
 Renewable sources of energy must be used where
practical.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a source of something
a source of information / inspiration
a source of income / revenue / funding
a heat / food / energy source
a renewable / alternative / major / main source
B. NOUN A source is a person or book that provides in
formation for a news story or for a piece of research.
 Military sources say the boat was heading south at
high speed.
 Carson (1970) made extensive use of secondary
data sources.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a source of something
police / secondary source
a reliable / senior / unnamed / unidentified source
identify / locate / quote / cite a source
source say / confirm / tell things
C. NOUN The source of a difficulty is its case.
 [+of] Reactions to ointments are a common source
of skin problems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a source of something
the source of a problem
 SYNONYMS : root, cause, origin
 ANTONYM : result, effect
…………………………………………………………………
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455
496. spe | cif | ic
ADJECTIVE You use specific to refer to a particular
fixed area, problem, or subject.
 Massage may help to increase blood flow to specific
area of the body.
 There are several specific problems to be dealt with.
 the specific needs of the individual.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a specific area / location / target / group
a specific problem/ need / issue / question / purpose
 SYNONYMS : particular
 ANTONYM : general
spe | cifi | cal | ly / spr'sifikli /
ADVERB  the first nursing home designed specifically
for people with AIDS
 brain cells, or more specifically, neurons.
 COLLOCATIONS :
specifically a designed / targeted / aimed
specifically state / mention / exclude
 SYNONYM : particularly
 ANTONYM : generally
…………………………………………………………………
497. speci | fy
(specifies, specifying, specified)
A. VERB If you specify something, you give information
about what is required or should happen in a certain
situation.
 They specified a spacious entrance hall.
 [+what] He has not specified what action he would
like them to take.
B. VERB If you specify what should happen or be done,
you explain it in an exact and detailed way.
 Each recipe specifies the size of egg to be used.
 [+that] One rule specifies that learner drivers
must be supervised by adults.
 Patients eat together at a specified time.
 COLLOCATIONS :
specify a date / size / time / period
exact / explicitly specify something
speci | fi | ca | tion
(specifications)
NOUN A specification is a requirement which is clearly
stated, for example about the necessary features in the
design of something.
 [+ for] Legislation will require U.K. petrol companies
to meet on E.U specification for petrol.
 officials constrained by rigid job specifications.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a specification for something
exacting / detailed / technical specifications
meet / check / alter specifications
 SYNONYM : requirement
…………………………………………………………………
498. sphere
(spheres)
NOUN A sphere of activity or interest is a particular area
of activity or interest.
 [+ of] the sphere of international politics.
 [+of] nurse, working in all spheres of the health
service.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
a sphere of something
a sphere of activity / influence / life
 SYNONYM : field
sphere
(spheres)
NOUN A sphere is an object that is completely noun in
shape like a ball. .
 the volume of a hollow sphere
 COLLOCATIONS :
a celestial/ heavenly / microscopic/ crystal sphere
 SYNONYM : globe
spheri | cal
ADJECTIVE [FORMAL]
 a spherical particle
 Latitude was measured on the assumption the earth
was perfectly spherical.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a spherical granule / particle / capsule / boulder
spherical trigonometry / geometry
 SYNONYMS : globular, round
…………………………………………………………………
499. sta | ble
(stabler, stablest)
ADJECTIVE If something is stable, it is not likely to
change or come to an end suddenly.
 The price of oil should remain stable for the rest of
the year.
 a stable marriage.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a stable environment / condition / relationship/
marriage
financially / politically / relatively / fairly stable
remain / become stable
 SYNONYM : steady
 ANTONYM : unstable
sta | bil | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  It was a time of political
stability and progress.
 U.N peacekeepers were dispatched to ensure stability
in the border region.
 COLLOCATIONS :
stability of / in something
the stability of a region / area / country
restore / maintain / ensure / threaten stability
long-term / relative / regional stability
political / social / economic / financial stability
 PHRASE : peace and stability
 ANTONYM : instability
sta | bi | lize
(stabilizes, stabilizing, stabilized)
VERB If something stabilizes, or is stabilized, it becomes
stable. [in BRIT, also use stabilise]
 Although her illness is serious, her condition is
beginning to stabilize.
 Officials hope the move will stabilize exchange rate.
 COLLOCATIONS :
stabilizes a country / situation
a condition / market / economy stabilizes
 SYNONYM : steady
 ANTONYM : destabilize
…………………………………………………………………
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500. sta | tis | tic
(statistics)
NOUN Statistics are facts which are obtained from
501. sta | tus
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Your status is your social or
analyzing information expressed in numbers, for
professional position.
example information about the number of times that
 People of higher status tend more to use certain
something happens.
drugs.
 Official statistics show real wages declining by 24%.
 women and men of wealth and status.
 [+for] There are no reliable statistics for the number
 Metal daggers and horses may have been status
of deaths in the bottle.
symbols of an invading elite.
 COLLOCATIONS :
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Status is the importance and
statistics for something
respect that someone has among the public or a
official statistics
particular group.
economic / national statistics
 Nurses are undervalued, and they never enjoy the
statistically significant / insignificant
same status as doctors.
statistically valid / meaningful / proven
C. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The status of something is
statistically speaking
the importance that people give it.
analyze / prove something statistically
 Those things that can be assessed by external tests
stat | is | ti | cian
are being given unduly high status.
(statisticians)
NOUN A statistician is a person who studies statistics or
who works using statistics.
 Government statisticians published figures that
showed a 0.9 per cent fall in the volume of goods sold in
December.
 COLLOCATION :
a government / department / official / chief
statistician
 SYNONYMS : analyst, economist
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATIONS :
the status of something
high / low / equal / elevated status
social / socioeconomic / official status
attain / enjoy / gain / grant / confer status
a status symbol
 PHRASE : wealth and status
 SYNONYMS :
importance, prestige, standing, rank, station
…………………………………………………………………
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461
502. straight | forward
If you describe something as
straightforward, you approve of it because it is easy to
do or understand.
 Cost accounting is a relatively straightforward
process.
 The question seemed straightforward enough.
 simple straightforward language.
ADJECTIVE
 COLLOCATIONS :
fairly / relatively / pretty straightforward
a straightforward narrative / task / explanation /
answer
 SYNONYMS : uncomplicated, clear
 ANTONYM : complicated
…………………………………………………………………
503. strat | egy
(strategies)
NOUN A strategy is a general plan or set of plans
intended to achieve something, especially over a long
period.
 Next week, health ministers gather in Amsterdam to
agree a strategy for controlling malaria.
 a customer-led marketing strategy
 COLLOCATIONS :
a strategy for something
device / adopt / pursue / implement / develop a
strategy
a long-term / overall / national strategy
a marketing / pricing / investment / growth /
economic strategy
 SYNONYMS : policy, plan
…………………………………………………………………
504. stress
(stresses, stressing, stressed)
A. VERB If you stress a point in discussion, you put
extra emphasis on it because you think it is important.
 [+that] The spokesman stressed that the measures
did not amount to an overall ban.
 They also stress the need for improved employment
opportunities, better transport and health care.
 COLLOCATIONS :
stress the importance / significance / urgency of
something
stress the need for something
repeatedly stress
 SYNONYM : emphasize
 Stress is also noun.
 [+on] Japanese car makers are laying ever more
stress on European sales.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a stress on something
lay / place stress on something
 SYNONYM : emphasis
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If you feel under stress, you
feel worried and tense because of difficulties in your
life.
 Individuals develop colds, backache, or eczema
when they are under stress.
 a wide range of stress-related problems
 Relaxation exercises can relieve stress.
 COLLOCATIONS :
under stress
cope with / deal with / handle stress
cause / experience / relieve / reduce stress
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emotional / mental / psychological / work-related
stress
chronic / severe / extreme stress
stress related
 PHRASES :
stress and anxiety
post-traumatic stress disorder
 SYNONYMS : anxiety, worry, strain
C. NOUN Stresses are strong physical pressures applied
to an object.
