A history of
schooling
in South Africa
JJ
Booyse
I CS
le Roux
I J Seroto I CC Wolhuter
Post-1994 educational
developments ----.. .; :_,;_
CC Wolhuter
9.1 INTRODUCTION
The post-1994 era saw the drafting and acceptance of a new constitution (based on
the liberal democratic Western European model) and a bill of rights widely hailed as
one of the most progressive in the world. These were to form the basis of the construction of a new society. fu part of this new society, and as an instrument in accomplishing this reconstruction of society, education has been assigned a pivotal place. The new
education system was to be built on principles mostly diametrically opposite from
those which had determined pre-1994 education. A new education policy, in the form
ofWhite Papers, acts and policy documents appear. H owever, this policy has run inro
many obstacles since it was implemented. By weighing the lofty ideals contained in
policy against contextual problems, this chapter concludes by offering an outlook.
9.2 POLITICAL AND SOCIETAL CONTEXT
9.2.1 Political developments
I
The African National Congress (ANC) , the National Party (NP) and 24 other political parties negotiated a political settlement during the l 990s. This culminated in
the I 993 interim constitution and elections on 27- 29 April I 994. The ANC gained
62.5% of votes and 252 seats in the 400-seat legislature. The rest of the make-up of
the legislature was: NP: 82; Inkarha Freedom Party: 43; Freedom Front: 9; Democratic Party: 7; Pan Africanist Congress: 5; and African Christian Democratic Party:
2. The legislature drafted a constirurion (1996), based upon che liberal Western democratic model buttressed by a bill of human rights widely hailed as one of the most
progressive in the world.
In the two subsequent elections, 1999 and 2004, the ANC raised its share of the
vote to respectively 66.4% and 69.7%, while the NP was wiped out and replaced by
the Democratic Alliance as main opposition party. The latest election, which took place
on 22 April 2009, saw the share of the ANC dropping to 65.9%. Ocher main parries
'.
CHAPTER NINE
were: Democratic Alliance (16.66%), Congress of the People (7.42%), Inkatha Freedom Party (4.55%), Independent Democrats (0.91%), Freedom Front Plus (0.83%)
and African Christian Democratic Parry (0.81 %) .
·•
'I
"
.
religious obi
vided chat
•
''
,,
9.2.2 constitutional dispensation
The Constitution, containing rhe Bill of Human Rights, was drafted by parliament,
subsequent to the 1994 elections was approved and became law (Act 108 of 1996).
On education the Bill of Rights (section 29) states (RSA, 1996: I 4):
•
Everyone has a right to basic education, and
•
To further education, which the State, through reasonable measures, must make
progressively available and accessible.
Further (RSA, 1996: 14),
•
•
everyone has the right to receive education in the official language or languages
of their choice where thar education is reasonably practicable. In order to ensure
the effective access to and implementation of this right, the state must consider
all reasonable educational alternatives, including single medium institutions;
everyone has the right to establish and to maintain, at their own expense, independent educational institutions that
(a)
do not discriminate on the grounds of race
(6)
are registered with the Stace, and
(c)
maintain standards that are not inferior to standards at comparable public
educational institutions.
On cultural, religious and linguistic communities, section 31 of the Constitution
scares char (RSA, 1996: 15):
•
persons belonging to cultural, religious or linguistic community may not be denied the right, with other members of that community (a)
to enjoy their culture, practice their religion or use their language, and
(b)
to form, join and maintain cultural, religious and linguistic associations and
other organs of civil society
these rights may not be exercised in a manner inconsistent with any provision of
the Bill of Rights.
On freedom of religion, belief and opinion, the Bill of Rights (section 15) states:
•
everyone has the right to freedom of conscience, religion, thought, belief and
opinion;
(a)
chose <
(b)
they a1
(c)
attend
9.2.3 oemo!
The SouthAfric
rate is decreasin
while the estim
(ibid.). The con
•
White peo
•
Black peoE
•
Coloured
•
Indians (i.
The migration
ified people an
- from Africa.
is also known
19 500 medic
medical docto
ing to immigr
means (Slabbc
legal immigra
estimated 3 rr
9.2.4 socir
The per capit
es the count!
2008: 16). Ir
world. The u
ty more prob
stratification
concentratec
the coloured
explosive so,
that there ar
POST-1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
•
religious observances may be conducted at State or Stace-aided institutions, provided chat
(a)
those observances follow rules made by the appropriate public authorities,
(b)
they are conducted on an equitable basis, and
(c)
attendance of them is free and voluntary.
