Week 1:
Gilgamesh - A legendary Sumerian king who was the hero of an epic collection of mythic
stories
Enkidu - Companion and friend of Gilgamesh. Hairy-bodied and brawny, he was raised by
animals. Even after he joins the civilized world, he retains many of his undomesticated
characteristics. He looks much like Gilgamesh and is almost his physical equal. He aspires
to be Gilgamesh's rival but instead becomes his soulmate.
Cuneiform - A form of writing developed by the Sumerians using a wedge shaped stylus
and clay tablets.
Ishtar - goddess of love and fertility and war
Standard of Ur - Wooden box found in the royal cemetery, the Sumerian king is shown on
both sides, the side of war and the side of peace side. He is shown bigger than everyone
else to signify his status and importance.
Week 2:
Sinuhe - The Story of Sinuhe is a narrative poem that tells the tale of a man named
Sinuhe, who was a high-ranking official in the court of Pharaoh Amenemhat I. The story
begins with Sinuhe overhearing the death of Pharaoh Amenemhat I and fearing for his own
life. He decides to flee Egypt and goes into self-imposed exile. While in exile, he travels to
various lands, including Canaan, and becomes involved in different adventures.
Amun - is an ancient Egyptian deity who played a significant role in Egyptian religion. He
is often associated with the air, the sun, fertility, and kingship and is considered one of the
most important and powerful gods in the Egyptian pantheon. (Figure 8 relationship: Amun/
gods
Pharaohs People)
Battle of Kadesh - was fought near the Orontes River in what is now Syria between
Egyptian Pharaoh Ramses II and the Hittite king Muwatalli II. Although Ramses proclaimed
a great victory for himself, he was lucky to achieve a stalemate after being ambushed by
Hittite chariots. Kadesh was probably the largest chariot battle in history, with over 5,000
chariots engaged. The Egyptian chariots were smaller and faster than those used by the
Hittites, which gave the Egyptians an advantage.
Bronze Age Collapse - All palaces destroyed by invaders, Mycenaean civilization
obliterated, Hittite Empire in Asia Minor collapses, Egypt attacked: survives, but never fully
recovers, all caused by the second Warming Cycle
Narmer Palette Narmer's Conquest: On one side of the palette, Narmer is shown wearing the White Crown
of Upper Egypt and is about to strike down an enemy who is wearing the Red Crown of
Lower Egypt. This action symbolizes his conquest of Lower Egypt.
Serpent and Papyrus: A serpent and a papyrus plant appear on the palette, symbolizing
Lower and Upper Egypt, respectively.
Hieroglyphs: The palette features some of the earliest known hieroglyphic inscriptions in
Egyptian history. These inscriptions are believed to mention Narmer's name and titles.
Animals: There are depictions of various animals, such as lions and captive enemies,
which are associated with the king's power and prowess.
Bull's Head: The king is also shown with a bull's head, which could be a symbol of his
strength and virility.
Samson - God promises Samson’s mom that he’d bear her with a son (Samson) that
would free the Israelites from the Philistines if she abides by his rules(no wine, eat clean,
etc., and most importantly dont cut Samson’s hair, source of his power). He becomes
strong, a bit selfish and unable to find love (ends up dying bc of wife). But does free
Israelites with the last of his power.
Liminal Hero - He is a both/and, neither/nor, betwixt/between character. He is both hero
and villain. And yet, he is neither all the way good nor all the way bad.
Syncretism - the merging or attempted merging of different religions, cultures, or schools
of thought.
Philistines - The Philistines are prominently mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old
Testament),
where they are often depicted as adversaries of the Israelites. The biblical accounts detail
various conflicts and interactions between the Israelites and the Philistines, such as the
famous battle between David and Goliath. The Philistines and the Israelites had both
peaceful and confrontational interactions over the centuries. There were periods of
coexistence, trade, and alliances, but also times of conflict and warfare.
Week 3:
Solomon - David's son who built a temple to God. He was the third king of Israel and is famous for his
wisdom.
Nebuchadnezzar II - A famous king Neo-Babylonian Empire, famous for his military conquests and
extensive building projects, including the Hanging Gardens of Babylon.
