1. Agenda setting theory (Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw)
Media influence affects the order of presentation in news reports about news
events, issues in the public mind. More importance to a news-more importance
attributed by audience. Media Priorities It says what people should think about and
how people should think about.
These are the levels of agenda setting theory:
First Level:
Mostly studied by researchers, media uses objects or issues to influence the people
what people should think about.
Second level:
Media focuses on the characters of issues how people should think about.
Agenda setting theory used in political ad, campaigns, business news, PR (public
relation) etc.
The main concept associated with the agenda setting theory is gate keeping. Gate
keeping controls over the selection of content discussed in the media; Public cares
mostly about the product of a media gate keeping. It is especially editors media
itself is a gatekeeper. News media decides ‘what’ events to admit through media
‘gates’ on ground of ‘newsworthiness’.
For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear
and what should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.
Priming
Activity of the media in proposing the values and standards by which objects of the
media attention can be judged. Media’s content will provide a lot of time and space
to certain issues, making it more vivid.
To say in simple words, Media is giving utmost importance to a news so that it
gives people the impression that is the most important information. This is done
everyday the particular news is carried as a heading or covered everyday for
months.
Headlines, Special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used.
Media primes a news by repeating the news and giving it more importance E.g.
Nuclear deal.
Framing
Framing is a process of selective control
Two Meanings
1. Way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within
same frame of reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar
way. It is how people attach importance to a news and perceive it context
within which an issue is viewed.
Framing talks about how people attach importance to certain news for e.g. in case
of attack, defeat, win and loss, how the media frames the news such that people
perceive it in a different way.
We can take India and Pakistan war; same happening is framed in different ways in
both the countries. So depending on which media you view your perception will
differ.
Criticisms of Agenda setting theory is

Media users not ideal, people may not pay attention to details.

Effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.

Media can’t create problems. They can only alter the awareness, Priority etc.
2. Harold Dwight Lasswell (February 13, 1902 — December 18, 1978)
Harold Dwight Lasswell, the American political scientist states that a convenient
way to describe an act of communication is to answer the following questions

Who

Says What

In Which Channel

To Whom

With what effect?
This model is about process of communication and its function to society,
According to Lasswell there are three functions for communication:
1. Surveillance of the environment
2. Correlation of components of society
3. Cultural transmission between generation
Lasswell model suggests the message flow in a multicultural society with multiple
audiences. The flow of message is through various channels. And also this
communication model is similar to Aristotle’s communication model.
In this model, the communication component who refers the research area called
“Control Analysis”,
Says what is refers to “Content Analysis”,
In which channel is refers to “Media Analysis”,
To Whom is refers to “Audience Analysis”
With What Effect is refers to “Effect Analysis”
Example:
CNN NEWS – A water leak from Japan’s tsunami-crippled nuclear power station
resulted in about 100 times the permitted level of radioactive material flowing into
the sea, operator Tokyo Electric Power Co said on Saturday.
Who – TEPC Operator
What – Radioactive material flowing into sea
Channel – CNN NEWS (Television medium)
Whom – Public
Effect – Alert the people of japan from the radiation.
Advantage of lasswell model:

It is Easy and Simple

It suits for almost all types of communication

The concept of effect
Disadvantage of lass well model:

Feedback not mentioned

Noise not mentioned

Linear Model
3. Magic Bullet or Hypodermic Needle Theory of Communication
History :
In mid 1930’s media scholars found the first theory on Media Effects and the
Media Behaviors. During second world wars media plays a vital role in both
United States and Germany to made influence in the people’s mind. The Germany
Hitler’s Nazi used film industry for Propaganda and they produced lots of movies
about their achievements which made a great impact in Germans mind. Later the
United States also used its own Hollywood and produced films like “Its Happened
one night”, “It’s a wonderful life” and Mr. Smith goes to Washington” to portrait
Germany as Evil force which also made impact in Americans Mind. Here media
audience accepts the messages directly without any rejection.
Theory :
The media (magic gun) fired the message directly into audience head without their
own knowledge. The message cause the instant reaction from the audience mind
without any hesitation is called “Magic Bullet Theory”. The media (needle) injects
the message into audience mind and it cause changes in audience behavior and
psyche towards the message. Audience are passive and they can’t resist the media
message is called “Hypodermic Needle Theory”.
Both theories are deals with impact of media messages in audience mind and how
audience react towards the message without any hesitation.
Example :
In 1930, Newly formed mercury theater and Orson Wells join together and created
a fake news bulletin about aliens invasion in american city called Grover’s Mill,
New jersey. They broadcast this news bulletin in between the radio program called
“The War of the Worlds”. The “Panic Broadcast” was reached merely 12 million
American people and one million were seriously believed. Due to this broadcast
the whole country was in chaos.
Study :
The magic bullet theory is based on assumption of human nature and it was not
based on any empirical findings from research. Few media scholars do not
accepting this model because it’s based on assumption rather than any scientific
evidence. In 1938, Lazarsfeld and Herta Herzog testified the hypodermic needle
theory in a radio broadcast “The War of the Worlds” (a famous comic program) by
insert a news bulletin which made a widespread reaction and panic among the
American Mass audience. Through this investigation he found the media messages
may affect or may not affect audience.
“People’s Choice” a study conducted by Lazarsfeld in 1940 about Franklin D.
Roosevelt election campaign and the effects of media messages. Through this
study Lazarsfeld disproved the Magic Bullet theory and added audience are more
influential in interpersonal than a media messages.
4. Two Step Flow Theory
History:
In 1944 Paul Lazarsfeld, (1901-1976) an American Social Researcher, Bernard
Berelson (1912 – 1979) and Hazel Gaudet was introduced The Two-Step Flow of
Communication in the book called “The people’s choice: How the voter makes up
his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press”.
Theory Introduction:
The purpose of the study was focused on Presidential election Campaign and the
people decision-making process towards the campaign. All three researchers were
wanted to find out practically whether the mass media messages affect direct
influence in voting decision among the people. Unexpectedly they found the media
messages (like radio and newspapers) are very less influence then an informal,
personal communication on voting behavior. Based on this researched data, The
Two Step Flow Communication Theory of Mass Communication was developed
by Katz and Paul Lazarsfeld.
Opinion Leader:
Opinion Leader is a leader for a certain group who gives details and information to
lesser active persons in the group. In office, the managing director is an opinion
leader and in public, a political leader is an opinion leader. They interpret the
information to their own group. But one thing the Opinion leader is a leader only
for their own group not for all.
In Public, Political leader is an opinion leader. Here few people are not influenced
by the leader and their political views and thought. These people won’t support
opinion leaders and isolated from the population.
Katz and Paul seems “the flow of media messages from radio and print to opinion
leaders and then the leaders leads the messages to lesser active users in the
population”. Through this transformation of message, the leaders may add their
opinion on the actual content which may affects the low active users. In some cases
the Opinion leaders are filtering the actual content ensures the information is
needed by the people. Mostly the opinion leaders are selective and they pass the
messages to the group. (Low-end media users: Poor, Worker and People who are
not affordable for getting information directly).
Note: The Opinion leaders have enough voice only in structured social groups not
in an isolated individual in the population.
Example:
Carol watching News in ANB Channel they flash the headlines with “Research
reveals some toys are leads the children’s aggressive and Violent”. That day Carol
calls her little son and went for shopping and carol warn her son some toys are not
good and made skin allergy which leads her son to avoid those toys.
Opinion leader: Mom
 Audience: Her Son
 Added information in actual content: Skin Allergy
Critics:
-Researchers found substantial evidence that initial mass media information flows
directly to people on the whole and is not relayed by opinion leaders.