 Earthquakes happen when stresses in rock are
suddenly released as the rocks fracture.
…………………………………………………………………
505. struc | ture
(structures, structuring, structured)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The structure of something
is the way in which it is made, built, or organized.
 [+of] The typical family structure of Freud's
patients involved two parents and two children.
 [+ of] The chemical structure of this particular
molecule is very unusual.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the structure of something
the structure of a molecule / protein / atom
organizational / hierarchical structure
social / management structure
the structure of society
 SYNONYMS : organization, arrangement
B. VERB If you structure something, you arrange it in a
careful, organized pattern or system.
 By structuring the course this way, we're forced to
produce something the companies think is valuable.
 COLLOCATIONS :
structure a narrative / essay
structure a course / examination / curriculum
society is structured
tightly / rigidly / loosely / hierarchically strutured
 SYNONYMS : organize
struc | tur | al
ADJECTIVE  The explosion caused little structural
damage to the office towers themselves.
 structural reform such as privatization.
 COLLOCATIONS :
structural change / reform / damage
structural weakness / integrity
…………………………………………………………………
506. style
(styles)
A. NOUN The style of something is the general way in
which it is done or presented, which often shows the
attitudes of the people involved.
 Our children's different needs and learning styles
created many problems.
 [+of] Belmont Park is a broad sweeping track
which will suit the European style of running.
B. NOUN in the arts, a particular style is characteristic of
a particular period or group of people.
 [+of] six scenes in the style of a classical Greek
tragedy
 a mixture of musical styles.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
a style of something
a style of life / music / writing / management /
leadership
a leadership / management / teaching style
a prose / architectural / musical style
a particular / distinctive / contrasting style
 SYNONYMS : method, technique
…………………………………………………………………
507. sub | mit
(submits, submitting, submitted)
VERB If you submit proposal, report, or request to
someone, you formally send it to them so that they can
consider it or decide about it.
 [+to] They submitted their reports to the Chancellor
yesterday.
 Head teachers yesterday submitted a claim for a 9 per
cent pay rise.
 COLLOCATIONS :
submit something to something
submit a proposal/ bid/ request / application / claim
submit a report / document / sample
submit one's resignation
 SYNONYMS : present, hand in
sub | mis | sion
(submissions)
NOUN  Diploma and certificate courses do not
normally require the submission of a dissertation.
 A written submission has to be prepared.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the submission of something
the submission of a dissertation / report / proposal
make / lodge / receive a submission
a written / oral submission
…………………………………………………………………
508. sub | or | di | nate
ADJECTIVE Something that is subordinate to something
is less important than the other thing.
 [+to] It was an art in which words were subordinate
to images.
 [+ to] However, this critique of conspiracy or
integrationist theory is subordinate to Connell's main
contention.
 COLLOCATIONS :
subordinate to something
a subordinate role / position
a subordinate group / class
 SYNONYM : Inferior
 ANTONYM : superior
…………………………………………………………………
509. sub | se | quent
ADJECTIVE You use subsequent to describe something
that happened or existed after the time or event that has
just been referred to. [FORMAL]
 the increase of population in subsequent years.
 Those concerns were overshadowed by subsequent
events.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a subsequent year / event / period / generation
a subsequent investigation / inquiry / purchase
 SYNONYMS : following, next
 ANTONYM : previous
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sub | se | quent | ly
ADVERB  She subsequently became the Faculty's
President.  Kermes were then believed to be berries,
but were subsequently discovered to be scale insects.
 COLLOCATION :
subsequently discover / withdraw / arrest / release
 SYNONYMS : later
 ANTONYM : previously
…………………………………………………………………
510. sub | is | dy
(subsidies)
NOUN A subsidy is money that is paid by a government
or other authority in order the help an industry or
business, or to pay for a public service.
 European farmers are planning a massive
demonstration against farm subsidy cuts.
 They've also slashed state subsidies to utilities and
transportation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a farm / agricultural / export subsidy
a state / public / government / federal subsidy
provide / receive / cut / reduce / eliminate a subsidy
subsidy cuts
 SYNONYMS : grant, aid
 COLLOCATIONS :
the government subsidizes something
heavily / unfairly subsidized
 SYNONYM : support
…………………………………………………………………
511. sub | sti | tute (substitutes, substituting, substituted)
A. VERB If you substitute one thing for another, or if
one thing substitutes for another, it takes the place or
performs the function of the other thing.
 [+for] They were substituting violence for
dialogue.
 He substituted different isotopes into the model and
charted the changes.
 COLLOCATION :
substitutes something for something
 SYNONYMS : change, replace
B. NOUN A substitute is something that you have or use
instead of something else.
 [+for] the increased use of nuclear energy as a
substitute for fossil fuels.
 tests on humans to find a blood substitute made
from animal blood.
sub | si | dize
(subsidizes, subsidizing, subsidized)
VERB If a governments or other authority subsidizes
something, they pay part of the cost of it. [in BRIT, also
use subsidise]
 Around the world, government have subsidized the
housing of middle and upper-income groups.
 pensions that are subsidized by the government.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a substitute for something
use / find / become a substitute
a blood / sugar / milk substitute
a poor / suitable / adequate substitute
 SYNONYMS : replacement, equivalent
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sub | sti | ti | tion
(substitutions)
NOUN  [+ of] safety concerns over the substitution of
ingredients.
 the nature and pace of technology substitution.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the substitution of something
crop / import / technology substitution
make a substitution
…………………………………………………………………
512. suc | cessor
(successors)
Someone's successor is the person who takes their job
after they have left.
 He set out several principles that he hopes will guide
his successors.
 John Major got the leadership because he was seen as
a natural successor to Mrs Thatcher.
…………………………………………………………………
513. suf | fi | cient / sa'fifant /
ADJECTIVE If something is sufficient for a particular
purpose, there is enough of it for the purpose.
 [+ to-inf] One metre of fabric is sufficient to cover the
exterior of an 18-in- diameter hatbox.
 There was not sufficient evidence to secure a
conviction.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sufficient for something
sufficient to cover / justify / warrant something
sufficient evidence / resources / funding
a sufficient quantity / number / reason
 SYNONYM : enough
 ANTONYM : insufficient
suf | fi | cient | ly
ADVERB  300,000 years after the Big Bang, the
Universe had cooled sufficiently for protons and
electrons to combine into neutral hydrogen atoms.
 The holes were sufficiently large to serve as nests.
 COLLOCATIONS :
recover / heal / mature / cool sufficiently
sufficiently large / flexible / robust
 ANTONYM : insufficiently
…………………………………………………………………
514. sum
(sums, summing, summed)
A. NOUN A sum of money is an amount of money.
 [+of] Large sums of money were lost.
 [+of] Even the relatively modest sum of £50,000
now seems beyond his reach.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a sum of X
a sum of money / cash
a large / huge / vast sum
invest / pay a sum
 SYNONYM : amount
B. NOUN In mathematics, the sum of two numbers is the
number that is obtained when they are together.
 [+of] The sum of all the angles of a triangle is 180
degrees.
 COLLOCATION :the sum of something
sum up
A. PHRASAL VERB If you sum something up, you
describe it as briefly as possible.
 Let us first sum up the principal points made in this
introductory chapter.
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471
 Negley Farson summed the situation up for all of
BEA.
B. PRASAL VERB If you sum up after a speech or at the
end of a piece of writing, you briefly state the main
points again.
 To sum up: We welcome the statement of the
Government and appreciate its willingness to work
cooperatively with us.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sum up a mood / feeling / situation
sum up succinctly / briefly / neatly
 SYNONYMS : summarize, conclude
…………………………………………………………………
515. summary
(summaries)
NOUN A summary of something is a short account of it,
which gives the main points but not the details.
 [+ of] What follows is a brief summary of the process.