9.2.3 Demography
The South African population totals 47.4 million (World Bank, 2008: 42). The growth
rate is decreasing: between 1990 and 2006 the average annual growth rate was 1.9%,
while the estimated average annual growth race for the period 2006-2015 is 0.4%
(ibid.) . The composition of the population is as follows:
•
White people (i.e. South Africans of European descent): 10%
•
Black people (i.e. South Africans of African descent): 79%
•
Coloured people (i.e. South Africans of mixed racial descent): 9%
•
Indians (i.e. South Africans of Indian descent): 2%
The migration dynamics of the country are characterised by an outflow of highly qualified people and an inflow of a strong stream of immigrants - legally as well as illegally
- from Africa. The extent of the outflow of highly qualified people (chis phenomenon
is also known as the "brain drain") can be appreciated from the fact that, whereas
19 500 medical students have graduated in the past 15 years, the number of registered
medical doctors in South Africa has increased by only 9304 (Watson, 2009: 2). Turning to immigration, in 2008 1.25 mi!lion people immigrated to South Africa by legal
means (Slabbert, 2009: 1). Furthermore co that, there are, by all estimates, many illegal immigrants in South Africa, especially from countries in Africa. For example, an
estimated 3 million Zimbabweans are residing illegally in South Africa.
9.2.4 socioeconomic situation
The per capita gross national income in South Africa is US$ 5390 p.a., which places the country in the category of the upper middle income countries (World Bank,
2008: 16). Inequalities are rife - the Gini-index of 57.8 is che fourth highest in the
world. The unemployment race is 36.2% (Steyn, 2008: 48). What makes rhe inequality more problematic is that, although diminishing, the contours of the socioeconomic
stratification run largely coterminous with that of the racial divide - with white people
concentrated in the affluent echelons, black South Africans in the bottom strata and
the coloured people and Indians somewhere in between. This makes for a potentially
explosive socioeconomic mix. One of the problems with the wide-spread poverty is
that there are a mere 5.3 million taxpayers, yet 13.4 million people draw social grants
9
CHAPTER NINE
(Bloom, 2009: 13).
The incidence of social pathologies is rife. For example, the watchdog non-governmental organisation, Transparency International, ranks all the countries in a corruption scale ranging from 1 {much corruption) to 10 (little corruption), wich 5 regarded
as rhe cur-off point for exorbitant levels of corruption. According to its October 2006
report, South Africa rated 4.6 on their scale. The last two decades in South Africa
have been characterised by an upsurge in violence, crime and socially unacceptable
behavior (Hayward, 2006: 2; Dimbaza, 2007: 2), such as a murder rate of 50 a day
(Dailing, 2008: 12) .
9.2.5 Linguistic
The negotiations for the drafting of a constitution led to the 1996 Constitution stating that South Africa has eleven official languages. These are as follows (the percentage
of the population speaking that language as their first language appears in brackets):
sen, 1995: 458; D
Johnson, 2009: 37
The 1976 Sow<
grievance of che e1
Although schools
soon after, the po
emment saw Afri
ro keep black chi
community, then
position of Englii
and English) schc
being unilingual
of many Afrikaa
over this issue.
•
isiZulu (23.8%)
9.2.6 Religio
•
isiXhosa (17.6%)
•
Afrikaans (13.3%)
•
Sepedi (9. 4%)
•
English (8.2%)
•
•
Setswana (8.2%)
Sesotho (7.9%)
•
Xirsonga (4.4%)
•
siSwati (2. 7%)
•
Tshivenqa (2.3%)
Seveney-six per <
nificant number
Buddhists. The c
that of the rad;
in che Durch R,
Church, the Ro
Africans belong
of syncretism 6,
Hindus, with si
Contempor;
also manifest i
craditional oucl
•
isiNdebele (1.6%)
9.3 PRINC
Recognising the historically diminished use and status of the indigenous languages,
the Constitution expects government to implement positive measures to elevate the
status and advance the use of these languages (Steyn, 2008: 45). This also pertains
to the field of education, where after Grade 4 only Afrikaans and English have been
developed and are used as media of instruction .
Developing and empowering the indigenous languages to media of instruction
right up to tertiary education - an intention often expressed by political and civic
leaders - will have to be a long-term and arduous project (cf Meier, 2002: 158), possible only if rhere is very strong political and public will.
What is complicating the language situation is firstly the position of English as
international lingua franca, and secondly che politicised position of Afrikaans. 1be
economic and labour market value of English mean that there is a division of opinion
as co mother tongue versus English as medium of instruction in schools (cf Claas-
After caking °"
upon its ideah
posite of pre-1
•
•
Deroocn
been autl
tion in e
parents,,
in decisic
resent all
Equal
e1
open op:
POST-1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
sen, I 995 : 458; De Wee, 2000), and many people are undecided about the issue (cf.
Johnson, 2009: 370-379).
The I 976 Soweto riots, a milestone n rhe country's history, broke out around the
grievance of the enforced use of Afrikaans as medium of instruction in black schools.