-The two-step hypothesis does not adequately describe the flow of learning.
Lazarsfeld and his associates in the 1940 election study were unable to determine
the specific flow of influence.
– Today most of the advertising researches are based on this theory. Especially
opinion leaders role in the society as well as in home to which helps to improve the
market with less efforts.
5. Media Dependency Theory
Sandra Ball-Rokeach and Melvin DeFleur proposed the “Dependency theory” in
1976. The theory is combined with several perspectives like psycho analytics &
social system theory, systematic & casual approach and base elements from uses
and gratification theory but less focus on effects. Media Dependency theory is one
of the first theory which regards audience as an active part in communication
process. The dependency theory is expanded from the theory of Uses and
Gratification.
According to this theory, there is an internal link between media, audience and
large social system. The audience learning from the real life is limited, so they can
use media to get more information to fulfil their needs. An extensive use of media
generates dependent relation in audience and also Media can able to creating
dependence relationship with target audiences to achieve their goals by using their
media power.
The degree of dependence is directly proportional to:
 Individual: The media have ability to satisfy the audience needs. An
individual will become more dependent on media, if the medium satisfy
his/her needs. Otherwise the media dependence will become less
 Social Stability: The audience reconsider their beliefs, practice and behaviours
when strong social change, conflicts, riot or election which will force to reevaluate and make new decisions. During this period media dependency is
dramatically increased, because there is a strong need for information, support
and advice
 Active audience: In this communication process, the active audience chooses
the media dependence on their individual needs and other factors such as
economic conditions, society and culture. If alternative source fulfil the
audience needs will decrease the media dependence
Process of Creating Dependence:

Media attracts individuals by offering the content which is able to fulfil the
audience needs for understanding, entertainment and information
There is different strength in Dependence relationship. Cognitive motivations
encourage the individuals to maintain the level of attention and Affective
motivation serves the individuals to enhance the level of satisfaction

Both Cognitive and Affective motivation are intensifying the audience to
higher level of involvement to enable the information process
Example:
2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hits eastern Japan very badly. Due to this
natural disaster the whole communication was blocked and others can’t able to
know the exact effect of tsunami in eastern Japan. During this period, Peoples
information needs are dramatically increased and they are all more depend on
media than any other.

Critics of Media Dependency Theory:
 It describes the media role during social changes and crisis
 Theory is more flexible and descriptive
 Power of media dependency is not clearly described

