BS English 8
th
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Complete Notes
Discourse Analysis
Long Questions Solved
Compiled By:
M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
M. JAWAD
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Govt. Graduate College BHAKKAR
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
1. What is Discourse?
To understand discourse analysis one must have knowledge about
Discourse…
Discourse is a general term used in pragmatics to refer to language that has been produced as the
result of an act of communication. In another words, it stands for a stretch of language which is
unified, meaningful and purposive.
Example: conversations, interviews, compositions etc.
1.1.
Text vs. Discourse:
Text and discourse are related concepts in the field of linguistics and communication, but they refer
to different aspects of language and communication.
a. Text:
Definition: A text is a discrete piece of written or spoken language that conveys meaning. It can be
a single word, a sentence, a paragraph, an article.
Focus: Text focuses on the structural and syntactical aspects of language. It includes elements like
grammar, vocabulary, punctuation, and organization.
Unit: Text is often thought of as a smaller unit of language compared to discourse. It is usually selfcontained and can be analyzed as an isolated unit.
Example: A single sentence like "I am going to the store" is a text.
b. Discourse:
Definition: Discourse refers to the broader context in which language is used to communicate.
Discourse is verbal or written communication between people that goes beyond a single sentence.
It is the way in which language is used socially to convey broad historical meanings.
Focus: Discourse focuses on how language functions in real-life situations, how it is used to convey
meaning, and how it is influenced by the context, intentions of the speakers, and the power
dynamics at play.
Unit: Discourse is a larger unit of language, and it often involves the analysis of multiple texts or
utterances in a conversation or written communication to understand the full communicative
context.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Example: Analyzing a political debate, a conversation between friends, or a legal argument
involves studying discourse rather than just isolated texts. “NO SMOKING”.
c. Sentence and Utterance
The main difference between sentence and utterance is that the sentence coveys a complete
meaning, either spoken or written, whereas utterance usually does not necessarily convey a
complete meaning.
A sentence is a complete thought or statement which conveys a complete meaning. This can either
be in the spoken or written form. Thus, a sentence at least primarily consists of a subject, a verb,
and an object. E.g. He went to school.
An utterance is considered the smallest unit of speech. It can be defined as “a natural unit of
speech bounded by breaths or pauses.” Thus, it necessarily doesn’t covey a complete meaning. An
utterance can, therefore, be a clause, a single word, pause, and even a meaningful statement.
e.g. “Well.. you know…. Errr”
d. Text vs. non-text
“A text refer to any passage-spoken or written, of whatever length, that does form a unified whole.
A text is a unit of language in use. It is not a grammatical unit, like a clause or a sentence; and it is
not defined by its size. A text is best regarded as a SEMANTIC unit; a unit not of form but of
meaning”.
Whereas a non-text consists of random sequences of linguistic units such as sentences, paragraphs,
or sections in any temporal and/or spatial extension.
e. Transactional VS Interactional view discourse
The transactional and interactional views of discourse represent two different approaches to
understanding and analyzing language use in communication. These views have distinct focuses and
goals:
1. Transactional View of Discourse:
The transactional view of discourse emphasizes the exchange of information and the pragmatic
aspects of communication. It views discourse as a transaction or exchange of messages
between participants.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Examples: Scientific articles, technical manuals, news reports, and instructional materials often
adhere to the transactional view of discourse.
2. Interactional View of Discourse:
The interactional view of discourse emphasizes the social and relational aspects of
communication. It views discourse as a form of social interaction where participants engage in a
dynamic and contextual exchange of meaning.
Examples: Everyday conversations, interpersonal interactions, negotiations, counseling sessions,
and interviews often adhere to the interactional view of discourse.
1.2. Types of Discourse:
Discourse is often divided into two categories:


Written Discourse(it has visual form e.g. book)
Spoken Discourse(it has no visual form)
Differences between Spoken and written discourse
Written and Spoken discourse are distinguished on base of following elements:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
Grammatical Intricacy
Lexical Density
Nominalization
Explicitness
Contextualisation
Spontaneity
a. Grammatical Intricacy
Written discourse is more structurally complex and more elaborate than spoken discourse. ◦
Sentences in spoken discourse are short and simple, whereas they are longer and more complex in
written discourse.
b. Lexical Density
Lexical density: The ratio of content words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) to grammatical
or function words (pronouns, prepositions, articles) within a clause.
Spoken discourse is less lexically dense than written discourse. Spoken language is less dense for
the purpose of enabling the listener to understand the information/message easily.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
c. Nominalization
Nominalization: Presenting actions and events as nouns rather than as verbs. Written discourse has
a high level of nominalization: i.e. more nouns than verbs
d. Explicitness
The quality of stating something clearly or directly, so that the meaning is easy to understand.
Writing is more explicit than speech. This is because in written discourse, we lack body language
and gesture.
e. Contextualisation
The knowledge of context needed to interpret a text. It is closely tied to explicitness. Writing is
more decontextualised than speech: Speech is more attached to context than writing because
speech depends on a shared situation and background for interpretation
f. Spontaneity
Spoken discourse lacks organization and is ungrammatical because it is spontaneous, whereas
written discourse is organized and grammatical. Topics can be changed in the middle.
1.3. Modes of Discourse:
The four traditional modes of discourse are narration, description, exposition, and argument.
Narrative:
Narrative discourse means stories, folktales, novels, dramas, and even narrative long poems such as
epics. These include short stories, novels, and stage plays.
Descriptive:
Descriptive writing has a great deal of description, often through using the five senses so that a
reader has a fuller idea of what a thing is.
Exposition:
Exposition has a function to explain or instruct. It provides background information in narrative
context. The information presented should be general and (expected to be) well accepted truth.
Argumentative:
This category includes discourse based on logic and philosophy, and also includes speeches and
papers. Argument makes a point of view and proves its validity towards a topic in order to convince
or persuade the reader.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
1.4. Features of Discourse:
Discourse, in linguistics, refers to extended stretches of spoken or written language that go
beyond individual sentences or utterances. Discourse analysis seeks to understand how language
is used in context to convey meaning, construct narratives, and communicate effectively. There are
several key features of discourse that linguists analyze:
Coherence: Coherence refers to the overall sense of unity and connectedness in a discourse. It
involves the use of linguistic devices, such as transitional words and phrases, to create logical links
between sentences and paragraphs. Coherent discourse is easy to follow and makes sense to the
reader or listener.
Cohesion: Cohesion involves the grammatical and lexical mechanisms that link different parts of a
text or conversation. Cohesive devices include pronouns (e.g., "he," "it"), conjunctions (e.g., "and,"
"but"), and lexical repetitions (e.g., synonyms, antonyms). These devices help maintain continuity
within a discourse.
Information Structure: Information structure deals with how information is organized and
presented within a discourse. It includes the distinction between old (known) and new (unknown)
information, as well as the use of information packaging techniques like topic-comment structures
and fronting to emphasize certain elements.
Thematic Progression: Thematic progression refers to the way themes (main ideas or topics) are
developed and elaborated upon in a discourse. Discourses often follow specific thematic patterns,
such as moving from a general topic to specific details (thematic progression) or vice versa
(thematic regression).
Rhetorical Structure: Rhetorical structure concerns the organization of a discourse for persuasive
or communicative purposes. It involves strategies like argumentation, persuasion, and narration,
where specific rhetorical devices and patterns are used to achieve the intended communicative
goals.
Discourse Markers: Discourse markers are words or phrases used to signal various relationships
between ideas, such as contrast, addition, cause and effect, or concession. Common discourse
markers include "however," "therefore," "on the other hand," and "in conclusion."
Turn-Taking: In spoken discourse, turn-taking refers to the way speakers alternate between
speaking and listening in a conversation. Understanding the rules and norms of turn-taking is crucial
for effective communication in spoken interactions.
Pragmatic Context: Pragmatic context involves considering the situational and social factors that
influence language use within a discourse. It includes aspects like the participants' intentions,
beliefs, and the context in which the conversation takes place.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Genre and Register: Discourse can vary significantly depending on the genre (e.g., academic,
conversational, legal) and register (e.g., formal, informal) in which it is used. Different genres and
registers have distinct conventions and linguistic features.
Intertextuality: Intertextuality refers to the phenomenon of one text referencing, quoting, or
alluding to another text. It is the interplay and interconnectedness between different texts, where
the meaning of one text is shaped or influenced by its relationship with other texts.
Analyzing these features of discourse helps linguists and researchers gain insights into how
language functions in real-world communication. Discourse analysis is a multidisciplinary field that
draws on linguistics, sociology, psychology, and other disciplines to study the complexities of
language use beyond the level of individual words and sentence
2. Discourse Analysis
Definitions:
Discourse analysis means examining how language functions and how meaning is created in
different social contexts. It can be applied to any instance of written or oral language, as well as
non-verbal aspects of communication such as tone and gestures.
Discourse analysis (sometimes named discourse studies) is a qualitative research method
that involves an in-depth examination of any written, spoken, nonverbal, and visual language in
context. Discourse analysts are interested in how language can impart meaning.
It refers to attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the clause,
and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational exchanges or written texts
Reasons for conducting Discourse Analysis:
We analyse discourse to understand the world better and how language is used in real life. By
examining the social use of language, we can appreciate its multiple functions, such as
creating meaning and maintaining certain social norms and common knowledge.
Through discourse analysis, scholars look at texts and examine how those texts shape discourse.
A discourse analyst may examine the written language and images used on the front
page of a newspaper to see what narrative it might be trying to portray and why. To understand
this, they would have to consider the owner of the newspaper, the intended audience, and the
current political climate and world events.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
When to use discourse analysis?
Discourse analysis is the perfect method for looking at the relationship between language
and broader social issues, such as language and power, language and gender, language and
inequality, and language in the media.
Common examples of discourse we can conduct discourse analysis on are;