Although schools were granted the right to decide on their medium of instruction
soon after, the position of Afrikaans has been politicised ever since. After 1994 government saw Afrikaans single-medium schools as an employment of a mechanism
to keep black children out of historically white schools. In the Afrikaans-speaking
community, there is the fear chat, given the internationally and naturally powerful
position of English, turning Afrikaans-medium schools into dual medium (Afrikaans
and English) schools will necessarily prove to be an interim measure, the final result
being unilingual English schools. Since 1994, government and the governing bodies
of many Afrikaans-medium schools have been involved in unsavoury court battles
over chis issue.
9.2.6 Religion/philosophy
Seventy-six per cent of the population professes to be Christians. There also exisr significant numbers of smaller religious groupings, such as Hindus, Muslims, Jews and
Buddhists. The contours of the religious groups to a large extent run coterminous with
that of the racial divide. Afrikaans-speaking white South Africans are concentrated
in the Durch Reformed Church, and English-speaking white people in the Anglican
Church, the Roman Carbolic Church and the Methodist Church. Many black South
Africans belong to one of the African Independent Churches and practise some form
of syncretism between Christianity and traditional African religion. Most Indians are
Hindus, with significant minorities being Christian and Muslim.
Contemporary ourlooks on life and on the world (individualism, materialism) are
also manifest in South Africa, existing to various degrees in individuals with more
traditional outlooks and philosophies.
9.3 PRINCIPLES OF A NEW EDUCATIONAL DISPENSATION
After taking over government in 1994, the ANC spelled out an education policy based
upon its ideals. The principles of this policy - in many instances the diametrical opposite of pre-1994 principles - were che following (cf. Wolhuter, 1999):
•
Democratisation. The pre-1994 education dispensation was deemed to have
been authoritarian. The new government accepted the principle of democratisation in education. In practice, chis would mean that all stakeholders (teachers,
parents, workers, learners a.nd the broader community) would participate actively
in decision making on education. The election of school governing bodies co represent all stakeholders is an example of chis principle.
•
Equal educational opportunities. The quest for equal education provision and
open opportunity was an important rallying point in the sociopolitical turmoil in
9
CHAPTER NINE
the run-up to 1994, and after 1994 became a cornerstone of the new education
dispensation.
•
Decentralisation. Similarly, democratisation implies the dismantling of strucrures concentrating power in one spot (centralisation), and its devolution to get
closer to the people.
•
Desegregation. A prerequisite for the creation of equal education opportunities
was the eradication of school segregation, a defining feature of the education
dispensation before 1994.
•
Multicultural education. The ANC: Policy Framework for Education and Training, government's White Paper for Education and Training and the South African
Schools Act state that the country's education system must strive to cultivate respect for different cultural, religious and language traditions. This aim, when read
with the principles of desegregation and equity, indicates a new education system
which is in line with the worldwide trend towards multicultural education.
The defining features of multicultural education include:
•
an acknowledgement of ethnic, cultural and religious diversity, as well as the fact
that each group is entitled to maintain its own identity
•
the promotion of cultural interaction to achieve enrichment
•
the establishment of a new relationship and tolerance between cultures.
The entire education system will aim co develop the entire population and to promote
various societal goals. These goals include the following:
•
Economic. The eradication of poverty and the promotion of the country's economic productivity and development
•
Social. Building a society free of racial, gender and other forms of unfair discrimination, creating a socially mobile society and the removal of artificial hierarchies
and obstructions in the way of progress
•
Cultural. Empowering people so that they can participate in the processes of
cultural expression
•
Politics. Empowering citizens to tal{e part in the processes of a democratic society
•
Nation building. Bui!ding a communal value system for a society characterised
by democracy, equality, freedom, peace, justice, tolerance and stability
In order to create the above education system, two major reforms had to be effected,
namely the institution of outcomes-based education and the creation of a national
qualifications framework.
A serious objecti1
engage in rote learn
education to outcor
mastery of skills anc
The ANC critic
training, and belie,
of the country's pc
for full participatio
build on their basi
percentage of lear
school year (matri
their lives.
To address the
work (NQF) to i1
progress from any
a potential step tc
learning". The NI
for lifelong learn
9.4 REFOR'
The pre-1994 ra
into one nation:
rica, too, establi
A number ol
tion for acts an
Education and ·
example the W
(1996); a Prog
Paper on Educ
lenge of Early '
The White ·
ucation policy
has the obliga1
portunity to c
Parents have
have the right
safeguards set
cultural and
enable all inc
and training
guaranteed t,
flexibility in
Seate resour,
-
POST-1 994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
9
A serious objection to the education system before was that it required learners to
engage in rote learning. Therefore, the decision was made to shift from content-based
education to outcomes-based education, where the emphasis would be on the learners'
mastery of skills and where they would participate actively in classroom activities.