 In summary, it is my opinion that this complete
treatment process was very successful.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a summary of something
a brief / written / executive summary
 PHRASE : in summary
 SYNONYMS : resume, abstract, précis
sum | ma | rise
(summarizes, summarizing,
summarized)
VERB If you summarize something, you give a
summary of it. [in BRIT, also use summarise]
 Table 3.1 summarizes the information given above.
 Basically, the article can be summarized in three
sentences.
 COLLOCATIONS :
summarize information / findings / data / results
summarize a discussion / argument
succinctly / briefly summarize
 SYNONYMS : sum up, outline
…………………………………………………………………
516. sup | plement
(supplements, supplementing,
supplemented)
VERB If you supplement something, you add something
to it in order to improve it.
 people doing extra jobs outside their regular jobs to
supplement their incomes.
 [+with] I suggest supplementing your diet with
vitamins E and A.
 COLLOCATIONS :
supplement something with something
supplement a diet / icome
 SYNONYMS : augment, enhance, enrich
 Supplement is also a noun.
 [+to] Business sponsorship must be a supplement
to, not a substitute for, public funding.
 COLLOCATION :a supplement to something
 SYNONYM : addition
sup | plemen | ta | ry
ADJECTIVE Supplementary things are added to
something in order to improve it.
 the question of whether or not we neede to take
supplementary vitamins.
 Provide them with additional background or with
supplementary information.
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 COLLOCATIONS :
supplementary food/ vitamins/ oxygen / information
a supplementary question / fee / grant / budget
 SYNONYMS : extra, additional
…………………………………………………………………
517. sur | vey
(surveys, surveying, surveyed)
A. NOUN If you carry out a survey, you try to find out
detailed information about a lot of different people or
things, usually by asking people a series of questions.
 The council conducted a survey of the uses to
which farm buildings are put.
 According to the survey, overall world trade has
also slackened.
 COLLOCATIONS :
according to a survey
conduct / carry out a survey
a recent/ national/ comprehensive/ consumer/
opinion survey
a survey shows / finds / reveals / suggests things
 SYNONYMS : analysis, study
B. VERB If you survey a number of people, companies,
or organizations, you try to find out information about
their opinions or behavior, usually by asking them a
series of questions.
 Business Development Advisers surveyed 211
companies for the report.
 Only 18 percent of those surveyed opposed the
idea.
 COLLOCATION :
survey people / members / companies / voters
…………………………………………………………………
518. sur | vive
(survives, surviving, survived)
A. VERB If a person or living thing survives in a
dangerous situation such as an accident or an illness,
they do not die.
 Those organisms that are most suited to the
environment will be those that will survive.
 Drugs that dissolve blood clots can help people
survive heart attacks.
B. VERB If something survives, it continues to exist
even after being in a dangerous situation or existing
for a long time.
 When the market economcy is introduced, many
factories will not survive.
 The chances of a planet surviving a supernova
always looked terribly slim.
 COLLOCATIONS :
survive a crash / war / illness / ordeal / cancer
survive the winter
survive a challenge / recession
miraculously / narrowly / somehow survive
survive intact / unscathed
 PHRASES : survive and prosper
 SYNONYM : live
 ANTONYM : die
sur | viv | al
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  companies which have been
struggling for survival in the advancing recession.
 If concers are spotted early there's a high chance of
survival.
…………………………………………………………………
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475
519. sus | pend
(suspends, suspending, suspended)
sus | pen | sion
A. VERB If you suspend something, you delay it or stop
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] A strike by British
it from happening for a while or until a decision is
Airways ground staff has led to the suspension of flights
between London and Manchester.
 [+of] Art experts have appealed for the suspension of
plans to restore one of Leonardo da Vinci's most
celebrated paintings.
made about it.
 The union suspended strike action this week.
 [+ until] A U.N official said aid programs will be
suspended until there's adequate protection for relief
convoys.
 COLLOCATIONS :
suspend something until a time
immediately / temporarily / indefinitely suspend
something
suspend aid / trading / operations
suspend a flight / shipment / sentence
 PHRASE
: suspend disbelief
 SYNONYM : delay
B. VERB If something is suspended from a high place, it
is hanging from that place.
 a mobile of birds or nursery thyme characters
which could be suspended over the cot.
 chandeliers suspended on heavy chains from the
ceiling.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the suspension of something
the suspension of trading / aid / activity
 PHRASE : the suspension of disbelief
…………………………………………………………………
520. sus | tain
(sustains, sustaining, sustained)
VERB If you sustain something, you continue it or
maintain it for a period of time.
 Euphoria cannot be sustained indefinitely.
 a period of sustained economic growth throughout
1995
 COLLOCATIONS :
sustained growth
a sustained attach
indefinitely / artificially sustained
 SYNONYMS : maintain, continue
 COLLOCATIONS :
suspended from / by / over / above something
sus | tain | able
suspended from a ceiling / hook
A. ADJECTIVE You use sustainable to describe the use
of natural resources when this use is kept at a steady
level that is not likely to damage the environment.
 the management, conservation and sustainable
development of forests.
suspended by wire / rope
suspended above the floor / ground
 SYNONYM : hang
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477
 Try to buy wood that you know has come from a
sustainable source.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sustainable agriculture / fishery / forestry
a sustainable forest / future / source
ecologically / environmentally sustainable
 SYNONYMS : environmentally friendly, ecological
 ANTONYM : unsustainable
B. ADJECTIVE A sustainable plan, method, or system
is designed to continue at the same rate or level of
activity without any problems.
 the creation of an efficient and sustainable
transport system.
 a sustainable recovery in consumer spending.
 COLLOCATIONS :
sustainable recovery / growth / development
a sustainable policy
 ANTONYM : unsustainable
sus | tain | abil | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  the growing concern about
521. sym | bol
(symbols)
A. NOUN Something that is a symbol of a society or an
aspect of life seems to represent it because it is very
typical of it.
 To them, the monarchy is the special symbol of
nationhood.
B. NOUN A symbol of something such as an idea is a
shape or design that is used to represent it.
 Later in this same passage Yeats resumes his
argument for the Rose as a Irish symbol.
C. NOUN A symbol for an item in a calculation or
scientific formula is a number, letter or shape that
represents that item.
 mathematical symbols and operations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a symbol of / for something
a symbol of strength/ resistance/ hope/ unity/
freedom
a potent / powerful / visible / religious / status / sex
symbol
a symbol denotes / indicates something
 SYNONYMS : sign, representation
environment sustainability
 [+of] doubts about the sustainability of the current
economic expansion.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the sustainability of something
ecological / environmental / long-term sustainability
…………………………………………………………………
sym | bol | ic
A. ADJECTIVE If you describe an event, action or
procedure as symbolic, you mean that it represent an
important change although it has little practical effect.
 the symbolic importants of the trip.
 The move today was largely symbolic.
B. ADJECTIVE Something that is symbolic of a person
or thing is regarded or used as a symbol of them.
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479
 [+of] Yellow clothes are worn as symbolic of
spring.
 COLLOCATIONS :
symbolic of something
symbolic importance / significance / meaning /
value
a symbolic gesture / act
largely / highly / purely symbolic
 SYNONYMS : representative, iconic, metaphorical
 ANTONYM : literal
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T
522. Tape
(tapes, taping, taped)
A. Tape is a narrow plastic strip covered with a magnetic
substance. It is used to record sounds, pictures and
computer information.
 Tape is expensive and loses sound quality every
time it is copied.
 Many students declined to be interviewed on tape.
B. A tape is a cassette or special with magnetic tape
wound round it.
 a new cassette tape
 She still listens to the tapes I made her.
C. If you tape music, sounds, or television pictures, you
record them using a tape recorder or a video recorder.
 She has just taped an interview.
 He shouldn't be taping without the singer's
permission.
 taped evidence from prisoners. taping an
unauthorized taping.
D. A tape is a strip of cloth used to the things together or
to identify who a piece of clothing belongs to.
 The books were all tied up with tape.