Newspapers
Novels
Conversations
Song lyrics
Adverts Speeches
For example:
A dominant discourse of gender often positions women as gentle and men as active heroes.
2.1 Approaches to Discourse Analysis
The term discourse analysis is very ambiguous. Roughly speaking, it refers to
attempts to study the organization of language above the sentence or above the
clause, and therefore to study larger linguistic units, such as conversational
exchanges or written texts.
There are many approaches to discourse analysis. Approaches to discourse analysis
belong to different disciplines:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Pragmatics approach
Speech Act theory
Conversational Analysis(CA)
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
Multimodal Discourse Analysis
2.1 Pragmatics approach
Definition:
Pragmatics and Discourse Analysis involve the study of language in its contexts of use. Pragmatics
focuses on the effects of context on meaning, and Discourse Analysis studies written and spoken
language in relation to its social context.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
• Pragmatics is the study of the meaning in context and it deals with implied meaning as opposed
to the mere lexical meaning expressed.
● How utterances are used
● It’s about interpreting what speakers mean.
● In other words, pragmatics how people make sense of each other linguistically.
Key Concepts in Pragmatics approach of discourse analysis:
i) Context and Co-text:
ii) Cohesion and coherence
iii) Speech Act Theory
iv) Cooperative principle
v) Implicature
vi) Presupposition
vii) Inference
2.1 Context and Co-text:
In pragmatics, context plays a crucial role in understanding and interpreting language. Context
refers to the surrounding circumstances, information, and shared knowledge that helps people
make sense of the meaning behind spoken or written words. It encompasses various elements,
including:
Physical Context: This involves the physical setting or environment in which communication takes
place. For example, if someone says, "Pass me the book," the specific book being referred to may
be evident based on its location in the room.
Social Context: Social factors, such as the relationship between the speaker and the listener, their
roles, and their shared knowledge, can greatly influence the interpretation of language.
Cultural Context: Cultural norms, values, and practices impact how language is used and
understood. Certain phrases or gestures may have specific cultural meanings, and understanding
these is essential for effective communication.
Temporal Context: The timing and sequence of events can affect language interpretation. For
example, the sentence "I'm going to the store" can mean different things depending on whether it
is said in the morning or evening.
Discourse Context: The ongoing conversation or discourse provides context for understanding
individual utterances. Pronouns like "he," "she," or "it" often require reference to prior sentences
or statements to determine their antecedents.
Co-text:
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
In linguistics, "co-text" refers to the words or linguistic elements that surround a particular word or
phrase within a text. It is the contextual information provided by adjacent words or elements that
helps to determine the meaning of the target word or phrase.
The co-text of a word is the set of other words used in the same phrase or sentence. This
surrounding co- text has a strong effect on what we think the word means.
E.g. I get to the bank to cash a cheque.
Bank is homonym. By looking at other words in the sentence we know which type of bank is
intended.
2.2 Cohesion and Coherence
a. Cohesion:
Cohesion is commonly defined as the grammatical and lexical connections that tie a text together,
contributing to its meaning. Cohesion is the grammatical and lexical linking within a text or
sentence that holds a text together and gives it meaning. It is related to the broader concept of
coherence. It occurs in sentence.
b. Coherence:
Coherence refers to how the ideas of the text flow logically and make a text semantically
meaningful as a whole. Coherence refers to the quality of forming a unified consistent whole. We
can describe a text as being coherent if it is semantically meaningful, that is if the ideas flow
logically to produce an understandable entity. It occurs in text.
Cohesive Devices
Cohesive devices are sometimes called linking words, linkers, connectors, discourse markers, or
transitional words. Cohesive Devices are words or phrases that show the relationship between
paragraphs or sections of a text or speech.
There are two types of cohesion:
Lexical and Grammatical Cohesion. Writers connect sentences and ideas in their essays using both
lexical and grammatical cohesive devices.
 Lexical Cohesion
Lexical Cohesion We can achieve cohesion through lexical cohesion by using these techniques:
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th

Repetition.

Collocation

Synonymy.

Antonymy.

Hyponymy

Meronymy
Now let's look at these in more detail.

Repetition:
Repeating words may contribute to cohesion. Repetition creates cohesive ties within the text.
Example: “Birds are beautiful. I like birds.”

Collocation
A collocation is a group of two or more words that are almost always put together to create a
specific meaning. *For instance; hair/comb, reader/writer, door/window, chair/table,
north/south, peace/war, bee/honey etc.
Some typical collocation examples are “pay attention”, “fast food”, “make an effort”, and “powerful
engine”.
Synonymy:
You can use a word or phrase that means exactly or nearly the same as another word to achieve
cohesion.
Example: “Paul saw a snake under the mattress. The serpent was probably hiding there for a long
time.”
Antonymy:
Antonymy refers to the use of a word of opposite meaning. This is often used to create links
between the elements of a text.
Example: “Old movies are boring, the new ones are much better.”
Hyponymy:
This refers to the use of a word that denotes a subcategory of a more general class.
Example: I saw a cat. The animal was very hungry and looked ill.”
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Relating a superordinate term (i.e. animal) to a corresponding subordinate term (i.e. cat) may
create more cohesiveness between sentences and clauses.
 Grammatical Cohesion
Grammatical cohesion refers to the grammatical relations between text elements. This includes
the use of:
i) References
ii) Ellipsis.
iii) Substitutions.
iv) Conjunctions and transition words.
v) Parallelism
Let us illustrate the above devices with some examples.
1) Reference:
Replacement of words and expressions with pro- forms. e.g pronouns,pro-modifiers. There are two
main types references endophora and exophora.
i)
Endophora or Endophoric Reference:
Endophora is the use of a word or phrase in a text to refer to something within the immediate text.
An endophoric reference is a reference in a text to something else inside the text.
Example: If you want one, I've left some cupcakes on the counter.
In this example, 'one' is being used to refer to something later in the sentence, ‘cupcakes.’ We as
readers fully understand the context because it is provided in the discourse. This contrasts with
exophora, which leaves the readers without full context as to what is being referenced.
Types of Endophoric Reference
There are two primary types of endophora: Anaphora and cataphora.
 Anaphoric reference
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
An anaphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase references a thing or idea mentioned earlier
in the text or discourse.
Example: Mary went out for drinks. She returned at 7 o'clock.
Here, the anaphoric reference is 'She'. As it is obvious that the pronoun 'she' refers to Mary, there
was no need to repeat her name in the following sentence.
 Cataphoric Reference
A cataphoric reference occurs when a word or phrase references a thing or idea mentioned later in
the text/discourse.
Linguistically, cataphora is the use of an expression that relies on another postcedent expression to
be contextually understood. In other words, cataphora is an expression that can only be
understood when accompanied by another expression in the text/discourse that stands after it.
For Example: Before she returned at 7 o'clock, Mary went out for drinks.
In this sentence, the pronoun ‘she’ is still referring to Mary, the subject. However, as 'she'
is referencing the subject which is mentioned later in the sentence, ‘she’ is a cataphor.
ii)
Exophora or Exophoric references
Exophora is a word/phrase referring to something outside of the text. Here are some examples of
exophoric reference:
“They‘re late again, can you believe it?”
“I know! Well, they’d better get here soon or it‘ll get cold.”
“They” refers to some people outside the discourse known to
It also refers to something that both speakers know about (perhaps the dinner).
both
speakers.
The use of exophoric reference requires some shared knowledge between two speakers, or
between writer and reader(s).
2. Ellipsis
Ellipsis refers to the omission from speech or writing of a word or words that are superfluous or
able to be understood from contextual clues.
Example: Liz had some chocolate bars, and Nancy an ice cream. In the above example, "had" in
"Nancy an ice cream" is left because it can be understood (or presupposed) as it was already
mentioned previously in the sentence.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
3. Substitutions
Substitutions refer to the use of a word to replace another word.
Example: A: Which T-shirt would you like? B: I would like the pink one.
4. Conjunctions and Transition Words
Conjunctions and transition words are parts of speech that connect words, phrases, clauses, or
sentences. Examples of conjunctions: but, or, and, although, in spite of, because,
Examples of transition words: however, similarly, likewise, specifically, consequently, for this
reason, in contrast to, accordingly, in essence, chiefly, finally.
Here are some examples:

I called Tracy and John.