The ANC criticised the pre-1994 education system for separating education and
training, and believed that that had contributed co the situation where the majority
of the country's population was under-educated, under-trained and under-prepared
for full participation in social, economic and political life. People may have wanted to
build on their basic education, bur they had few skills and were poorly paid. A large
percentage of learners left the school system before or after completing their final
school year (matric or Standard 10, now Grade 12) - still unprepared for the rest of
their lives.
To address these problems, government developed a national qualifications framework (NQF) to integrate education and training. The framework enables learners co
progress from any point in the education system to the next. Thus, any qualification is
a potential step to the next qualification, to give expression to the concept of "lifelong
learning". The NQF is based on a system of credits at various levels, creating a network
for lifelong learning.
9.4 REFORM OF EDUCATION
I
I
The pre- 1994 racially and ethnically based departments of education were collapsed
into one national depanmenr of education. Each of the nine provinces of South Africa, too, established a provincial department of education.
A number of Green Papers and ensuing White Papers appeared, setting the direction for acts and policies to follow. The prime White Paper was the White Paper on
Education and Training (1995). This White Paper was followed by a host of others, for
example the White Paper on The Organisation, Governance and Funding of Schools
(1996); a Programme for the Transformation of Higher Education (1997); a White
Paper on Education and Training (1998); and a White Paper on Meeting the Challenge of Early Childhood Development in South Africa (2001).
1he White Paper on Education and Training (1995) specified the guidelines for education policy in South Africa. Education and training are human rights, and the State
has the obligation to protect these rights. All South Africans should be granted the opportunity to develop their potential and to contribute to the development of society.
Parents have the primary responsibility for the education of their children. Parents
have the right to choose the form of education for their children, subject to reasonable
safeguards set by law. The rights of parents include choice of language, as well as the
cultural and religious basis of education for their children. Education policy should
enable all individuals to value, to have access to and to succeed in lifelong education
and training of good quality. Equal access to basic education and training should be
guaranteed to all. An increasing range oflearning possibilities, offering learners greater
flexibility in choosing, should be provided. Historical inequalities should be redressed.
State resources should be deployed according to the principle of equity to provide
r
·1
I
@ Vo.n Schall(
Publishers
275
CHAPTER NINE
the same quality of learning opportunities for all. The rights of learners and education should be equitably protected, including the policy of affirmative acti on. Tue
provision of quality education and training is essential and should be provided in an
integrated fashion according to the NQF Communities should accept ownership of
their schools and legitimate representative bodies should be instiruted. The principle
of democratic governance should increasingly be promoted and should be characterised by consultation with all relevant interest groups. A culture of teaching, learning
and management should be restored and a culture of accountability should be created.
The goal of education and training should be to establish a democratic, free, equal,
just and peaceful society in South Africa. The diverse religious, cultural and language
traditions should be respected and encouraged. Education must promote common
democratic values, the importance of the due process of law and civic responsibility.
Education should promote independent and critical thought. Differentiated education should equip learners with the competencies required by the economy and career
development.
A number of acts regulating education were based on the White Papers. The objectives of the National Education Policy Ace (27 of 1996) are to provide for the determination of national education policy by the minister of education, in accordance with
certain principles. The act specifies the guiding principles of national education policy
and enumerates the areas to be covered by national education policy- the responsible
areas of the minister as chief authority.
The aims of rhe South African Schools Act (84 of 1996) are to provide guidelines
for the organisation, governance and funding of schools, establish minimum and uniform norms and standards for the provision of education at schools, and to ensure the
provision of quality education across the school system. The contents of th is ace deal
with che following: learners; public schools; learners with special needs in education;
funding of public schools; and independent (private) schools.
The South African Qualifications Authority Act (58 of 1995) makes provision for
the development and implementation of the NQF and for the establishment of a
national qualifications authority to assess and accredit educational programmes in the
NQF.
The aims of the H igher Education Act (101 of 1997) are to regulate higher education, to provide for the establishment of a council on higher education, and to
provide for the establishment and maintenance of institutions for higher education .
The contents of this act include provisions for the establishment and maintenance of
institutions of higher educatio n, quality assurance in higher education, governance of
public higher education, funding of public higher education, and the functioning of
private higher education institutions.
In the posc-1994 education system, educational management and administrative
structures exist at three levels: national government, provincial government and at
institutional {school) level.
Ar central (national) level, the minister of education .is authorised by the National
Education Policy Act (27 of 1996) to determine national norms and standards for
educational planning, provision, governance, monitoring and standards. A national
department of
policies of govc
Each of the
tion and provi1
any aspect of e
will prevail ov<
effectively if re
with the main2008: 74) .