E. A tape is a ribbon that is stretched across the finishing
line of a race…
 the finishing tape.
F. Tape is an adhesive strip of plastic under for sticking
things together … strong adhestive tape.
G. If you tape one thing to another, you attach is using
sticky tape.
 I taped the base of the feather onto the velvet.
 There are notes from years ago taped to the walls.
 The envelope has been tampered with and then
taped shut again.
…………………………………………………………………
523. tar | get
(targets, targeting or targeting,
targeted or targeted)
A. NOUN A target is a result that you are trying to
achieve.
 The budgets should be based on company
objectives, and set realistic targets.
 an exports target of $5 billion a year.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a target of X
set / achieve / meet / reach / miss / exceed a target
a realistic / tough / ambitious target
a government target
a performance/ growth/ sales / profit / financial
target
a target rate / weight / time
 SYNONYMS : objective, goal
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481
B. VERB To target a particular person or thing means to
decide to attack or criticize them.
 He targets the economy as the root cause of the
deteriorating law and order situation.
 Supermarkets have attached security tags to small,
valuable items targeted by thieves.
 COLLOCATIONS :
targeted by someone
targeted by vandals / thieves / fraudsters / terrorists
target foreigners / militants / drinkers
specifically / aggressively / unfairly target
 SYNONYMS : attack, blame, criticize
 Target is also a noun.
 [+ of] In the past they have been the target of
racist abuse.
 [+ for] The professor has been a frequent target
for animal rights extremists.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the target of something
a target for someone
a soft / easy / legitimate / potential / possible target
the main / prime target
a target of attack / criticism / abuse / violence
C. VERB If you target a particular group of people, you
try to appeal to those people or affect them.
 The campaign will target American insurance
companies.
 The company has targeted adults as its primary
customers.
…………………………………………………………………
524. task
(tasks)
NOUN A task is an activity or piece of work which you
have to do, usually as part of a larger project.
 [+of] the massive task of reconstruction after the war.
 She used the day to catch up with administrative tasks.

 COLLOCATIONS :
the task of something
the task of management/ leadership/ reconstruction
face / undertake / accomplish / perform a task
assign / give someone a task
a daunting / difficult / unenviable / thankless / easy
task
a thousehold / administrative / computing task
the task ahead
 SYNONYMS : chore, job, assignment, duty,
responsibility
…………………………………………………………………
525. team
(teams)
NOUN You can refer to any group of people who work
together as a team.
 [+of] Each specialist consultant has a team of doctors
under him.
 The governors were joined by Mr Hunter and his
management team.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a team of something
a team of researchers/ scientists/ experts / engineers
a management/ research/ medical/ professional team
a team member / manager / leader
lead / head / join / form a team
 SYNONYMS : group, squad
 ANTONYM : individual
…………………………………………………………………
484
483
526. teach | ni | cal
B. ADVERB If something is technically the case, it is the
A. ADJECTIVE Technical means involving the sorts of
machines, processes, and materials that are used in
industry, transport and communications.
 In order to reach this limit a number of technical
problems will have to be solved.
 jobs that require technical knowledge.
 COLLOCATIONS :
technical assistance / knowledge / expertise
a technical problem / glitch / fault
highly technical
 SYNONYMS : high-tech, technological, mechanical
B. ADJECTIVE Technical language involves using
special words to describe the details of a specialized
activity.
 The technical term for sunburn is erythema.
 He's just written a book: large format, nicely
illustrated and not too technical.
case according to a strict interpretation of facts, or
rules, but may not be important or relevant in a
particular situation.
 Nude bathing is technically illegal but there are
plenty of unspoilt beaches where no one would ever
know.
 Technically, the two sides have been in a state of
war ever since 1949.
 COLLOCATIONS :
technically illegal / possible / feasible / correct
 SYNONYMS : theoretically
…………………………………………………………………
527. tech | nique
(techniques)
NOUN A technique is a particular method of doing an
activity, usually a method that involves practical skills.
 tests performed using a new technique
 developments in the surgical techniques employed
 COLLOCATIONS :
a technical team / word
technical jargon
 COLLOCATIONS :
a technique of something
a technique of analysis / management / production
tech | ni | cal | ly
a sophisticated / modern / innovative / traditional
A. ADVERB Technically means in a way that involves
machines and processes that are used in industry.
 the largest and most technically advanced furnace
company in the world.
technique
 COLLOCATION :
technically advanced
a surgical / mathematical / investigative technique
a breathing / relaxation / survival technique
develop / perfect / master / learn a technique
employ / use / apply a technique
/
sophisticated/
proficient
 SYNONYMS : technologically
skilled/
 SYNONYMS : method, style, system, way
…………………………………………………………………
486
485
528. tech | nol | ogy
(technologies)
NOUN Technology refers to methods, systems, and
devices which are the result of scientific knowledge
being used for practical purposes.
 Technology is changing fast.
 They should be allowed to wait for cheaper
technologies to be developed.
 nuclear weapons technology.
 COLLOCATIONS :
develop / use / embrace technology
advanced / modern / new technology
the latest technology
digital / wireless / mobile / nuclear technology
Information / computer technology
technology enables / allows something
the technology sector
 PHRASE : science and technology
 SYNONYMS : electronics, mechanization
tech | no | logi | cal
ADJECTIVE  an era of very rapid technological
change
 workers with technological expertise.
 COLLOCATIONS :
technological change / progress
a technological advance/ development / innovation /
breakthrough
technological expertise / know-how / capability
 SYNONYM : technical
 ANTONYM : inaccurate
…………………………………………………………………
529. tem | po | rary
ADJECTIVE Something that is temporary lasts for only
a limited time.
 His job here is only temporary
 a temporary loss of memory
 COLLOCATIONS :
temporary accommodation / shelter
a temporary injunction / ban
a temporary measure / reprieve / setback
a temporary visa / permit
 PHRASE
: on a temporary basis
 SYNONYM : short-term
 ANTONYMS : permanent, long-term
tem | po | rari | ly
ADVERB  The peace agreement has at least
temporarily halted the civil war.
 Checkpoints between the two zones were temporarily
closed.
 COLLOCATIONS :
temporarily suspended / halted / closed / blocked /
shut / unavailable
temporarily insane / homeless / unemployed / blind
 ANTONYM : permanently
…………………………………………………………………
530. tense
(tenser, tensest)
A. ADJECTIVE A tense situation or period of time is
one that makes people anxious, because they do not
know what is going to happen next.
 This gesture of goodwill did little to improve the
tense atmosphere at the talks.
488
487
 There were a few tense moments before the
presentation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a tenses situation/

B.





ease / reduce / defuse tension
racial / political / religious / ethnic / social tension
growing / rising / increasing / escalating / mounting
atmosphere/
relationship/
moment
tense negotiations
SYNONYMS : strained, anxious
ADJECTIVE If muscles, ropes, atc are tense, they are
stretched firm and tight.
 Tense muscles tear easily.
SYNONYMS : taut, tight
ANTONYMS : loose, relaxed
Tense is also verb.
 Stand with your feet apart and tense your muscles.
 It involves tensing and relaxing muscle groups,
starting with your feet.
SYNONYMS : tauten, tighten
ANTONYMS : loosen, relax
tension
 PHRASES : tension is high
 SYNONYM : anxiety
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The tension in something
such as a rope or wire is the extent to which it is
stretched tight.
 The reassuring tension of the rope moved with him,
neither too tight nor too loose.
 the tension created when tightening the wire.
 SYNONYM : tightness
 ANTONYM : slack
…………………………………………………………………
531. ter | mi | nate
(terminates, terminating, terminated)
VERB When you terminate something or when it
terminates, it ends completely. [FORMAL]
ten | sion
 the right to terminate an agreement.
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Tension is the feeling that is
 [+at] His contract terminates at the end of the season.
produced in a situation when people are anxious and
do not trust each other, and when there is a possibility
of sudden violence or conflict.