He was tired but happy.
5. Parallelism
Parallelism refers to using similar words, clauses, phrases, sentence structure, or other grammatical
elements to emphasize similar ideas in a sentence. It makes the sentence concise, clear, and easy to
read. For Example;
Not parallel: The business accepts cash, credit cards, and you can even pay with a check.
Parallel: The business accepts cash, credit cards, and checks.
2.3 Speech Act Theory
A speech act is an utterance that serves a function in communication. We perform speech acts
when we offer an apology, greeting, request, complaint, invitation, compliment, or refusal.
Speech act is something expressed by an individual that not only presents information but
performs an action as well.
For example, the phrase "I would like the sweet; could you please pass it to me?" is considered a
speech act as it expresses the speaker's desire to acquire the sweet, as well as presenting a request
that someone pass the sweet to them.
Speech act theory can be defined as the idea that language contains meaning beyond just the
definition of the words that are used. Language is a tool to perform various functions, also called
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
speech acts. Speech act theory suggests that the meaning of what we say is influenced by the type
of speech it is, the structure of the utterance, and the context in which it is used.
History;
John L. Austin, a British philosopher, first introduced speech act theory in his 1959 book How to Do
Things with Words. This published series of lectures defined his theory about performatives.
American philosopher John Searle continued to advance the speech act theory by drawing on
Austin's work as well as that of philosophers Ludwig Wittgenstein, Geoffrey Midgley, H. Paul Grice,
P.F. Strawson, John Rawls, and William P. Alston. Searle defined different types of speech acts as
described in the next section.
 Speech acts by J. Austin (Austin's Statement)
John Austin distinguished three acts.
1. illocutionary Act
2. Locutionary Act
3. Perlocutionary Act
1. Locutionary act
Locutionary act is the basic act of utterance, or producing a meaningful linguistic expressions. We
can say performing an act of saying something or physical utterances of words.
Example;
2. It’s so dark in this room.
3. The box is heavy.
The above two sentences represent the actual condition. The first sentence refers to the
lighting of the room and the second sentence refers to the weight of the box.
2. Illocutionary act
Illocutionary acts are the real actions which are performed by the utterance. We form an utterance
with some kind of function in mind. This communicative force of an utterance is known as
illocutionary force. (Intention/desire of the speaker).
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
The illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance,such as promising,
apologizing, offering (Yule, 1996:48). This act is also called the act of doing something in saying
something.
Examples:
I am not feeling well.
(Speaker wants rest)
1. It’s so dark in this room.
2. The box is heavy.
Based on the examples above, the first sentence shows a request to switch the light on and the
second sentence shows a request to lift up the box.
3. Perlocutionary act
Perlocutionary act is the effect/ result produced on the listener when they listen a locutionary act
or this is the hearers response.
Response may be negative or positive.
Example;
I am not feeling well. (Linguistic meaning) Locutionary
I want to rest now (Intention) Illocutionary
Yes Sir, you may take the class next week. (result) Perlocutionary
This theory was further classified by John Searle. He states that the taxonomy used by Austin is
defective, especially there is a lack of clear criteria for distinguishing one kind of illocutionary force
from another.
 Direct and Indirect Speech Acts:
Direct Speech Acts
An utterance is seen as a direct speech act when there is a direct relationship between the
structure and the communicative function of the utterance. Direct speech acts
When the semantic meaning of a sentence is the same as what the speaker wanted to convey, it is
described as a direct speech act.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
For example, when a speaker doesn't know something and asks the hearer to provide the
information, he or she will typically produce a direct speech act of the following type:
Can you ride a bicycle?
Searle divides direct speech acts into five basic types.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Representative/Assertive
Directive
Commissive
Declarative
Expressive
1. Assertive or Representative
Representatives Representatives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to
the truth of the expressed proposition. The utterances are produced based on the speaker’s
observation of certain things then followed by stating the fact or opinion based on the
observation.
When someone says “she’s beautiful”, the speaker can state the sentence based on the fact
or just give his or her own opinion about physical condition of a person.
For example when someone says “The earth is flat”, it represents the speaker’s assertions
about the earth.
2. Directives
Directives area speech acts that speaker uses to get someone else to do something. These
speech acts include requesting, questioning, command, orders, and suggesting.
For example, when someone says “Could you lend me a pencil, please?” the utterance
represents the speaker requests that the hearer to do something which is to lend him a
pencil.
3. Commissives
Commissives are speech acts that the utterances commit the speaker to some future course
of action, these include promising, threatening, offering, refusal, pledges.
For example when someone says “I’ll be back”, represents the speaker’s promise that he/she
will be back.
4. Expressives
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Expressives are speech acts that the utterances express a psychological state. These speech
acts include thanking, apologizing, welcoming, and congratulating.
For example, when someone says “don’t be shy, my home is your home.” The utterance
represents the speaker’s expression that he/she welcomes someone.
5. Declarations
Declarations are speech acts that the utterances effect immediate changes in the
institutional state of affairs and which tend to rely on elaborate exta- linguistic institutions.
These speech acts include excommunicating, declaring war, christening, firing from
employment.
For example “you are dead to me.”
 Indirect Speech Acts
Whenever one of the forms in the set above is used to perform a function other than the one listed
beside it, the result is an indirect speech act. (When a speaker, by asking a question wants a
further .action not only answer, it is called an Indirect Speech Act)
:Now compare this utterance with:
Can you pass the salt?
We are not really asking a question about someone's ability. In fact, we don't normally use this
structure as a question at all. We normally use it to make a request. That is, we are using a syntactic
structure associated with the function of a question, but in this case with the function of a request.
This is an example of an indirect speech act.
Functions of indirect speech acts;
Here are some examples of indirect speech acts we use or hear every day:






Greeting: "Hi, Eric. How are things going?"
Request: "Could you pass me the mashed potatoes, please?"
Complaint: "I’ve already been waiting three weeks for the computer, and I was told it would
be delivered within a week."
Invitation: "We’re having some people over Saturday evening and wanted to know if you’d like
to join us."
Compliment: "Hey, I really like your tie!"
Refusal: "Oh, I’d love to see that movie with you but this Friday just isn’t going to work."
 Felicity Conditions in Speech:
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
For performatives to actually "perform," both speaker and audience must accept certain
assumptions about the speech act. These assumptions are called felicity conditions and are often
divided into three categories: essential conditions, sincerity conditions, and preparatory conditions.
The context and the situation that allow us to recognize a speech act as intended by the speaker.
Types of Felicity Conditions
There are several types of felicitous conditions:
6. Propositional content, which requires participants to understand language, not to act like
actors
7. Preparatory, where the authority of the speaker and the circumstances of the speech act are
Appropriate to its being performed successfully.
8. Sincerity, where the speech act is being performed seriously and sincerely.
9. Essential, where the speaker intends that an utterance be acted upon by the addressee.
In a nutshell:
In summary, speech acts are a way to analyze language use beyond its literal meaning, focusing on
the intentions and effects of communication. Pragmatic analysis of speech acts helps us understand
how language functions in social interactions and how speakers convey meaning beyond the
surface of their words.
2. 4 Cooperative Principle and Implicatures
Cooperative Principle
The Cooperative Principle is a fundamental concept in the field of pragmatics, a branch of linguistics
that studies how people use language in context to convey meaning effectively. The Cooperative
Principle was formulated by philosopher and linguist H.P. Grice in his 1975 paper titled "Logic and
Conversation." It outlines the principles that guide effective communication in language.
The Cooperative Principle consists of four maxims or guidelines, often referred to as Grice's
maxims, which speakers and listeners follow to ensure successful and efficient communication.
These maxims are:
1. Maxim of Quantity: This maxim suggests that speakers should provide enough information to
convey their message but not provide more information than is necessary. In other words, they
should be as informative as required for the context but avoid unnecessary elaboration or
verbosity.
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2. Maxim of Quality: This maxim encourages speakers to be truthful and to provide information
that they believe to be true. Speakers should not make false statements or say things for which
they lack evidence.
3. Maxim of Relation (or Relevance): This maxim advises that speakers should make their
contributions relevant to the ongoing conversation. Irrelevant or off-topic information can
disrupt the flow of communication.
4. Maxim of Manner: This maxim emphasizes clarity and effective expression. Speakers should
avoid being ambiguous, obscure, or unnecessarily complex in their language. They should also
organize their speech or writing in a logical and coherent manner.
While Grice's Cooperative Principle outlines these maxims, it's important to note that
communication is not always straightforward and can involve implicatures. Implicatures are
inferred meanings that arise when a speaker doesn't explicitly follow one or more of the maxims.
These implicatures often depend on the context and the listener's ability to infer the intended
meaning.
The Cooperative Principle and Grice's maxims are valuable tools for understanding how people use
language pragmatically to convey meaning in real-world communication. They provide insights into
how we navigate conversations, interpret indirect speech acts, and make inferences based on the
information provided and the context in which it is presented.
Implicatures
In pragmatics, a subdiscipline of linguistics, an implicature is something the speaker suggests or
implies with an utterance, even though it is not literally expressed. For example:
A (to passerby): I am out of gas.
B: There is a gas station 'round the corner.
Here, B does not say, but conversationally implicates, that the gas station is open, because
otherwise his utterance would not be relevant in the context.
B: But unfortunately it's closed today.
There are two main types of implicatures:
1. Conversational implicatures: These implicatures arise when a speaker flouts (violates) one of
Grice's maxims. Instead of directly stating something, they imply it indirectly, and the listener is
expected to infer the intended meaning based on the context. Conversational implicatures can
be further categorized into:
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
Scalar implicatures: Scalar implicatures occur when a speaker uses a weaker term when a
stronger one is expected based on the context. For example, if someone says, "Some of the
students passed the exam," the scalar implicature is that not all of the students passed.

Quantity implicatures: These implicatures arise from the Maxim of Quantity. If a speaker
provides more or less information than is expected for the context, listeners may infer that
there's a reason for this. For example, if someone asks, "Do you want some cake?" and you
reply, "I'll have a small piece," the implicature is that you don't want a large piece.

Quantity (ii) The second quantity maxim seems to work in the opposite direction as the
first; the communicator makes a weaker claim, from which a stronger one is implicated.
Implicatures arising from this maxim enrich the information contained in the utterance:
2. Conventional implicatures: These are implicatures that are associated with specific words or
phrases and are not context-dependent. They are part of the meaning of these expressions. For
example, the word "but" conventionally implies a contrast or opposition between two clauses in
a sentence.
An example of a conventional implicature is "Donovan is poor but happy", where the word "but"
implicates a sense of contrast between being poor and being happy.
Implicatures play a crucial role in communication because they allow for more nuanced and
efficient language use. They often rely on shared cultural and linguistic knowledge, making
communication richer and more contextually relevant. However, implicatures can also lead to
misunderstandings if the listener or reader misinterprets the speaker's intended meaning.
In summary, implicatures are inferred meanings that go beyond the literal interpretation of
language and are based on the assumption of cooperation in communication. They are a fascinating
aspect of pragmatics and highlight the complexity and flexibility of human language use.
Understanding implicatures is essential for interpreting and engaging in effective communication in
various contexts.
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2.6 Presupposition and inference
Presupposition and inference are two key concepts in pragmatics, a field of linguistics that
examines how people use language in context to convey meaning beyond the literal interpretation
of words. While they are related, they serve different functions and are essential for understanding
how communication works pragmatically.
Presupposition in Pragmatics:
1.
Definition: Presupposition is a linguistic phenomenon in which a statement or utterance
assumes the truth or existence of certain background information or beliefs. It's an implicit
assumption that both the speaker and the listener share and accept, whether or not it is
explicitly stated in the conversation.
2.
Examples:
1. In the sentence "John stopped smoking again," the presupposition is that John had previously
quit smoking at least once. The statement assumes this background information.
2. If someone asks, "When will you stop beating your dog?" the presupposition is that the person
has a dog and has been beating it at some point. Even though this may not be true, the question
assumes it to be the case.
3.
Characteristics: Presuppositions often persist even when the statement containing the
presupposition is negated or questioned. They are background assumptions that the speaker
considers shared knowledge.
Inference in Pragmatics:

Definition: Inference is a mental process that listeners or readers engage in to draw
conclusions, make deductions, or arrive at judgments based on the available linguistic or
contextual information. Inferences involve deriving additional information or meaning beyond
what is explicitly stated.

Examples:
i) If someone says, "The roads are wet," listeners may infer that it has recently rained, even though
the statement does not explicitly mention rain.
ii) In a conversation where someone says, "I can't find my keys," the listener may infer that the
speaker is experiencing a problem or inconvenience and may need help searching for the keys.

Characteristics: Inferences are often context-dependent and can vary based on the specific
situation, shared knowledge, and the individual's background knowledge and reasoning
abilities. Inferences help make sense of the implied or unstated information in a conversation.
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Relationship Between Presupposition and Inference:

In many cases, presuppositions in a statement can lead to inferences. When listeners recognize
a presupposition, they may draw additional conclusions based on that presupposition and the
context.