At inscituti:
of learners, tea
rives of parent
functions of t
control of the
provincial edu
The beque:
replaced by ch
A national
network of li:
South Africa ,
tions Auchori
cation and tra
3 (e.g. Grade
Levels 5 (dip
bachelors and
are the highe1
The schoo
education wa
comes-based
guages; matl
management
are specified.
•
Founda
•
lntermf
skills; te
and cult
•
Senior l
cation; t
and culi
•
Furthei
matherr
POST- 1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
department of education exists, with the role of translating education and training
policies of government into policies (Steyn, 2008: 69).
Each of the nine provinces of South Africa has its own provincial minister of education and provincial department of education. Provincial legislatures may pass laws on
any aspect of education pertaining to that province, except universities. A national ace
will prevail over a provincial act if it deals with a matter which can only be regulated
effectively if regulated or coordinated by uniform norms or standards, or is concerned
with the maintenance of economic unity or other matters of national interest (Steyn,
2008 : 74).
Ar institutional level, school governing bodies consist of representatives of parents
oflearners, teachers, non-teaching staff of the school, the school principal, representatives of parents, and co-opted members from the local comm unity. The powers and
functions of the school governing bodies include rhe management and exercise of
conrrol of the school and the recommendation of the appointment of teachers to the
provincial education department.
The bequeathed Scottish school structure (Sub A and B; Standards 1 co 10) was
replaced by the American ladder (Grades l to 12).
A national q ualification framework (NQF) has been established, providing for a
network of lifelong learning for all South Africans. All educational programmes in
South Africa can be accredited into this framework, by the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA). The NQF consists of eight levels. Level 1 is the general education and training band. School grades 1- 9 fall in chis band. Levels 2 (e.g. Grade 10),
3 (e.g. Grade 11) and 4 (e.g. Grade 12) are the further education and training band.
Levels 5 (diplomas/certificates offered by universities and colleges), 6 (first degrees:
bachelors and honours degrees), 7 (higher degrees: masters degrees) and 8 (doctorates)
are the higher education and training band.
The school curriculum change from content-based education to outcomes-based
education was phased in from 1998. The official curriculum statement for the outcomes-based education curriculum distinguishes between eight learning areas: languages; mathematics; natural sciences; social sciences; technology; economic and
management sciences; life skills; and arts and culture. For each learning area outcomes
are specified. The following subjects are specified for the various school phases:
•
Foundation Phase (Grades 1-3): literacy, numeracy, life skills
•
Intermediate Phase (Grades 4-6): languages; mathematics; natural sciences; life
skills; technology; social sciences; economic and management sciences; and arts
and culture
•
Senior Phase (Grades 7- 9): languages; mathematics; natural sciences; life orientation; technology; social sciences; economic and management sciences; and arcs
and culture
•
Further Education and Training (FET) Phase (Grades 10-12): languages;
mathematics or mathematical li teracy; life skills; and core skills
9
CHAPTER NINE
Outcomes-based education also implied a new system of assessment (cf. Meyer,
Lombard, Warnich & Wolhuter, 2010). Students' progress is now measured against
mastery of outcomes rather than mastery of content. The emphasis has moved away
from passing or failing. Rather, students who do not attain the criteria of a particular
standard are afforded the opportunity for reassessment when they are ready. Teachers
assess students on a continuous basis and employ a range of strategies, such as peer
assessment and self-assessment, initiating projects and assisting students in compiling
portfolios. The emphasis has also changed from the historical summative assessment
ro formative assessment. It is envisaged that some form of external assessment will rake
place at the end of Grade 12 (replacing the historical and still present matriculation
examination).
Assessment is outcomes based. A distinction is made between three types of outcomes: learning area outcomes, specific outcomes and critical outcomes. Learning area
outcomes specify the skills which a student should attain over a specific period of time
within a specific learning area. Specific outcomes are the exact skills and information
required in a particular content or situation.
There are eight critical outcomes which are not linked to a particular theme or
course but which are common to all themes and learning areas. The outcomes are
designed by the South African Qualifications Authority and applied to all learning
areas. According to the critical outcomes, students should be able to demonstrate the
ability to:
•
communicate effectively using visual, mathematical and/or language skills in the
modes of oral and/or written presentation
•
identify and solve problems by using creative and critical thinking
•
organise and manage themselves and their activities responsibly and effectively
•
work effectively with others in a team, group, organisation and community
•
collect, analyse, organise and critically evaluate information
•
use science and technology effectively and critically, showing responsibility towards the environment and health of others
•
understand that the world is a set of related systems (that means that problemsolving contexts do not exist in isolation)
•
allow awareness of the importance of effective learning strategies, responsible
citizenship, cultural sensitivity, education and career opportunities and entrepreneurial abilities.