 [+ between] The tension between the two countries
is likely to remains
 years of political tension and conflict
 COLLOCATIONS :
tension between things
create / cause / increase / raise / heighten tension
 COLLOCATIONS :
terminate at a particular time
terminate a contract / agreement / plan
terminate employment
abrupty / immediately / automatically terminate
 SYNONYMS : end, discontinue
 ANTONYM : begin
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489
ter | mi | na | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN  [+of] a dispute which led to
the abrupt termination of trade.
 [+of] failure to provide reasonable notice of
termination of employment.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the termination of something
the termination of employment / trade
the termination of a contract / lease / agreement
a termination notice
a termination payment / fee / charge
 SYNONYMS : end, cessation, discontinuation
 ANTONYM : beginning
…………………………………………………………………
532. text
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Text is any written material.
 The machine can recognize hand-written characters
and turn them into printed text.
 A CD-ROM can store more than 250,000 pages of
typed text.
 COLLOCATIONS :
plain, written, typed text
 PHRASES
text and graphics
text and illustrations
 SYNONYM : writing
…………………………………………………………………
533. theme
(themes)
NOUN A theme in a piece of writing, and discussion, or
an artist's work is an important idea or subject that runs
through it.
 [+of] The theme of the conference is renaissance
Europe.
 the novel's central theme.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the theme of something
the main / central / key / dominant / major theme
a common/ recurrent/ underlying / universal theme
explore / continue / echo a theme
a theme emerges / recurs
a theme runs through something
 SYNONYMS : topic, subject, motif
the | mat | ic / i:'maetik /
ADJECTIVE Thematic means concerned with the
subject or theme of something, or with theme and topics
in general. [FORMAL]
 assembling this material into thematic groups
 the whole thematic approach to learning.
the | mati | cal | ly
ADVERB  a thematically-linked threesome of songs
 Thematically, Miller's work falls into broad
categories.
…………………………………………………………………
534. theo | ry
(theories)
NOUN A theory is a formal idea or set of ideas that is
intended to explain something.
 [+of] Einstein formulated the Theory of Relativity in
1905.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the theory of something
492
491
the theory of evolution / relativity
develop / propose / formulate / test / prove / apply
a theory
a scientific / evolutionary theory
 SYNONYMS : principle, law, rule
…………………………………………………………………
535. there | by
ADVERB You use thereby to introduce an important
result or consequence of the event or action you have just
mentioned. [FROMAL]
 Our bodies can sweat, thereby losing heat by
evaporation.  A firm might sometimes sell at a loss to
drive a competitor out of business, and thereby increase
its market power.
 COLLOCATIONS :
thereby reduce / increase something
thereby avoid / prevent something
 SYNONYM : thus
…………………………………………………………………
536. the | sis
(theses)
A. NOUN A thesis is an idea or theory that is expressed
as a statement and is discussed in a logical way.
 This thesis does not stand up to close inspection.
 One of the arguments used to support the thesis is
that students who rely on their parents for money feel
great pressure to get good grades.
B. NOUN A thesis is a long piece of writing based on
your own ideas and research that you do as part of a
university degree, especially a higher degree such as a
PhD.
 [+on] He was awarded his PhD for a thesis on
industrial robots.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a thesis on something
write / support / develop / submit a thesis
…………………………………………………………………
537. top | ic
(topics)
NOUN A topic is a particular subject that you discuss or
write about.
 [+ of] The weather is a constant topic of conversation
in Britain.
 [+for] The main topic for discussion is political
union.
 This topic is explored more fully in chapter 5.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a topic of something
a topic of / for something
a topic of conversation
a topic for debate / discussion
the main / key / specific / related topic
a taboo / controversial / contentious / sensitive topic
a thesis / essay / conversation topic
broach / discuss / cover / research / explore a topic
 SYNONYM : subject, matter, theme
…………………………………………………………………
538. trace
(traces, tracing, traced)
A. VERB If you trace the origin or development of
something, you find out or describe how it started or
develop.
 The exhibition traces the history of graphic design
in America from the 19th century to the present.
494
493
 [+ to] The psychiatrist successfully traced some of
her problems to severe childhood traumas.
 Trace back means the same as trace.
 [+to] Britain's Parliament can trace its history
back to the English Parliament of the 13th century.
 The traditional format of the almanac can be
traced back for at least a thousand years.
 COLLOCATIONS :
trace something to something
trace the origin / history / development / evolution
of something
trace someone's ancestry / roots / relatives
B. NOUN A trace of something is a very small amount
of it.
 [+ of] Wash them in cold water to remove all
traces of sand.
 [+of] The technique could scan luggage at airports
for traces of explosives.
 [+of] said without a trace of irony.
539. tra | di | tion
(traditions)
NOUN A tradition is a custom or belief that has existd
for a long time.
 [+of] the rich traditons of Afro-Cuban music, and
dance
 [+of] Many has carried on the family tradition of
giving away plants.
 The story of King Arthur became part of oral
tradition.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a trandition of something
a tradition of tolerance / storytelling / poetry /
worship
uphold / maintain / preserve / continue a tradition
keep a tradition alive
a long / proud / ancient / oral tradition
a family / folk / religious / Christian tradition
tradition dictates something
 SYNONYMS:
custom, heritage, culture, practice, ritual
 COLLOCATIONS :
a trace of something
tra | di | tion | al
a trace of poison / cocaine / explosives
ADJECTIVE Traditional customs, beliefs, or methods
a trace of irony / bitterness
are ones that have existed for a long time without
changing.
 traditional teaching methods
 traditional Indian music
 pipers in traditional highland dress.
a faint / minute trace
find / contain / remove / leave a trace
 SYNONYMS : vestige, fragment
…………………………………………………………………
 COLLOCATIONS :
traditional music / medicine / dress
traditional values / beliefs / culture
496
495
a traditional method / dish / style / marriage
fairly / deeply / strictly traditional
 SYNONYMS : old-fashioned, conventional
 ANTONYMS : modern, contemporary
tra | di | tion | al | ly
ADERB  Married women have traditionally been
treated as dependent on their husbands.
 Some jobs, such as nursing, are traditionally
associated with women.
 Traditionally, election campaigns start on Labor Day.
 COLLOCATION :
traditionally associated / viewed / favoured
 SYNONYMS : conventionally, usually, generally
…………………………………………………………………
540. trans | fer
(transfers, transferring, transferred)
A. VERB If you transfer something or someone from
one place to another, or they transfer from one place
to another, they go from the first place to the second.
 [+from/to] He wants to transfer some money to the
account of his daughter.
 [+from/to] The person can transfer from
wheelchair to seat with relative ease.
 COLLOCATION :transfer from / to something
 SYNONYM : move
 Transfer is also a noun.
 [+of] Arrange for the transfer of medical records
to your new doctor.
 The bank reserves the right to reverse any transfers
or payments.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the transfer of something
make / complete a transfer
B. VERB If something is transferred or transfers, from
one person or group of people to another, the second
person or group gets it instead of the first.
 [+to] The chances of the diseases being
transferred to humans is extremely remote.
 [+from/to] On December the presidency of the
Security Council automatically transfer from the U.S
to Yemen.
 COLLOCATIONS :
transfer from / to something
transfer automatically / directly
 SYNONYM : pass
 Transfer is also a noun.
 [+ of] the transfer of power the old to the new
regimes.
 COLLOCATIONS : the transfer of something
…………………………………………………………………
541. trans | form (transforms, transforming, transformed)
A. VERB To transform something into something else
means to change or convert into that thing.
 [+into] Your metabolic rate is the speed at which
your body transforms food into energy.
 [+ from / into] Delegates also discussed
transforming them from a guerrilla force into a
regular army.
B. VERB To transform something or someone means to
change them completely and suddenly so that they are
much better or more attractive.
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497
 The spread of the internet and mobile telephony
have transformed society.
 [+into] Yeltsin was committed to completely
transforming Russia into a market economy.