It’s difficult to prove scientifically or experimentally
6. Westley and MacLean’s Model of Communication
Introduction:
In 1957 Westley and MacLean’s model of communication is proposed by Bruce
Westley (1915-1990) and Malcolm S. MacLean Jr (1913-2001). Being one of the
creators of journalism studies, Westley served as a teacher at the University of
Wisconsin, Madison, between 1946 and 1968. Malcolm was director of University
of Journalism School (1967-74) and co founder of the University College at
University of Minnesota.
This model can be seen two contexts, interpersonal and mass communication. And
the point of difference between interpersonal and mass communication is the
feedback. In interpersonal, the feedback is direct and fast. In the mass, the
feedback is indirect and slow.
Model:
Westely and Maclean realized that communication does not begin when one person
starts to talk, but rather when a person responds selectively to his/her physical
surroundings. This model considers a strong relation between responds from
surroundings and the process of communication. Communication begins only
when a person receives message from surroundings. Each receiver responds to the
message they received based on their object of orientation.
X1, X2, X3 and X4….—are news articles or information, Feedback (f), Clients
(A), Reader or Audience (B) and Gate Keeper (c)
Example:
A Daily News Papers will receive many Press releases from Many Public
Relations Agencies on behalf of their clients. In this case, News paper will publish
the selected Press release due to the space constraints. Then, Readers can directly
respond to the client or they can respond to the News daily which published in the
Newspaper. If Readers responded to daily News paper, it will communicate the
feedback to concern PR Agency.
X1, X2 and X3—are Press Release, Feedback (f), Clients (A), Reader (B) and
Daily News Paper (Gate Keeper) (c)
1. Feedback Loop between Reader (B) and News Paper (C) – fBC
2. Feedback Loop between News Paper(C ) and Client (A)- fCA
3. Feedback loop between Reader (B) and Client (A)- fBA.
Merits and Demerits:
 This model accounts for Feedback.
 It can account for different modes of communication, i.e., for both
interpersonal communication and Mass communication.
 It is a predictive model of communication and very descriptive also.
 It also account for non binary interactions, this means that it will remain good
even for communications involving more than two sources.
 Westley and Maclean communication model is Two Dimensional.
 It cannot account for multi dimensions; this means this model will not be
applicable for typical communication events that involve broader context and
wide range of communication messages.
7. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a bridge
between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it encompasses
attention, memory, and motivation.
CONCEPTS
People learn through observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those
behaviors[1]. “Most human behavior is learned observationally through modeling:
from observing others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and
on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura).
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal
interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.
NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR EFFECTIVE MODELING
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention paid.
Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional
value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set,
past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic coding,
mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities, and selfobservation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as past (i.e.
traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and vicarious (seeing and
recalling the reinforced model)
RECIPROCAL DETERMINISM
Bandura believed in “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s
behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s
environment causes one’s behavior[2], Bandura, who was studying adolescent
aggression, found this too simplistic, and so in addition he suggested that behavior
causes environment as well[3]. Later, Bandura soon considered personality as an
interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s
psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language).
Social learning theory has sometimes been called a bridge between behaviorist and
cognitive learning theories because it encompasses attention, memory, and
motivation.
8. Mass Media Theory
Abstract
Mass society theory is a complex, multifaceted perspective. As applied to social
movements, however, the basic idea is that people who are socially isolated are
especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movements. The theory resonated
with fears of fascist and communist movements in the 1930s and 1940s and
reached its apogee in the late 1950s.
About the Theory
Mass society theory is a complex, multifaceted perspective. As applied to social
movements, however, the basic idea is that people who are socially isolated are
especially vulnerable to the appeals of extremist movements. The theory resonated
with fears of fascist and communist movements in the 1930s and 1940s and
reached its apogee in the late 1950s.
Ideologically, the concept of mass society has been used by conservative thinkers
to express dismay about the leveling tendencies of industrial society and the
declining influence of family and community (Swingewood 1977). It has also been
used by radical thinkers to bemoan the manner in which large bureaucratic
institutions (especially in the guise of mass culture) can pacify populations and
reinforce the status quo (Marcuse 1964).
An important sociological predecessor is Emile Durkheim's analysis of modern
society and the rise of individualism. With increasing size and complexity, social
integration became problematic in two ways. Anomie involves insufficient
regulation of behavior while egoism involves excessive individuation of people.
Both signify weakened social integration and loosened social controls that
contribute to dysfunctional outcomes, including suicide (Durkheim 1897). The
same logic applies to many types of unconventional behavior.
The mass was one type of collective behavior subsequently identified by the
Chicago School of Sociology (Blumer 1951). Alongside crowds, publics, and
social movements, masses are distinguished by their large size, anonymous nature,
loose organization, and infrequent interaction. As such, the concept of a mass
connotes a group ripe for manipulation and control.
C. Wright Mills 1956 recognized these dangers in his analysis of the power elite. It
gained power in part because of the transformation of publics enjoying democratic
dialogue and political influence into masses with neither. With the transformation
of publics into masses, “[a]t the end of the road there is totalitarianism, as in Nazi
Germany or in Communist Russia” (Mills 1956: 304).
It was in this context that William Kornhauser—trained in Chicago School
sociology—wroteThe Politics of Mass Society (1959). It remains one of the most
explicit statements of the alleged links between mass society and social
movements. Written in the shadow of aforementioned totalitarian tendencies, mass