Tying the world of school with the world of work is an intractable problem worldwide. There is the constant complaint of a shortage of skilled workers, yet the spectre
of growing numbers of schooled unemployed people booms. In sub-Saharan Africa,
four strategies have been employed in attempts ro get education and employment in
tandem: the intr•
ucation, the run
service schemes.
The abovew<
commentators f
a major scumbli
At the same
fied graduates,
represent appr<
2006).
One of the
so as to produ<
decided upon
1% tax on th<
authorities (SE
workers. But a
the SETAs too
R4.2 billion h
(De Lange, 20
As a result
surplus of teac
tion), and sec
internationall
impinging on
Pre-1994 1
plines (such a
tion) as basic
outcomes-ha:
In 1998 (rev
for teacher e,
seven roles: l
material; lea<
nity, civil am
Associates, 2
Before 1~
colleges. In
started ro cl,
an all-gradu
chat a seriOl
(Govender,
can schools
fied, tempo
POST-1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
I
f
tandem: the introduction of vocational subjects into the curriculum, polytechnical education, the turning of schools into production units and national youth community
service schemes. These efforts were, however, all unsuccessful (cf Wolhuter, 2007).
The above worldwide problem has not escaped South Africa. Economic and social
commentators frequently identify the shortage of trained, skilled human resources as
a major stumbling block hampering economic growth (cf Anon., 2008).
At the same time schooled unemployment is a growing problem. Tertiary qualified graduates, though making up less than 3% of South Africa's unemployed, still
represent approximately 200 000 individuals (Business Leadership South Africa,
2006).
One of the aims of post-1994 education reform has been to reform education
so as to produce employable school leavers and graduates. One strategy government
decided upon was the Skills Development Act, whereby employers were levied a
1% tax on their salary bill, to be paid to economic sector education and training
authorities (SETAs), in a fund earmarked fo r the continuing education and training of
workers. But as part of the breakdown of large parts of the civil service in recent years,
the SETAs too have become bogged down in bureaucratic inefficiency. By mid-2009,
R4.2 billion lay unused in che SETA reserves, che Minister of Labour had co admit
(De Lange, 2009: 8).
As a result of historical circumstances, 1994 left South Africa firstly with a huge
surplus of teachers (with large numbers of teachers employed in careers ourside education), and secondly, with a teacher education system which had become antiquated
internationally, and which was, in any case, ill-suited for the new contextual exigencies
impinging on South African education (cf Wolhuter, 2010).
Pre- 1994 teacher education courses were structured around educational subdisciplines (such as educational psychology, philosophy of education and history of education) as basic building blocks. 1b.e new post-1994 comext, and the introduction of
outcomes-based education in particular, required a new system of teacher education.
In I 998 (revised in 2000) the Minister of Education declared norms and standards
for teacher education. These stated that teachers should be trained for the following
seven roles: learning facilitator; interpreter and designer of learner programmes and
material.; leader, administrator and manager; learner and lifelong researcher; community, civil and pastoral; assessor; and learning area/subject/phase specialist (Brunton &
Associates, 2003: A44-A59).
Before 1994, reacher education rook place in universities and in teacher training
colleges. In the wake of a growing teacher surplus, even before 1994 government
started to close some reacher training colleges; post-1994, a policy of moving towards
an all-graduated reaching force was implemented. The present position is, however,
that a serious teacher shortage of up to 94 000 teachers by the year 2015 is looming
(Govender, 2008: 1). Already, of the 433 280 teaching posts available in South African schools in May 2008, 62 616 were vacant and 31 949 were staffed by underqualified, temporary teachers (ibid.) .
9
CHAPTER NINE
,I
',
9.5 ACHIEVEMENTS, PROBLEMS AND CHALLENCES
9.5.1 Quality
11
I
.,
'
'
,I.
!'
With the plethora of objectives pursued by the designing of a new education system,
quality is one aspect - of cardinal importance in the 21st century, globalised world
- that has been overlooked. Available evidence on both outcome quality and process
quality paints a disturbing picture.
Beginning with outcome quality, macric pass rates have steadily declined over the
past six years (up to the time of writing, 2009) from 73.3% in 2003 to 62.5% in
2008 . A mere 15% of matric candidates pass with exemption (i.e. qualify for university admission) . South Africa took part in the 2003 round of the TIMSS study (an
international study of science and mathematics teaching in various countries in rhe
world). South African learners did not perform well at all. The average international
score for science was 474 and for mathematics 467. The scores of South African learners were 244 for mathematics and 264 for science (Reddy, 2006).
Process quality is equally disturbing. As in the case of outcome quality, what is especially distressing is char poor quality is concentrated in the historically black schools
- thus undermining any artempr at equalisation of educational opportunity. A culture
of teaching and learning continues co evade the historically black schools. The State
president recently cited a government report which shows char at the historically black
schools teachers, on average, spend rhree and a half hours per day in classrooms, compared to six hours in historically white schools (Anon., 2009: 2) . Many of the historically black schools are poorly resourced. The last extensive School Register of Needs
report by the Oeparcmem of Education shows that 35.5% of South African schools
have no telephones, 41.8%, no electricity and 70% no computers (Department of
Education, 2000).