 COLLOCATIONS :
transform something from / into something
completely / magically / dramatically transform
transform society
transform a country / business / area
transform the economy / landscape / country / world
 SYNONYMS : change, convert
trans | for | ma | tion
NOUN  one of the most astonishing economic
transformations seen since the second world war.
 After 1959, the Spanish economy underwent a
profound transformation.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the transformation of something
undergo / see / make a transformation
a transformation occurs / takes place
a radical / dramatic / profound / complete
transformation
a social / economic / personal / political / cultural
transformation
 SYNONYM : change
…………………………………………………………………
542. tran | sit
A. Transit is the carrying of goods or people by vehicle
from one place to another.
 They halted transit of EC livestock
 a transit time of about 42 minutes.
 If people or things are in transit, they are traveling or
being taken from one place to another.
 They were in transit to Bombay ..
 We cannot be held responsible for goods lost in
transit.
B. A transit area is an area where people wait or where
goods are kept between different stages of a journey.
 refugees arriving at the two transit camps:
 a transit lounge at Moscow airport.
C. In American English, a transit system is a system for
moving people or goods from one place to another,
for example on buses or trains.
 The president wants to improve the nation's
highways and mass transit systems.
 the New York City Transit Authority
…………………………………………………………………
543. trans | mit
(transmites, transmitting, transmitted)
VERB If one person or animal transmits a disease to
another, they have the disease and cause the other person
or animal to have it. [FORMAL]
 [+ to] mosquitoes that transmit disease to humans
 [+ through] There was no danger of transmitting the
infection through operations.
 the spread of sexually transmitted diseases.
 COLLOCATIONS :
transmit something of something / someone
transmitted by / through something
transmitted by mosquitoes / contact / transfusion
transmit a disease / infection / virus
sexually / orally / genetically transmitted
 SYNONYMS : pass, spread
500
499
trans | mis | sion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The transmission of something
is the passing or sending of it to a different person or
place.
 Heterosexual contact is responsible for the bulk of
HIV transmission.
 the fax machine and other forms of electronic data
transmission.
 [+of] the transmission of knowledge and skills.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the transmission of something
the transmission of a disease / virus
date / electricity / radio transmission
human-to-human / airborne / viral transimission
…………………………………………………………………
544. trans | port
(transports, transporting, transported)
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Transport is the moving of
people or goods from one place to another, for
example using buses or trains. [mainly BRIT, in AM,
usually use transportation]
 The extra money could be spent on improving
public transport.
 An efficient transport system is critical to the longterm future of London.
 Local production virtually eliminates transport
costs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
public / rail / air / road / passenger transport
improve / provide / use transport
 SYNONYMS : transportation, carriage
B. VERB To transport people or goods somewhere is to
take them from one place to another in a vehicle.
 There's no petrol, so it's very difficult to transport
goods.
 They use tankers to transport the oil to Los
Angeles.
 COLLOCATIONS :
transport something of something
transport something by a aeroplane / helicopter / rail
transport freight / cargo / goods
ferries / ships / trucks transport things
 SYNONYMS : move, ship
…………………………………………………………………
545. trend
(trends)
NOUN A trend is a change or development towards
something new or different.
 This is a growing trend.
 [+towards] There has been a trend towards part-time
employment.
 the downward trend in gasoline prices.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a trend towards something
buck / defy / reverse / reflect / continue a trend
a growing / emerging / new / recent trend
the latest / current trend
a general/ underlying/ overall/ global/ international
trend
a social / economic / cultural trend
a downward / upward / disturbing / worrying trend
 SYNONYMS : tendency, movement
…………………………………………………………………
502
501
546. trig | ger
(triggers, triggering, triggered)
A. VERB if something triggers an event or situation, it
causes it to begin to happen or exist.
 the incident which triggered the outbreak of the
First World War.
 The current recession was triggered by a slump
consumer spending.
 COLLOCATIONS :
trigger a response / reaction / change
trigger a crisis / attack / war / debate
trigger a tsunami / landslide / avalanche
 SYNONYM : spark
B. NOUN If something acts as a trigger for another
thing such as illness, event, or situation, the first thing
causes the second thing to begin to happen or exist.
 [+for] Stress may act as a trigger for these
illnesses.
 COLLOCATION :a trigger for something
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
U
547. ul | ti | mate
A. ADJECTIVE You use ultimate to describe the final
result or aim of a long series of events.
 He said it is still not possible to predict the
ultimate outcome.
 The ultimate aim is to expand the network further.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the ultimate aim / goal / objective
the ultimate fate / outcome / result / destination
 SYNONYMS : eventual, final
B. ADJECTIVE You use ultimate to describe the most
important or powerful thing of a particular kind.
 the ultimate power of the central government
 Of course, the ultimate authority remained the
presidency.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the ultimate control / power / authority
the ultimate challenge / responsibility
 SYNONYMS : most important, highest
ul | ti | mate | ly
A. ADVERB Ultimately means finally, after a long and
often complicated series of events.
 Whatever the scientists ultimately conclude, all of
their data will immediately be disputed.
 It was a tough but ultimately worthwhile struggle.
 COLLOCATION :
ultimately decide / conclude / succeed
 SYNONYMS : eventually, in the end
B. ADVERB You use ultimately to indicate that what
you are saying is the most important point in a
discussion.  Ultimately, Bismarck's revisionism
scarcely affected or damaged British interests at all.
…………………………………………………………………
548. under | go
(undergoes, undergoing,
underwent, undergone)
VERB If a person or thing undergoes something
necessary or unpleasant, it happen to them.
 New recruits have been undergoing training in recent
weeks.
504
503
 When cement powder is mixed with water it undergoes
a chemical change and sets hard.
 COLLOCATIONS :
undergo an operation
undergo surgery / treatment / therapy / training
undergo refurbishment / restoration / repairs
undergo a change/ transformation/ facelift/ reaction
undergo a review / assessment / evaluation / test /
check
under | ly | ing
ADJECTIVE The underlying features of an object, event,
or situation are not obvious, and it may be difficult to
discover or reveal them.
 To stop a problem you have to understand its
underlying causes.
 I think that the underlying problem is education,
unemployment and bad housing.
 COLLOCATIONS :
an underlying cause / reason / problem / issue
an underlying principle/ assumption / theme/
philosophy
an underlying trend
 SYNONYMS : basic, fundamental
…………………………………………………………………
549. under | lie
(underlies, underlying, underlay,
underlain)
If something underlies a feeling or situation, it is the
cause or basis of it. Try to figure out what feeling
underlies your anger.  the energy which seems to
underlie all human success.
………………………………………………………………….
550. under | take
(undertakes, undertaking,
undertook, undertaken)
VERB When you undertake a task or job, you start
doing it and accept responsibility for it.
 She undertook the arduous task of monitoring the
elections.
 Students are encouraged to undertake research in
areas in which the department has particular expertise.
 COLLOCATIONS :
undertake work / research / training / exercise
undertake a study / project / activity / task / tour
undertake a review / analysis / investigation / survey
 SYNONYMS : do, carry out
under | tak | ing
(undertakings)
NOUN An undertaking is a task or job, especially a large
or difficult one.
 Organizing the show has been a massive undertaking.
 the nineteenth century's most ambitious scientific
undertaking.
 COLLOCATION :
a major/ massive/ huge / ambitious undertaking
 SYNONYMS : job, task
…………………………………………………………………
551. uni | form
A. ADJECTIVE If something is uniform, it does not
vary, but is even and regular throughout.
 The carbon fibre fabric gives a uniform
distribution of heat.
 The price rises will not be uniform across the
country.
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505
B. ADJECTIVE If you describe a number of things as
uniform, you mean that they are all the same.
 Along each wall stretched uniform green metal
filing cabinets.
 COLLOCATIONS :
uniform thickness / size / colour
uniform distribution / consistency
remarkably uniform
 SYNONYMS : even, identical
 ANTONYMS : uneven, different
uni | form | ly / ju:nifo:mli /
ADVERB  a uniformly negative reaction worldwide.