society theory sought to explain the rise of extremism abroad and the dangers to
democracy at home. Recalling Durkheim's analysis of egoism and anomie, mass
society emerges when small local groups and networks decline, leaving powerful
elites and massive bureaucracies on one side and isolated individuals on the other.
As Kornhauser wrote: “Mass society is objectively the atomized society, and
subjectively the alienated population. Therefore, mass society is a system in which
there is high availability of a population for mobilization by elites…[p]eople who
are atomized readily become mobilized” (Kornhauser 1959: 33, emphasis in
original). Put slightly differently, mass society is one where “both elites and
non‐elites lack social insulation; that is, when elites are accessible to direct
intervention by non‐elites, and when non‐elites are available for direct
mobilization by elites” (Kornhauser 1959: 43, emphasis in original).
In a healthy pluralist democracy, both elites and non‐elites are partially insulated,
intermediate groups are strong, and normal channels of influence are robust. In
mass society, both groups lose this insulation, intermediate social buffers erode,
normal channels are ineffective or bypassed, and extremism becomes more likely.
Mass movements pursue remote, extreme objectives and mobilize uprooted,
atomized people (Kornhauser 1959: 47). Thus, “[m]ass movements mobilize
people who are alienated from the going system, who do not believe in the
legitimacy of the established order, and who therefore are ready to engage in
efforts to destroy it. The greatest number of people available to mass movements
will be found in those sections of society that have the fewest ties to the social
order…” (212).
This description of mass movements reflects the collective behavior depiction of
mass behavior with a remote focus of attention, a declining sense of reality and
responsibility, and a highly unstable, shifting focus of attention and intensity of
response (Kornhauser 1959: 43–46). This depiction thus links the politics of
collective behavior with unreasoning and extremist threats to social order.
Subsequent analysis and research have led many to conclude that the idea that the
most socially isolated are most likely to engage in mass politics “is almost
certainly false” (Rule 1988: 109). Those who are socially isolated are actually less
likely to join while those who are embedded in preexisting social ties are
disproportionately likely to do so (Oberschall 1973). Chicago School sociologists
Turner and Killian (1987: 390) themselves note that “[s]ubsequent study of
totalitarian movements has raised serious questions about the applicability of
Kornhauser's concept of mass movement.”
Other researchers concur that “[v]irtually all of the major claims of the theory have
been controverted by an overwhelming body of evidence” (Hamilton 2001: 12).
Despite its largely discredited status among academics, literary and journalistic
proponents of this perspective enjoy a much wider and perhaps more credulous
audience. As a result, “mass society theory proves well‐nigh indestructible”
(Hamilton 2001: 12) despite its logical flaws and empirical shortcomings.
9. Cultivation Theory
The cultivation theory was proposed by George Gerbner. It is one of the core
theories of media effects. According to the theory, people who watch television
frequently are more likely to be influenced by the messages from the world of
television. The influence goes to such an extent that their world view and
perceptions start reflecting what they repeatedly see and hear on television.
Television is,therefore, considered to contribute independently to the way people
perceive social reality.
Hallgerd/dollar photo club
Hypothesis
The theory postulates that watching television frequently influences an individual
to develop certain ideas of reality or beliefs and assumptions about life that mirror
the most consistent or universal values that are showcased on television. The more
a person watches television, the more likely he is to be influenced by what he
watches when compared to others who watch less but share other similar
demographic characteristics.
Cultivation Theory
The theory argues that the media generally presents an image of the world that
does not reflect reality. Television images are an exaggeration or fantasy of what
actually exists. There is a disproportionate number of handsome
gentlemen,beautiful women, crime, wealth and violence. As a result, people end up
perceiving the real world in a distorted manner and viewing actuality through a
‘television perspective.’
Television offers a plethora of ideas and conceptions on a variety of social and
cultural dynamics like race, gender, sexuality, etc. Over a period of time, a fixed
image of various groups of people is formed and viewers start to absorb these ideas
which they then use as a map to navigate through life. This constant exposure to
the media content cultivates specific values, beliefs, attitudes and desires in people.
These newly preconceived notions shape their perception of the world and they
ultimately influence how others perceive them. People, therefore, end up
unconsciously shaping their thought processes and behaviour based on what they
consume. In today’s world, people are increasingly starting to depend on television
more than any other medium to understand the intricate web of the norms, values
and mindset of the society in which they live.
Cultivation theory research views television as a system of messages and tries to
understand its function and consequences on an audience. These messages
complement one another and are organic and coherent in nature. Cultivation
analysis focuses on the impact of long term cumulative exposure to television.
Application of Theory
Various studies have supported the claim that those who watch television more
frequently, often display higher tendencies of being depressed and lonely, sense of
alienation, have feelings of mistrust and think that the world is a malicious place.
A study conducted in an experimental setting saw the outcome, at the end of the
test period, that students who watch more action-adventure programs during a six
month period are more likely to believe that the world was a very dangerous place.
They also believe that there is a high chance that they would be personally
involved in a violent incident. This is in stark contrast compared to the attitudes of
other students who did not watch as many action-adventure shows as the test
group.
Research by L.J.Shrum has shown that people who watch television frequently are
more likely to answer questions faster as well. They also give answers that reflect
the messages or images that are the most common or repeated on television.
The cultivation theory has been widely used in the study of violence in television.
The theory has been used to explain how children who watch violent cartoons
become violent themselves. Repeated exposure to violence on television reinforces
existing beliefs that the world is a dangerous and unsafe place. Exposure to
television further strengthens the position that acts of violence are a natural
response to situations of conflict. Over the years, research in the field has
diversified and today, cultivation theory is applied to studies on health, religion,
sex roles, political orientations, etc.