Both presuppositions and inferences are crucial for effective communication because they allow
for efficient information transfer and the construction of meaning in language. Speakers often
rely on listeners' ability to make inferences based on shared presuppositions.
In summary, presupposition involves implicit background assumptions in linguistic expressions,
while inference is the process by which listeners or readers derive additional meaning or
conclusions from the information presented in a conversation. These two concepts are interrelated
and play essential roles in understanding the pragmatics of communication.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
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Conversational Analysis
Definitions:
Conversation Analysis is a research method that examines the structure and organization of talk
during social interactions, with the aim of understanding how communication works and the social
rules that underpin it.
Conversation Analysis, also known as CA, is the study of the structure and organization of
conversation, as well as the social rules that govern how people interact in a conversational setting.
It involves observing and understanding the patterns of communication, the roles of participants,
and the way language is used to create meaning.
Conversational analysis is a crucial aspect of discourse analysis that focuses on the study of spoken
or written communication in natural contexts. It aims to understand how people engage in
conversations, exchange information, negotiate meaning, and construct social identities through
language.
History
Conversation analysis was developed in the late 1960s and early 1970s principally by the
sociologist Harvey Sacks and his close associates Emanuel Schegloff and Gail Jefferson. a number
of minor sources of contemporary influences such as the generativism of Noam Chomsky and its
focus on building an apparatus. Today CA is an established method used in sociology, anthropology,
linguistics, speech-communication and psychology, and has developed subfields such
as interactional sociolinguistics and interactional linguistics, discourse analysis and discursive
psychology.
Basic structure:
Conversation analysis provides a model that can be used to understand interactions, and offers a
number of concepts to describe them. A conversation is viewed as a collection of turns of speaking;
errors or misunderstandings in speech are addressed with repairs, and turns may be marked by the
delay between them or other linguistic features.
Here are the structural elements of conversational analysis:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Turn-taking
Overlapping
Repair
Adjacency pairs
Action formation
Non-verbal communication
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1.
Turn-taking
Turn-taking is a part of the conversation structure in which one person listens while the other
person speaks. As the conversation progresses, the roles of the listener and the speaker move back
and forth, which creates a circle of discussion.
Turn-taking is important when it comes to effectively participating and interacting with
others. Turn-taking allows active listening and productive discussion.
Turn taking is a fundamental aspect of conversational analysis, Turn taking refers to the way
participants in a conversation manage and coordinate their speaking turns, ensuring a smooth and
coherent exchange of ideas.
Structure of turn-taking
Turn-taking is structured according to the three components –
i) The turn-taking component,
ii) The turn allocation component,
iii) And rules.
These components are established in order to help speakers and listeners appropriately contribute
to a conversation.
The turn-taking component
1. The Turn-taking component contains the main content of the utterance and is built from
various unit types (turn construction units, or TCUs). The end of a TCU is a point where the turn
may end and a new speaker may begin, known as a transition relevance place or TRP.
The turn-taking component includes the main content of the turn. It consists of units and segments
of speech in a conversation. They are called turn-construction units.
A transition-relevant point (or a transition-relevant place) is the end of a turn-taking
component. The end of a turn-taking component signifies when the turn of the current speaker
ends and the opportunity for the next speaker begins.
For example: Ali: So that was all that happened to me today. How about you?
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
The turn allocation component
The turn allocation component contains techniques that are used to appoint the next
speaker. There are two techniques:
i) The current speaker chooses the next speaker
ii) The next speaker selects themselves
For example, a person speaking looks at the next speaker when their turn is about to end.
Turn-taking: rules
Rules govern turn construction and give options to designate the next turn-taker in such a way as to
minimize gaps and overlap. Once a Transition Relevance Place is reached, the following rules are
applied in order:
1. The current speaker selects the next speaker and transfers the turn to them; or
2. One of the non-speakers self-selects, with the first person to speak claiming the next turn; or
3. No one self-selects, and the current speaker continues until the next TRP or the conversation
ends
The steps are in this specific order so that two necessary elements of conversation can be
maintained: one person speaking at a time and minimized space between when one person stops
talking and another begins.
2. Overlapping and Interruption
Overlap is when two or more speakers talk at the same time. In a conversation, overlap can be
caused if a listener isn't interested in listening to what the other speaker (s) has to say, or if two
people are arguing. There are two types of overlap:
Competitive overlap vs. Cooperative overlap
Competitive overlap
Competitive overlap hinders conversation by disrupting turn-taking. Competitive overlap is caused
by interruptions, it is a competition in which speakers fight for dominance during a conversation.
During conversation, a listener is supposed to support the speaker and wait for their turn to
speak. An interruption that causes an overlap disregards the wishes of the speaker (to be heard)
and the rules of turn-taking (one person speaks while another listens until it's time to change turn).
Cooperative overlap
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Cooperative overlap refers to when a listener becomes a speaker in order to show interest
or agreement in what the current speaker is talking about, thus resulting in two people speaking at
the same time. Cooperative overlap helps to move conversation forward.
Four types of overlap
There are four types of overlap:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Terminal overlaps
Continuers
Conditional access to the turn
Chordal
1. Terminal overlaps
Terminal overlaps are unintentional overlaps. A terminal overlap occurs when a listener assumes
that the current speaker has finished speaking or is about to finish speaking. Although the current
speaker is not actually about to reach a transition-relevant point, the listener takes the turn as the
next speaker, and in this way causes overlap.
2. Continuers
Continuers are a way for the listener to show the speaker they are listening to what the other
person is saying. Examples include phrases such as:




mm hm
uh huh
yes
yeah
3. Conditional access to the turn
Conditional access to the turn is when the current speaker gives their turn away or invites another
speaker to talk, usually as a collaborative effort. Conditional access to the turn is when a speaker
invites a listener to speak out of turn, given the condition that they don't take over the turn
completely. For example, this often occurs during presentations and panel discussions when two or
more speakers are presenting the same research.
4. Chordal
Chordal involves a non-serial occurrence of turns. This is when two or more speakers' turns occur
at the same time. An example of chordal is laughter - when two people having a conversation are
laughing at the same time.
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Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Overlap vs. Interruption
Interruption and overlap are two quite similar types of disruption of turn-taking. However, there is
a distinct difference between the two.
Interruption occurs when the current speaker has not yet finished talking when a listener
interrupts them and forcefully chooses themselves as the next speaker.
Unlike overlap, interruption is when a listener interjects and takes the speaker's place, and, as a
result, the speaker stops talking and becomes a listener.
3. Repair
In conversation analysis, repair is the process by which a speaker recognizes a speech error and
repeats what has been said with some sort of correction. Also called speech repair, conversational
repair.
Repair is a mechanism used by speakers to address misunderstandings or other conversation
disruptions, ensuring that communication remains clear and coherent.
Self-Repair and Other-Repair
"Repairs are variously classified as 'self-repair' (corrections, etc. made by speakers themselves
responsible), vs. 'other-repair' (made by their interlocutors); as 'self-initiated' (made by a speaker
without querying or prompting) vs. 'other-initiated' (made in response to querying or prompting)."
4. Adjacency Pair
In conversational analysis, an adjacency pair is a fundamental concept used to analyze the structure
and organization of spoken interactions between people. It refers to a pair of utterances in a
conversation that are closely related and typically occur one after the other.
These pairs often consist of a first turn, known as the "first pair part" (FPP), and a second turn,
known as the "second pair part" (SPP). The second pair part is typically a response or a
continuation of the first pair part.
Here are some common examples of adjacency pairs:
1. Question-Answer:

FPP: "What's your name?"

SPP: "My name is John."
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2. Request-Grant:

FPP: "Can you pass the salt, please?"

SPP: "Sure, here you go."
3. Greeting-Response:

FPP: "Hello!"

SPP: "Hi there!"
4. Action formation
Action formation is a concept in conversational analysis (CA) that refers to how people use
language and nonverbal cues to construct and convey specific actions or activities within a
conversation. In CA, scholars examine how individuals collaboratively create and understand
actions in the course of their interactions.
5. Non-verbal communication
CA research also highlights the importance of non-verbal communication, including body language,
gestures, and facial expressions, in conveying meaning during interactions.
1. Facial Expressions: Facial expressions convey a wealth of information about a person's
emotions, intentions, and reactions. For example, a smile typically signifies happiness or
friendliness, while a furrowed brow might indicate confusion or concern.
2. Gestures: Hand and body gestures can reinforce or emphasize spoken words. For instance,
waving to say hello, giving a thumbs-up to express approval, or pointing to indicate direction
are all examples of gestures.
3. Eye Contact: Eye contact can signal interest, attentiveness, and engagement in a
conversation. Maintaining appropriate eye contact is often considered a sign of good
communication skills in many cultures.
4. Touch: Touch can convey various emotions and messages, from comfort and support to
aggression or dominance. A friendly hug, a pat on the back, or a handshake can all convey
different meanings.
5. Tone of Voice: While not strictly nonverbal, the tone of voice can significantly impact the
message being conveyed. A person's tone can indicate sarcasm, anger, enthusiasm, or
uncertainty.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
6. Paralanguage: Paralanguage encompasses vocal qualities such as pitch, volume, rate of
speech, and vocal fillers (e.g., "um" and "uh"). These elements can convey emotion,
uncertainty, or emphasis.
Method of Conversational Analysis:
Conversational analysis (CA) is a qualitative research method used to study and analyze spoken
interactions between individuals or groups of people. CA aims to understand the structure,
organization, and dynamics of conversations. Here is a simplified overview of the methodological
steps involved in conducting conversational analysis:
Selecting Conversational Data:
Choose a dataset of recorded conversations, interviews, or any spoken interactions that are
relevant to your research questions. This data can be collected through audio or video recordings.
Transcription:
Transcribe the spoken interactions into written form. This process involves capturing not only the
words spoken but also nonverbal elements like pauses, intonation, and gestures. Transcriptions
should be detailed and accurate.
Segmentation:
Divide the transcript into smaller units or segments. These segments may be individual utterances,
turns, or specific actions within the conversation.
Identifying Features:
Identify and code various features within the conversation, including:






Speech acts (e.g., questions, requests, statements)
Turn-taking patterns (who speaks when)
Adjacency pairs (e.g., question-answer pairs)
Repair sequences (instances where misunderstandings or disruptions occur)
Nonverbal cues (e.g., gestures, facial expressions)
Paralinguistic elements (e.g., tone, pitch, volume)
Contextual Analysis:
Consider the broader context in which the conversation occurs. This includes the social, cultural,
and situational factors that may influence the conversation's dynamics and content.
Coding and Annotation:
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Apply codes or annotations to segments of the transcript to categorize and describe the
conversation's elements, actions, and functions. Coding can help identify themes and patterns.
Data Display:
Present the results of your analysis in a clear and organized manner. This may involve creating
charts, tables, or visual representations to illustrate patterns and findings.
Interpretation and Conclusion:
Interpret the data and draw conclusions based on your analysis. Explain how the conversational
features and patterns relate to your research objectives and broader theoretical frameworks.
Reporting:
Write up your findings in a research report or paper. Provide detailed descriptions of the
conversation, your analysis, and the implications of your findings. Include excerpts from the
transcript to support your claims.
Peer Review and Validation:
Share your research with peers or experts in the field for feedback and validation.
In a nutshell:
Conversational analysis can be applied to various research areas, including linguistics, sociology,
psychology, and communication studies. It allows researchers to explore the complexities of human
communication and the ways in which people use language and interaction to convey meaning and
achieve their goals.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Critical Discourse Analysis
Introduction:
Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an interdisciplinary approach to studying language and
communication that focuses on analyzing and critiquing the relationships between language,
power, ideology, and social structures. CDA examines how language is used to shape and reproduce
social inequalities, power dynamics, and dominant ideologies.
CDA is concerned with how power is exercised through language.
i)
Fairclough's Definition:
Norman Fairclough, a prominent CDA scholar, defines it as "a type of discourse analytical research
that primarily studies the way social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted,
reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social and political context."
ii)
Wodak and Meyer's Definition:
Ruth Wodak and Michael Meyer, influential CDA researchers, describe it as "an interdisciplinary
approach to the study of texts, talk, and communicative events, which aims to investigate
systematically the relationships between discourse, social practices, and social structures."
iii)
Van Dijk's Definition:
Teun A. van Dijk, another key figure in CDA, defines it as "a type of discourse analysis that focuses
on power relations in society as expressed through language and communication, and on how
these power relations are both established and challenged."
iv)
Foucauldian Perspective:
From a Foucauldian perspective, CDA can be seen as a method for uncovering the ways in which
discourse contributes to the construction and maintenance of knowledge, power, and social norms.
It involves deconstructing and critiquing the discursive strategies used to establish and legitimize
certain forms of knowledge and social order.
2. Basic Assumptions and Aims:
i) CDA is problem-or issue-oriented: any theoretical and methodological approach is relevant as
long as it is able to successfully study relevant social problems such as sexism, racism, and other
forms of social inequality;
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ii) CDA work is typically inter- or multidisciplinary, and especially focuses on the relations
between discourse and society;
iii) CDA does not characterize a school, a field or a sub-discipline of discourse analysis, but rather
an explicitly critical approach, position, or stance of studying text and talk.
iv) CDA especially focuses on (group) relations of power, dominance and inequality and the ways
these are reproduced or resisted by social group members through text and talk.
v) CDA especially focuses on the strategies of manipulation, legitimation, the manufacture of
consent and other discursive ways to influence the minds (and indirectly the actions) of people
in the interest of the powerful;
From the above definitions, it should be inferred that some key concepts figure prominently in
any work in CDA. These are




Power
Hegemony
Resistance
Struggle, etc



Ideology
Discrimination
Social order



Social order
Dominance
Reproduction
3. Central Approaches to CDA:
There is a range of approaches to CDA. Among them we will outline those of three prominent
scholars. These are Fairclough, Van Dijk, and Wodak.
These scholars proposed approaches to CDA which are given below;
1. Fairclough’s Socio-Cultural Approach
2. Van Dijk’s Socio-Cognitive Approach
3. Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach
These Model of CDA are important long questions. Before writing the model following headings
must be added in beginning.
 Discourse(definition etc.)
 Discourse Analysis
Founder short Introduction
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i) Fairclough’s Socio-Cultural Approach or 3D Model of CDA
Norman Fairclough
Norman Fairclough is a Professor of Linguistics at the Department of Linguistics and English
Language at Lancaster University. He is one of the founders of critical discourse analysis as applied
to sociolinguistics. He is known as one of the prominent figures in the discussion of language,
discourse, and society.
Introduction:
Norman Fairclough discussed the term CDA in his book Language and Power. Fairclough introduced
the concepts that are now viewed as vital in CDA such as "discourse, power, ideology, social
practice and common sense." He argues that language should be analyzed as a social practice
through the lens of discourse in both speaking and writing.
Fairclough developed a three-dimensional framework for studying discourse: Three Dimensions
of model are



Textual Analysis
Discursive Practice
Social Practice
1. Textual Analysis
Textual analysis is one of the three dimensions in Norman Fairclough's model of Critical Discourse
Analysis (CDA). In this dimension, textual analysis focuses on examining the linguistic features of
discourse, including the grammar, vocabulary, and discourse structure, to uncover how specific
linguistic choices contribute to the meaning, representation, and ideology within a text.
Linguistic Choices: Textual analysis involves a close examination of the linguistic choices made in a
discourse or text. This includes the analysis of:

Lexis (Vocabulary): It looks at the choice of words, terminology, and vocabulary within the text.
Particular attention is paid to words with connotations, loaded language, or terminology that
may reflect certain biases or ideologies.

Grammar and Syntax: Analysis of the grammatical structures and sentence construction in the
text. This can reveal patterns of emphasis, hierarchy, or authority within the discourse.