 Microwaves heat water uniformly.
 the assumption that stars are uniformly distributed in
space.
 COLLOCATIONS :
uniformly excellent / negative / positive / grey
uniformly distributed / spread
apply something uniformly
 SYNONYM : evenly
 COLLOCATIONS :
uniformity of something
impose / ensure / demand / achieve uniformity
national / great / bland uniformity
…………………………………………………………………
552. uni | fy
(unifies, unifying, unified)
VERB if someone unifie different things or parts, or if
the things or parts unify, they are brought together to
form one thing.
 A flexible retirement age is being considered by
Ministers to unify men's and women's pension rights.
 The plan has been for the rival armies to demobilize,
to unify, and then to hold elections to decide who rules.
 [+with] the benefits of unifying with the West
 COLLOCATIONS :
unify with something
unify a nation / party / country / force
newly unified
 SYNONYMS : join, unite
 ANTONYM : separate
uni | fi | ca | ton
uni | form | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Unification is the process by
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN If there is uniformity in
which two or more countries join together and become
one country.
 the process of general European unification.
 one of the most difficult obstacles in the unification
process.
something such as a system, organization, or group of
countries, the same rules, ideas, or methods are applied
in all parts of it.
 Spanish liberals sought to create linguistic as well as
administrative uniformity.
 [+of] The strength of the ideology is seen in the
remarkable uniformity of attitude and beliefs.
 COLLOCATIONS :
unification of countries
peaceful / rapid / national / political unification
508
507
German / European unification
achieve / welcome / celebrate / negotiate unification
the unification process
 SYNONYM : alliance
 ANTONYM : division
…………………………………………………………………
553. unique
A. ADJECTIVE Something that is unique is the only one
of its kind.
 Each person's signature is unique
 The area has its own unique language, Catalan.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a unique opportunity/
554. uti | lize
(utilizes, utilizing, utilized)
VERB If you utilize something, you use it. [FORMAL,
in BRIT, also use utilise]
 Sound engineers utilize a range of techniques to
enhance the quality of the recordings.
 Minerals can be absorbed and utilized by the body in
a variety of different forms.
 COLLOCATIONS :
utilize a strategy / technique / method / approach /
service / resource
utilize technology / energy / power
experience/
position/
situation/ event
a unique characteristic / insight / style / feature
B. ADJECTIVE If something is unique to one thing,
person, group, or place, it concerns or belongs only to
that things, person, group, or place.
 [+to] No one knows for sure why adolescence is
unique to humans.
 [+to] This interesting and charming creature is
unique to Borneo.
 COLLOCATION :
unique to someone / something
fully / effectively utilize something
 SYNONYMS : use, employ
uti | li | za | tion
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN [in BRIT, also use utilisation]
 [+of] the utilization of human resources.
 [+of] the economic utilization of atomic energy
 COLLOCATIONS :
the utilization of something
full / maximum / effective / inefficient utilization
maximize / improve / increase utilization
impair / prevent utilization
unique | ly
ADVERB  Because of the extreme cold, the Antarctic is
a uniquely fragile environment.  The problem is not
uniquely American.
…………………………………………………………………
 SYNONYMS : use, employment
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510
509
V
555. val | id
A. ADJECTIVE A valid argument, comment, or idea is
based on sensible reasoning.
 They put forward many valid reasons for not
exporting.
 This is a perfectly valid approach, but it has its
drawbacks.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a valid reason / point / argument / claim
a valid comment / question / comparison / criticism
perfectly / equally / entirely valid
 SYNONYMS : legitimate, sound, solid, reasonable
B. ADJECTIVE If something such as a number is valid,
it is within an acceptable range of values or
restrictions.
 Software that generates valid numbers
 a valid password
 a statistically valid sample
 ANTONYM : invalid
va | lid | ity
UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The validity of an argument, a
piece of information or a result is whether it is based on
sensible reasoning or methods and can be believed or
trusted.
 This argument has lost much of its validity.
 Many scientists are questioning the validity of the
claims of the study.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the validity of something
question/ challenge / doubt the validity of something
check / test / assess / determine the validity of
something
demonstrate/ accept / confirm the validity of
something
 SYNONYMS : worth, legitimacy, strength
…………………………………………………………………
556. vary
(varies, varying, varied)
A. VERB If things vary, they are different from each
other in size, amount, or degree.
 Assessment practices vary in different schools or
college.
 [+from] The text varies from the earlier versions.
 [V-ing] Difference writers will prepare to varying
degrees.
B. VERB If something varies or if you vary it, it become
different or changed.
 The cost of the alcohol duty varies according to the
amount of wine in the bottle.
 Company officials should sure that security
routines are varied.
 COLLOCATIONS :
vary from something
vary from something to something
vary from region to region / person to person
vary considerably / enormously / greatly / widely
opinions / prices / estimates / practices vary
varying degrees / sizes / lengths / amounts
 SYNONYMS : differ, change
512
511
vari | ation
(variations)
NOUN A variation is a change or slight difference in a
level, amount, or quantity.
 [+in] The survey found a wide variation in the prices
charged for canteen food.
 Scotland's employment rate shows significant regional
variations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
variation in something
seasonal / genetic / regional variation
wide / considerable / slight variation
show variation
 SYNONYMS : difference, diversity
 ANTONYM : similarity
vari | able
(variables)
NOUN A variable is a factor that can change in quality,
quantity, or size, which you have to take into account in
a situation.
 Decisions could be made on the basis of price,
delivery dates, after-sales service or any other variable.
 Other variables in making forecasts for the industry
include the weather and the general economic climate.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a dependent / independent variable
demographic / socioeconomic / extraneous variables
manipulate / measure / identify / examine variables
variables determine / influence / cause something
 SYNONYM : factor
…………………………………………………………………
557. ve | hi | cle
(vehicles)
NOUN A vehicle is a machine such as a car, bus, or truck
which as an engine and is used to carry people from
place to place.
 The vehicle would not be able to make the journey on
one tank of fuel.
 a vehicle which was somewhere between a tractor and
a truck.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a military / armoured / commercial vehicle
a motor / utility / sport / emergency vehicle
a stolen vehicle
 SYNONYMS : gather
 ANTONYM : inaccurate
…………………………………………………………………
558. ver | sion
(versions)
NOUN A version of something is a particular form of it
in which some details are different from earlier or later
forms.
 [+of] an updated version of his book
 [+of] the film version of Tess of the d'Urbervilles.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a version of something
a new / updated / modern / revised / edited version
a handheld / film / stage version
the original version
release / launch / produce a version
…………………………………………………………………
514
513
559. via
A. REPOSITION If someone or something goes
somewhere via a particular place, they go through that
place on the way to their destination.
 In vertebrates food passes into the stomach from
the mouth via the oesophagus.
 Mr Baker will return home via Britain and France.
B. PREPOSITION If you do something via a particular
means or person, you do it by making use of that
means of person.
 The technology to allow relief workers to contact
the outside world via satellite already exists.
 Translators cn now work from home, via electronic
mail systems.
 COLLOCATIONS :
via satellite / email / text message
via the internet / telephone
 SYNONYMS : by way of through
…………………………………………………………………
560. vio | late
(violates, violating, violated)
VERB If someone violates an agreement, law, or
promise, they break it. [FORMAL]
 They went to prison because they violated the law.
 They violated the ceasefire agreement.
 COLLOCATIONS :
violate the law / constitution
violate a rule / principle / agreement
violate probation / copyright
 SYNONYMS : breach, break, disobey
 ANTONYM : obey
vio | la | tion
(violations)
NOUN  [+of] This could constitute a violation of
international law.
 [+of] He was in violation of his contract.
 allegations of human rights violations.