9.5.2 outcomes·based education
As explained above, the introduction of outcomes-based education in South African
schools signified a momentous change in South African education. Educators were
concerned about the extent co which the State intervened in the curriculum process
(Warnich & Wolhurer, 2010). Experrs, which included consultants from abroad, believed char the State hijacked the curriculum process, limiting their (the educators')
say in the design of the new curriculum (ibid.) . They experienced outcomes-based
education and the attendant Curriculum 2005 as a bureaucratically driven process
(ibid.).
The successful implemeqtation of outcomes-based education depends upon the
presence of a host of contextual conditions, many of which are absent in South African schools (cf. Warnich & Wolhuter, 2010). These include well-resourced schools,
learners hailing from fairly different affluent socioeconomic homes, a link between
curriculum and life world, and learners well proficient in the language of teaching
and learning. In the wake of the course of the implementation of outcomes-based
education in South African schools, eventually two eminent educationists, Spady
(2008) (interr
(20096) (one
Africa), coum
rican schools.
underwent Ol
2008, and th<
Benchmark 1
2009 were ve
9.5.3 EQU,
Despite refor
education sys
students atte
cally black ir.
In the forme
write at app1
(Bloch, 200S
9.5.4 oec
Movementt•
there is a reh
for and servi
2004). Seco
agenda with
strong, cent.
has been pla
ies co deten
bodies (Kru
9.5.5 Mu
Multiculmr
merely look
system. Ins
a language 1
of learners '
the develop
a subject, .A
of South A
2008 then
Afrikaans s
(Rademeye
POST-1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
(2008) (internationally hailed as the father of outcomes-based education) and Bloch
(20096) (one of the architects of the system of outcomes-based education in South
Africa), counselled for the discontinuation of outcomes-based education in South African schools. Such concerns were corroborated when the first cohort of learners who
underwent outcomes-based education wrote their matric examinations at the end of
2008, and the pass rates dropped compared to 2007 (as shown above). The National
Benchmark Test Project found that those who did pass and made it to university in
2009 were very poorly equipped for university study (McGregor, 2009).
9.5.3 Equality
Despite reform, education remains unequal along racial lines. The existence of two
education systems - historically white education institutions (which virtually all white
students attend) comparable to the best in the world, and grossly inferior historically black institutions (which the overwhelming majority of black students attend) .
In che former white schools of the Western Cape, 62.5% of Grade 3s can read and
write at appropriate levels; the corresponding figure in the black townships is 0.1o/o
(Bloch, 2009a: 13) .
9.5.4 Decentralisation
Movement towards the objective of decentralisation is countered by two factors. Firstly
there is a reluctance of parents to get involved in school matters, especially in (voting
for and serving on) school governing bodies, in less affluent communities (cf. Michael,
2004). Secondly government determination to drive through an educational reform
agenda with other goals such as equalisation often means strong-handed tactics, i.e.
strong, centralised prescription. Since 2009, for example, the Minister of Education
has been planning measures to drastically curtail the powers of school governing bodies to determine the remuneration of reaching staff of teachers employed by these
bodies (Kruger, 2009:2) .
9.5.5 Multiculturalism
Multiculturalism to a large extent also remains an ideal. This can be substantiated by
merely looking at the handling of the country's linguistic diversity in the education
system. In spite of research showing the negative effect which teaching and learning in
a language ocher than the mother tongue has on the progress and on the achievement
of learners (e.g. Erasmus, 2008; Heugh, 2002) no progress has been made regarding
the development of African languages as medium of instruction beyond Grade 4. As
a subject, African language has been on the retreat at universities - at the University
of South Africa, 25 000 students were registered for African languages in 1997; by
2008 the number had dwindled ro around 3000 (Shiraya, 2008: 21) . The number of
Afrikaans single-medium schools has declined from 1396 in I 993 to 667 at present
(Raderneyer, 20096: 1).
9
CHAPTER NINE
9.5.6 Desegregation
9.5.9 Adm
Desegregation of educational institutes has been very much a one-way process, with
students of different black families moving co the better historically white institutions.
As a result, virtually all white people are in the historically white insrirutions, while
most black students are still in the - virtually exclusively black - historically black educational institutions. The phenomenon of affiuem black smdencs moving to histarically
white institutions led some scholars (e.g. Pape, 1998) to suggest chat racial segregation
has merely been replaced by socioeconomic segregation. Empirical research probing
the position in desegregated educational institutions painrs different pictures - some
rosy (e.g. Wolhucer, 2005), some bleak (e.g. Moloi & Henning, 2006). The report of
the 2008 ministerial committee on progress towards transformation and social cohesion and the elimination of discrimination in public higher education (the Soudien
report) scares chat "discrimination is pervasive" (RSA, 2009) .