Discourse Structure: It involves examining how the text is structured, including the use of
headings, subheadings, paragraphs, and other organizational features. The way information is
presented can influence how readers or listeners perceive the content.
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
Rhetorical Devices: Identification of rhetorical strategies such as metaphors, analogies,
repetition, and persuasive techniques used in the text to convey a particular message or
ideology.
Example:
My neighbor is an old witch
My neighbor is an old woman
2. Discourse or discursive Practice:
In Norman Fairclough's model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), "Discourse Practice" is one of the
three interconnected dimensions used to analyze discourse. This dimension goes beyond the
linguistic analysis of the text (textual analysis) and examines the broader context in which discourse
is produced, distributed, and consumed. Discourse practice helps shed light on the social,
institutional, and historical factors that shape and influence the way discourse functions within
society.
i)
Social and Institutional Context:
Discursive practice considers the social and institutional setting in which discourse takes place. This includes
factors such as the specific context, location, and participants involved in the communication.
It seeks to answer questions like: Who are the speakers or writers?
What are their roles and positions in society or within institutions?
How do these roles influence their use of language?
ii) Power Relations:
One of the central concerns of discursive practice is the examination of power relations. It seeks
to identify power structures and hierarchies within the context of discourse. This can involve
analyzing how social norms and ideologies are reinforced or challenged through language use. It
also looks at how language can be a tool for maintaining or transforming power relations.
iii) Social and Historical Background:
Understanding the historical and social background is crucial for discursive practice. This involves
considering the historical events, cultural norms, and societal changes that have shaped the
discourse under analysis. Historical context can help explain the emergence and persistence of
certain discourses and ideologies.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
3. Sociol-cultural Practice
In Norman Fairclough's model of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA), It deals with the relationship
between production, interpretation, and social conditioning. In the last step, we examine how our
aid and society are linked together and which things influence our society.
Here's a closer look at the social practice dimension within Fairclough's CDA model:
Social Structures and Relations: This involves analyzing how language contributes to the
construction and maintenance of social hierarchies, identities, and inequalities.
Ideology and Cultural Beliefs: Understanding ideology and cultural beliefs is central to social
practice. It involves analyzing how discourse reflects and perpetuates dominant ideologies, as well
as how it may challenge or subvert these ideologies. Language can be a tool for the dissemination
of cultural norms and values.
Institutional Practices: Social practice considers how institutions and organizations shape
discourse. This includes examining how government policies, corporate practices, educational
systems, and other institutional structures influence the language used in specific contexts.
For example: beauty products say: Say goodbye to darkspots
In a nutshell:
In summary, Norman Fairclough's socio-cultural approach in Critical Discourse Analysis examines
how language is used in social practices, emphasizing the interconnectedness of language, ideology,
power, and society. It provides a framework for critically analyzing discourse to uncover underlying
power dynamics and promote social awareness and transformation.
Norman Fairclough's socio-cultural Model of CDA
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
ii) Van Dijk’s Socio-Cognitive Approach or Van Dijik Model of CDA
Introduction:
Teun A. van Dijk's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis combines cognitive theories with linguistic
and social theories. Van Dijk uses cognition as the middle layer of a three-layer approach consisting
of discourse, cognitive and society.
Van Dijk argues there is no direct or linear correspondence between discourse structures and
social structures but discourses function through a cognitive interface: “the mental
representations of language users as individuals and as social members”
Van Dijk points out, although discourse is socially conditioned and impacts upon the functioning of
the society, both the formulation and interpretation of discourse is the aggregate function of the
participants’ underlying cognitive processes, personal- and socially shared knowledge:
Here are key aspects of Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach:
1. Mental Representations: Central to Van Dijk's approach is the notion of mental
representations. He argues that language is not just an external tool for communication but is
deeply connected to the mental representations and cognitive structures that individuals hold.
These mental representations include knowledge, beliefs, attitudes, and social schemas.
2. Cognitive Structures and Social Cognition: Van Dijk emphasizes the role of cognitive structures
in shaping discourse comprehension and production. He examines how individuals' cognitive
structures, often influenced by social factors, affect their interpretation of discourse. Social
cognition involves how people categorize, evaluate, and make inferences about social entities
and events through language.
3. Schemas and Scripts: Van Dijk's approach incorporates the idea of schemas and scripts.
Schemas are mental frameworks that organize knowledge about specific concepts or situations,
while scripts are knowledge structures that outline the typical sequence of events in specific
situations. These schemas and scripts influence how individuals understand and interpret
discourse.
4. Ideological Structures: Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach explores the presence of ideological
structures within mental representations. Ideological structures encompass beliefs, values, and
biases that are often implicit but can significantly influence the way individuals perceive and
produce discourse. Analyzing these ideological structures helps uncover how language is used
to reinforce or challenge dominant ideologies.
5. Discourse Strategies: Van Dijk examines how discourse strategies are employed to promote
specific mental representations and social schemas. These strategies may include framing,
persuasion techniques, and the selection of particular linguistic forms to achieve
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
communicative goals. Discourse strategies can serve to reinforce or disrupt prevailing power
relations and social norms.
6. Critical Analysis: Like other CDA approaches, Van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach is inherently
critical. It aims to reveal how discourse is implicated in the reproduction of social inequalities
and power imbalances. By uncovering the cognitive processes that underlie discourse
comprehension and production, it allows for a deeper analysis of the ways in which discourse
can influence social reality.
7. Interdisciplinarity: Van Dijk's approach draws on insights from cognitive psychology, linguistics,
sociology, and communication studies to develop a comprehensive understanding of the
relationship between language, cognition, and society.
In summary, Teun A. van Dijk's socio-cognitive approach to Critical Discourse Analysis emphasizes
the interplay between language, cognition, and society. It highlights how discourse is influenced by
and influences cognitive structures, ideologies, and social schemas. By examining the cognitive
processes involved in discourse comprehension and production, this approach provides valuable
insights into how language is used to construct and convey meaning, power, and ideology in
society.
iii) Wodak’s Discourse-Historical Approach
Introduction:
Ruth Wodak is a prominent scholar in the field of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) and has made
significant contributions to the development of various approaches within CDA. While there isn't a
single "Wodak model" of discourse analysis, she has developed several influential frameworks and
approaches for analyzing discourse. One of her notable contributions is the Discourse-Historical
Approach (DHA), which I'll outline below:
Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA):
The Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) is a framework for analyzing discourse that was developed
by Ruth Wodak and her colleagues. DHA combines elements of discourse analysis, critical
linguistics, and historical analysis to examine how language reflects and shapes social, political, and
historical contexts. Here are key components of the DHA:
Text Analysis: DHA begins with a close examination of texts or discourses. This includes analyzing
linguistic features, such as vocabulary, grammar, and discourse structure, to uncover how language
constructs meaning and ideology.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Contextualization: DHA emphasizes the importance of placing discourse within its broader context.
This involves considering the social, political, historical, and institutional factors that influence the
production and reception of discourse.
Interdisciplinarity: Like other approaches in CDA, DHA is interdisciplinary. It draws on insights from
linguistics, sociology, history, politics, and other fields to provide a comprehensive analysis of
discourse.
Historical Dimension: A distinctive feature of DHA is its focus on the historical dimension. It
examines how discourse is situated within a historical continuum and how it may be influenced by
historical events, ideologies, and changes over time.
Power and Ideology: DHA pays particular attention to the role of power and ideology in discourse.
It explores how language is used to legitimize power structures, maintain social hierarchies, and
promote or challenge dominant ideologies.
Rhetorical Strategies: The approach analyzes the rhetorical strategies used in discourse, including
persuasive techniques, framing, and argumentation. These strategies are examined to understand
how they influence the audience and contribute to the construction of meaning.
Intertextuality: DHA considers intertextuality, which involves analyzing how discourses refer to and
are influenced by other texts, both past and present. Intertextual connections can provide
additional insights into the discursive strategies employed.
Critical Analysis: Like other forms of CDA, DHA is critical in nature. It aims to uncover hidden
meanings, power dynamics, and social inequalities within discourse. It seeks to empower
individuals to critically engage with discourse and challenge dominant narratives.
In a nutshell:
In summary, Ruth Wodak's Discourse-Historical Approach (DHA) is a comprehensive framework for
analyzing discourse that combines linguistic analysis with a deep consideration of historical, social,
and ideological contexts. DHA is particularly useful for examining how language reflects and shapes
historical and social changes, making it a valuable tool for understanding the role of discourse in
society.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Multimodal Discourse Analysis
Multimodality
Multimodality refers to the use of more than one mode of communication in a text to create
meaning. Multimodality describes communication practices in terms of the textual, aural,
linguistic, spatial, and visual resources used to compose messages. Although communication has
always been multimodal, multimodality in discourse analysis is a relatively recent approach;
linguists began to consider a multimodal approach around the 1960s.
Multimodal discourse analysis
Multimodal discourse analysis considers how text draw on modes of communication such as
pictures, film, video, images and sound in combination with words to make meaning.
It has examined print genres as well as genres such as web pages, film and television programs. it
considers how multimodal texts are designed and how semiotic tools such as color, framing, focus
and positioning elements contribute to the making of meaning in the text.
Background of MMDA
Much of the work in multimodal discourse draws from Halliday's social semiotics approach to
language, a view that considers language as one among a number of semiotic resources such as
(gesture, images, music) that people use to communicate, or to make meaning, with each other.
The term was not defined with significance until the 20th century. During this time, an exponential
rise in technology created many new modes of presentation. Since then, multimodality has become
standard in the 21st century, applying to various network-based forms such as art, literature, social
media and advertising. The monomodality, or singular mode, which used to define the presentation
of text on a page has been replaced with more complex and integrated layouts.)
Mode and Medium:
When we look at multimodality, we take into account:

Modes

Mediums
Modes:
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
People communicate in different ways, so it is important to be aware of the different modes used in
communication to fully understand the meanings that are being conveyed. These can be broken down into
five categories:

Linguistic: The linguistic mode focuses on the meaning of written or spoken language in
communication. For example, this includes: choice of words, vocabulary, grammar, structure
etc.

Visual: The visual mode focuses on the meaning of what can be seen by a viewer. This includes:
images, symbols, videos, signs, etc.

Aural: The aural mode focuses on the meaning of what can be heard by a listener. This includes:
sound effects, music, voice.

Gestural: The gestural mode focuses on the meaning of communication through movement.
This includes: facial expressions, gestures, body language, interactions between people.

Spatial: The spatial mode focuses on the meaning of communication through physical layout.
This includes: position, spacing, the distance between elements in a text, proximity between
people/objects, etc.
It is important to note that a text does not need to contain all of the above modes to be considered
multimodal; it can contain two or more.
Mediums:
Modes are influenced by the type of medium they are carried by. The medium of a text can determine the
purpose of a text and its target audience. Different types of mediums include, but are not limited to:








Books
Newspapers
Radio
Television/Film
Billboards
Theatre
Websites
Social media posts
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Features of Multimodal Discourse Analysis:
1. Multimodal Communication: MDA recognizes that communication is not limited to spoken or
written language. It encompasses various modes, including visual, gestural, spatial, and even
auditory elements. These modes work together to convey meaning.
2. Interdisciplinary Approach: MDA draws on insights from a range of disciplines, including
linguistics, semiotics, sociology, visual studies, cognitive science, and anthropology. This
interdisciplinary perspective allows for a holistic analysis of communication.
3. Semiotic Resources: Semiotics, the study of signs and symbols, is central to MDA. It examines
how various semiotic resources, including linguistic signs (words), visual signs (images, icons),
and gestural signs (body language), work together to create meaning.
4. Interplay of Modes: MDA explores how different modes interact within a multimodal text. For
example, in a video advertisement, verbal language may be complemented by visuals, music,
and gestures. Understanding how these modes interact is crucial to deciphering the intended
message.
5. Meaning-Making: MDA investigates how meaning is made through the combination and
integration of different modes. It seeks to uncover how these modes contribute to the
construction of ideologies, identities, and narratives within a text.
6. Digital Media and Technology: With the rise of digital media, MDA has become increasingly
relevant. The analysis of websites, social media, and other digital platforms often involves
studying the interplay of various modes, including text, images, videos, and hyperlinks.
7. Critical Perspective: MDA can take a critical perspective by examining potential hidden
ideologies or messages within the advertisement.
Example of multimodal discourse
Multimodal discourse analysis (MDA) can be applied to a wide range of texts and contexts. Here's
an example of how MDA can be used to analyze a television advertisement:
Advertisement Analysis: Coca-Cola "Open Happiness" Commercial
The commercial includes both verbal and visual elements. It features a catchy jingle with the lyrics
"Open up your happiness," and actors are shown enjoying Coca-Cola in various settings. The visual
elements include scenes of people dancing, sharing drinks, and smiling while enjoying Coca-Cola.
In this example, MDA would provide a comprehensive analysis of how language, visuals, and music
work together in a Coca-Cola commercial to convey a specific message and ideology.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Applications of Critical Discourse Analysis:
CDA has been applied to media studies, advertisements texts English language teaching, heritage
language, power and ideology, socialization and environmental sciences to name a few. Other areas
are as




Language and Ideology
Language and Power
Language and Culture
Language and Gender

Language and Identity
LANGUAGE AND POWER
The relationship between power and discourse is a central focus of Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA)
and other related fields of study. This relationship highlights how language and communication are
used as instruments of power, shaping social interactions, influencing decision-making processes,
and maintaining or challenging power structures.
Norman Fairclough's approach to Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is deeply concerned with the
relationship between language and power. Fairclough's work highlights how language is not merely
a neutral tool of communication but is intrinsically tied to power dynamics, social structures, and
ideology.
Language as a Tool of Power:
Fairclough argues that language is a primary means through which power is exercised and
maintained in society. Those who control language and discourse can shape and influence the
beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors of individuals and groups.
Language is a primary means through which ideologies are conveyed, promoted, and normalized. It
serves as a medium for expressing and disseminating beliefs and values. Through language,
individuals and institutions articulate and reinforce their ideological positions.
1. Reproduction of Power: Discourse can be used to reinforce and reproduce existing power
structures and hierarchies. Those in positions of power may use language to maintain their
authority and control over resources. For example, political leaders and institutions use
discourse to legitimize their actions and policies.
2. Power in Communication: Power dynamics are evident in everyday communication. In
conversations, meetings, and negotiations, individuals or groups with more power may
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
dominate the discourse, while those with less power may struggle to assert their voices and
perspectives.
3. Manipulation and Persuasion: Discourse can be employed to manipulate and persuade
others. Rhetorical strategies, framing, and persuasive techniques are used to advance
particular interests and maintain power. Advertising, political speeches, and media
campaigns are examples of persuasive discourse.
4. Construction of Reality: Discourse plays a role in constructing social reality. Through
language, certain issues may be emphasized, while others are marginalized or ignored. This
selective emphasis can influence how people perceive and understand the world,
reinforcing or challenging prevailing power structures.
5. Hegemony: The concept of hegemony, often associated with the work of Antonio Gramsci,
involves the dominance of a particular ideology or worldview in society. Discourse can
contribute to hegemony by framing certain ideologies as natural, common-sense, and
unquestionable, thereby maintaining power imbalances.
6. Resistance and Counter-Discourse: On the other hand, discourse can also be a tool for
resistance and challenging power. Marginalized groups and social movements often use
language to articulate their grievances, mobilize support, and challenge dominant
narratives. Counter-discourses aim to disrupt existing power relations.
7. Media and Political Discourse: The media and political discourse are particularly important
arenas where power and discourse intersect. Media outlets and political actors shape public
opinion, maintain authority, and influence public policy through language and
communication.
8. Critical Analysis: Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA) is an approach that seeks to uncover and
critique power imbalances, hidden ideologies, and inequalities within discourse. CDA
examines how language is used to construct and reinforce power dynamics in society.
9. Interdisciplinarity: The study of power and discourse often involves interdisciplinary
perspectives, drawing on fields such as linguistics, sociology, psychology, and political
science to analyze the complex ways in which language and communication influence power
structures.
In summary, the relationship between power and discourse is multifaceted and dynamic. Discourse
is a key instrument through which power is negotiated, maintained, and challenged in society.
Understanding this relationship is crucial for analyzing how language shapes social interactions,
structures, and inequalities.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
Discourse and ideology
Discourse and ideology are intricately connected and play a significant role in shaping our
understanding of the world and our positions within it. Here's an exploration of the relationship
between discourse and ideology:
1. Language as an Ideological Medium: Language is a primary means through which ideologies
are expressed, disseminated, and perpetuated. It serves as a medium for conveying beliefs,
values, and norms. Individuals and institutions use language to articulate and reinforce their
ideological perspectives.
2. Ideology Shapes Discourse: Ideologies influence the way people communicate and the
choices they make in constructing discourse. For example, individuals with conservative or
liberal ideologies may use different frames, terminology, and rhetorical strategies to discuss
the same issue.
3. Normalization of Ideology: Discourse is instrumental in normalizing and naturalizing
ideologies. Through repeated use, certain linguistic expressions and frames can make
ideological beliefs and values appear commonsensical and unquestionable. This process
contributes to the maintenance of dominant ideologies.
4. Framing and Persuasion: Discourse is used to frame issues and events in specific ways that
align with particular ideological viewpoints. Different frames can lead to varying
interpretations of the same phenomenon. Additionally, persuasion techniques within
discourse are employed to convince others of the legitimacy of a given ideology.
5. Hegemony: Ideological hegemony refers to the dominance of a particular ideology in
society. Discourse plays a significant role in sustaining this dominance. Dominant ideologies
are often expressed and reinforced through discourse, making alternative perspectives less
visible.
6. Intersectionality: Discourse and ideology intersect with other aspects of social identity, such
as race, gender, class, and nationality. These intersecting identities can influence how
individuals experience and express their ideological beliefs through language.
7. Counter-Discourse: Counter-discourse involves using language to challenge dominant
ideologies and provide alternative perspectives. Marginalized groups, social movements,
and activists often engage in counter-discourse to contest prevailing norms and beliefs.
8. Media and Political Discourse: The media and political discourse are particularly important
arenas where discourse and ideology intersect. Media outlets and political actors use
language to shape public opinion, maintain authority, and promote specific agendas.
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)
Discourse Analysis BS 8th
9. Language and Power: The relationship between discourse, ideology, and power is central.
Those who control language and discourse often wield significant power in shaping
ideological narratives and influencing social and political outcomes.
In summary, discourse and ideology are interdependent and mutually reinforcing. Language is the
medium through which ideologies are expressed, and discourse serves as a key mechanism for the
promotion, reinforcement, and contestation of ideological beliefs and values. Analyzing this
relationship is crucial for understanding how language shapes our understanding of the world and
how ideology influences our actions and interactions within society.
Past Paper Questions:
1. What is discourse and discourse analysis? Write a note on the principles and postulates of critical
discourse analysis Support your answer with the suitable examples.
2. Define and critically evaluate Fairclough's model of critical discourse analysis with examples. Where
needed.
3. Conversation analysis and discourse analysis go side by side. Write a detailed note on Conversation
Analysis focusing on 'turn taking, 'overlapping, repairs', adjacency pairs', etc. Support your answers with
examples.
4. Discourse Analysis is the analysis of "coherence" and "cohesion" in a text. What are the (cohesive)
devices that ensure in a text. Explain with example.
5. What is gender? Write a note on how discourses construct gender roles with examples.
6. Searle divides speech acts into six basic categories. Discuss with examples these six basic categories.
7. Draw a comparison between Fairelough's and Wodak's models of critical discourse analysis with
examples where needed.
8. What is multimodality? Briefly explain approaches to MDA with different theoretical and analytical
issues on MDA.
9. What do we mean by the statement gender and sexuality are not pre discursive? Give an elaborative
answer.
10. Discuss a model of critical discourse analysis in detail along with examples.
11. What are various approaches to Multimodal Discourse Analysis? Briefly discuss different issues in MDA.
12. Write a detailed note on Hallidian concept of Register Analysis. Provide necessary examples.
13. Write a detail note on the relation between language and ideology. Substantiate your answer with
appropriate examples.
BEST OF LUCK:
'Keep in your prayers”
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M Jawad (Govt. Graduate College Bhakkar)