 COLLOCATIONS :
a violation of something
in violation of something
a violation of the law
…………………………………………………………………
561. vir | tual
A. ADJECTIVE You can use virtual to indicate that
something is so nearly true that for most pruposes it
can be regarded as true.
 the virtual disappearance of marriage as an
institution among poor black people
 conditions of virtual slavery
 COLLOCATIONS :
a virtual certainty / impossibility
a virtual prisoner / standstill / monopoly
the virtual disappearance/ elimination of something
 SYNONYM : near
B. ADJECTIVE Virtual objects and activities are
generated by a computer to simulate real objects and
activities.
 Software that generates virtual environment of war
zones.  a virtual shopping centre
 COLLOCATIONS :
virtual reality
a virtual environment / world / community / tour /
network
 SYNONYMS : computerized, online
516
515
vir | tu | al | ly
ADVERB You can use virtually to indicate that
something is so nearly true that for most purposes it can
be regarded as true.
 Virtually all of the symptoms of schizophrenio may be
classified as psychotic.
 It would have been virtually impossible to research all
the information.
 COLLOCATIONS :
virtually impossible / unknown / unlimited / all
virtually identical / unchanged / indistinguishable
virtually assure / guarantee
 SYNONYMS : almost, nearly, essentially
…………………………………………………………………
562. vis | ible
A. ADJECTIVE If something is visible, it can be seen.
 The warning lights were clearly visible.
 [+to] They found a bacterium visible to the human
eye.
B. ADJECTIVE You use visible to describe something
or someone that people notice or recognize.
 The most visible sign of the intensity of the crisis is
unemployment.
 The cabinet is a highly symbol of the executive
branch of the United States government.
 COLLOCATIONS :
visible to / from something
barely / plainly / clearly / highly / very visible
less / more / still visible
a visible sign / symbol / reminder / presence /
manifestation
make something visible
 SYNONYMS : clear, evident, noticeable
 ANTONYMS : invisible, hidden
 RELATED WORD : audible, tangible
vis | ibly
ADVERB  Persons dying from cancer or other
degenerative disorders grow thin and visibly waste
away.
 They emerged visibly and weeping.
 COLLOCATION :
visibly distressed / upset / angry / shaken
 SYNONYMS : evidently, noticeably
…………………………………………………………………
563. vi | sion / vizan /
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Your vision is your ability
to see clearly with your eyes.
 It causes blindness or serious loss of vision.
B. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN Your vision is everything
that you can see from a particular place or position.
 Your total field of vision is more than 220.
 I saw other indistinct shapes that stayed out of
vision.
 COLLOCATIONS :
clear / blurred / 20-20 vision
peripheral / double / tunnel / X-ray / night vision
loss of vision
impair / obstruct / obscure vision
 PHRASE
: one's field of vision
 SYNONYMS : sight, eyesight, view
 ANTONYM : blindness
…………………………………………………………………
518
517
564. vis | ual
ADJECTIVE Visual means relating to slight, or to things
that you can see.
 the graphic visual depiction of violence.
 music, film, dance, and the visual arts
 people with visual impairment.
 COLLOCATIONS :
visual arts / information / imagery
visual perception / acuity / impairment
a visual memory / cue
visu | al | ly
ADVERB  visually impaired boys and girls
 These creatures are visually spectacular.
 COLLOCATIONS :
visually impaired
visually arresting / stunning / striking / appealing
…………………………………………………………………
565. vol | ume
(volumes)
A. NOUN The volume of something is the amount of it
that there is.
 [+of] Senior officials will be discussing how the
volume of sales might be reduced.
 [+of] the sheer volume of traffic and accidents.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the volume of something
the volume of traffic / shares / data
export / sales / traffic volume
the average / total / estimated volume
the sheer / huge / high volume
increase / reduce volume
 SYNONYM : amount
B. NOUN The volume of an object is the amount of
space that it contains or occupies.
 When egg whites are beaten they can rise to seven
or eight times their original volume.
 SYNONYM : capacity
 RELATED WORD : area
C. NOUN A volume is one book or journal in a series of
books or journals. The abbreviation vol. is used in
written notes and bibliographies.
 [+of] the first volume of his autobiography
 [+of] The article appeared in volume 41 of the
journal Communication Education.
 COLLOCATION :a volume of something
…………………………………………………………………
566. vol | un | tary
A. ADJECTIVE Voluntary actions or activities are done
because someone chooses to do them and not because
they have been forced to do them.
 The scheme, due to begin next month, will be
voluntary.
 COLLOCATIONS :
voluntary redundancy / retirement / euthanasia
a voluntary contribution / action/ programme/ test /
course
 SYNONYM : optical
 ANTONYMS : compulsory, mandatory
B. ADJECTIVE Voluntary work is done by people who
are not paid for it, but who do it because they want to
do it.
 charities and voluntary organizations
520
519
 He'd been working at the local hostel for the
homeless on a voluntary basis.

COLLOCATIONS :
a voluntary organization / group
voluntary work
the voluntary sector
 PHRASE : on a voluntary basis
 SYNONYM : charitable
 ANTONYM : paid
vol | un | tar | ily
ADVERB  The company wanted staff to leave
 [+ to-inf] the number of men volunteering to
become sperm donors.
 [+for] The majority of people will volunteer for
early retirement if the financial terms are acceptable.
 [+as] She volunteered as a nurse in a soldier's
rest-home.
 COLLOCATIONS :
volunteer for / as something
volunteer for a task / job / assignment
volunteer to help / join something
volunteer one's services
----------------------------------------------------------------------------
voluntarily.
 COLLOCATIONS :
resign / leave / surrender voluntarily
voluntarily withdraw / recall something
W
567. wel | fare
A. UNCOUNTABLE NOUN The welfare of a person or
vol | un | teer (volunteers, volunteering, volunteered)
A. NOUN A volunteer is someone who does work
without being paid for it, because they want to do it.
 Volunteers are needed to help visit elderly people's
homes.
 COLLOCATIONS :
recruit / need / seek volunteers
a trained / unpaid / dedicated / community
volunteer
a volunteer firefighter / helper / organization
volunteer work
B. VERB If you volunteer to do something, you offer to
do it without being forced to do it.
group is their health, comfort, and happiness.
 For reasons of animal welfare, farmers can no
longer keep pigs confined in stalls.
 [+of] He was the head of a charity for the welfare
of children.
 COLLOCATIONS :
the welfare of someone / something
the welfare of animals / children
animal / child / social / public welfare
endanger / promote welfare
 PHRASE
: health and welfare
 SYNONYM : well-being
522
521
B. ADJECTIVE Welfare services are provided to help
with
people's
living
conditions
and
financial
problems.
 Child welfare services are well established and
 COLLOCATIONS :
a system / method / means / mechanism whereby
a procedure / process / arrangement whereby
 SYNONYM : by which
comprehensive.
…………………………………………………………………
 He has urged complete reform of the welfare
570. wide | spread
system.
 COLLOCATIONS :
ADJECTIVE Something that is widespread exists or
happens over a large area, or to a great extent.
a welfare state / system / service / programme
 There is widespread support for the new proposals.
welfare benefits / reform
 Food shortages are widespread.
 SYNONYM : social
 COLLOCATIONS :
…………………………………………………………………
widespread condemnation / criticism / opposition
568. CONJUNCTION
widespread support / acceptance / agreement
You use whereas to introduce a comment which
widespread concern / interest / use
contrasts with what is said in the main clause.
a widespread belief / feeling / view / problem
 Pensions are linked to inflation, whereas they should
widespread looting / flooding / fraud / damage
be linked to the cost of living.
 SYNONYM : extensive
 Whereas the population of working age increased by 1
 ANTONYM : limited
million between 1981 and 1986, today it is barely
growing.
 SYNONYM : while
…………………………………………………………………
569. where | by
ADVERB A system or action whereby something
happens is one that makes that thing happen. [FORMAL]
 the system whereby Britons choose their family
doctors and the government pays those doctors.
 a method of soil conservation whereby ploughing is
undertaken along contours rather than with the slope.
…………………………………………………………………