Administrativ
annual per le::
financial year
passed macric
2009:2). Wh
scheme pays
more than 6(
the provincia
meyer, 2009,
ince's educati
R2000 per d
I•
d
9.5.7 Economic growth and other societal goals
While South Africa enjoyed a long phase of economic growth between 1994 and
2008, it would be difficult to make a case chat the educational expansion and reform
since 1994 was a direct causal factor, amid other obvious causal factors, such as economic policy, political stability, international economic context and the opening-up
and goodwill of cbe outside world after 1994. Amid economic growth and educational
expansion, unemployment and schooled unemployment have increased since 1994.
For example, only 9% of matriculancs who were in Grade 12 in 2005 could succeed
in finding employment in the formal economic sector in 2006 (Rademeyer, 2009a: 5).
Tertiary qualified graduates, though making up less than 3% of South Africa's unemployed, still represent approximately 200 000 individuals (Business Leadership South
Africa, 2006). No research has been published on the ocher societal effects of educational expansion and reform since 1994.
9.6 LATE
OUT
In 2009, th,
co investigat
riculum Stat
with teache1
the minster
be abolishec
things had l:
ways of ass(
ened. There
based edua
9.7
9.5.8 Culture of learning and teaching
In rhe aftermath of the pre- 1994 era when education was employed as part of the
sociopolitical turmoil, a proper culture of teaching and learning remains evasive. The
maintenance in discipline is, to a concern-raising exrenr, unsuccessful in the new dispensation, where educarors can no longer use methods they used to use with effectiveness (c£ Wolhucer & Van Staden, 2008).
Absenteeism, both by educators and by learners, is a serious issue. Hard evidence
is hard co come by, but in an empirical survey of principals, Steyn, Wolhuter and
De Waal (2004) found that on average 1. 7% of teachers at historically white schools,
and 15.5% (rising up ro 25.5% in some cases) of teachers at historically black schools
are absent on a given day.
coi
The last his
eluded by I
historiogra
Africans fr.
vision for 1
has been o•
for educati
history of
survey pre
posr-1994
the lodesr;
POST-1994 EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
9.5.9 Administrative inefficiency
Administrative inefficiency and aberrations continue to plague the system. While the
annual per learner public expenditure on education rose from R6300 in the 2005/06
financial year, to R9160 in the 2008/09 financial year, the number of learners who
passed marric decreased from 351 503 in 2006 co 344 794 in 2008 (Steenkamp,
2009:2). While che retail price of a loaf of brad is R7, rhe national school funding
scheme pays as much as R26 for a loaf (Jordan, 2009: 9). During September 2009
more than 60 schools in the Tshwane metro pad had their electricity cur off, because
the provincial Gauceng education department failed to pay their property tax (Rademeyer, 2009d: 2). In August 2009 more than 43 directors of the North-West Province's education department wenr on an extravaganza at a spa, costing the department
R2000 per director (Rademeyer, 2009c: 1).
9.6 LATEST DEVELOPMENTS: OFFICIAL DOUBTS ON
OUTCOMES-BASED EDUCATION
In 2009, the Minister of Basic Education, Ms Angie Motshekga, took urgent steps
to investigate rhe challenges experienced in the implementation of the National Curriculum Statement. In July that year, she appointed a task team char consulted widely
with teachers and other stakeholders. Following rhe release of the report of the team,
the minster emphasised that rhe outcomes-based education curriculum would nor
be abolished, bur that in some ways, the curriculum would revert to the way certain
things had been done in the past (Meyer, 2010: 175). The elaborate and rime intensive
ways of assessing students would go, and the administrative burden would be lightened. There were media reports that interpreted this as the death knell of outcomesbased education.
9. 7 CONCLUSION
The last historiography of South African education, wirh which the book began, concluded by holding out the prospect that the holy grail of South African educational
hiscoriography is rhe writing of a history of South African education with which South
Africans from all sectors of the population could identify; and from which springs a
vision for the future inspiring to all educators (cf Wolhurer, 1996). This assignment
has been overtaken by history- it could easily be argued that the blueprint formulated
for education during the first years after 1994 did exactly that from a reflection of the
hisrory of South African education, putting in place a worthy ideal. If the historical
survey presented in this book had to end on a somewhat negative note, showing how
post-1994 development failed to live up to chat ideal, but still holds up that ideal on
rhe lodestar to follow, then this book would have served a constructive purpose.
9
CHAPTER NINE
Pape,J. 1998. Chang
South Africa and Zin
Review, 42(3): 253-2
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9