Marduk - Marduk was a chief deity in Babylonian religion, revered as the city's patron god and
associated with justice and fertility. Nebuchadnezzar II dedicated structures to Marduk,
emphasizing his importance. Understanding Marduk is key to grasping Babylonian religious beliefs.
Ishtar Gate - The gate was not only a practical entrance but also a symbol of the city's power and the
protection of the gods. The depiction of mythical creatures on the gate symbolized the divine forces
protecting the city. The Ishtar Gate was built during the reign of King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon, who
ruled from 605-562 BCE. The construction was part of a larger project that included the rebuilding and
expansion of Babylon's city walls. The gate was adorned with vibrant and colorful glazed tiles made from
blue and white faience (a type of ceramic material). These tiles were intricately designed with images of
dragons and bulls, as well as depictions of the gods, including Ishtar, for whom the gate was named.
Book of Daniel - The Book of Daniel is a book of the Hebrew scriptures recounting the life of the
prophet Daniel, who lived in the exiled Judaean community in Babylon. The Book of Daniel was
written ca 200-160 BCE, centuries after the exile. It is therefore less useful as a historical account
than it is as a source for how later Jews thought about the Exile and its place in their history.
Week 4:
Nabonidus - unpopular king who ignored Marduk (patron God of Babylon) in favor of Sin (moon god)
Cyrus - A remarkable leader who managed to reunite the Persian Empire in a powerful kingdom.
Under Cyrus, Persia began building an empire larger than any yet seen in the world
Darius - The third king of the Persian Achaemenid Empire. He ruled the empire at its peak.
He organized the empire by dividing it into provinces and placing satraps to govern it. He
organized a new uniform money system, along with making Aramaic the official language
of the empire. He also worked on construction projects throughout the empire.
Proskynesis - Traditional Persian act of prostrating oneself before a person of higher social rank.
To the Greeks, they reserved such submissions for the gods only.
Ahuramazda - the supreme god in ancient Persian religion, representing truth and order.
Sin - The moon god in the city of Harran. He regulated the time, seasons, and the calendar.
Apadana - the throne room or column room (Darius is throne room at the center of the Persepolis
palace)
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Be familiar enough with The Epic of Gilgamesh to address questions about the poem’s major themes, such as the contrast between civilization and the wild, or what it
means to be human.
"The Epic of Gilgamesh" explores the stark contrast between civilization and the wild through the character of Enkidu, who initially embodies the untamed natural world with his messy hair and unclothed state.
This portrayal resonates with Mesopotamia's views on 'barbarians,' individuals living on the fringes of civilization who were often perceived as uncivilized or untamed. Enkidu symbolizes the transition from a
primal, unrefined existence to a more civilized one, reflecting the ancient Mesopotamian perspective that those outside the urban centers lived in a wilder, less cultured manner. The epic delves into the essence of
being human, addressing themes of mortality, immortality, and the mortal fear of death through Gilgamesh's quest for eternal life. It highlights the importance of friendship and companionship in the face of
mortality, with the deep bond between Gilgamesh and Enkidu playing a central role. Additionally, the narrative emphasizes the human pursuit of wisdom, moral growth, and the ethical responsibilities of
leadership, all of which contribute to the definition of what it means to be human.
Be able to discuss how the Egyptians portrayed non-Egyptians in art, pharaonic inscriptions, and short stories.
Ancient Egyptian depictions of non-Egyptians in art, pharaonic inscriptions, and short stories offer various perceptions of outsiders. In "The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor," the interaction between an Egyptian
protagonist and a half-man, half-serpent foreigner highlights themes of hospitality and collaboration. The Narmer Palette commemorates Egyptian unification under King Narmer but also symbolizes the
subjugation of foreign entities, often depicting them in submissive postures. Likewise, inscriptions detailing Thutmose III's campaigns in Canaan and Ramses II's accounts of the Battle of Kadesh emphasize
Egyptian military and political dominance over non-Egyptian regions and the vanquishing of foreign adversaries. These sources showcase both positive interactions and portrayals of non-Egyptians and a
prevailing theme of Egyptian power and control over neighboring cultures, reflecting the complex relationship between Egypt and outsiders in the ancient world.
Be able to discuss how Hebrew Scriptures compare in their presentation of outsiders and understanding of civilization to our sources from other Near Eastern cultures.
In the Hebrew Scriptures, the Philistines, notably in the story of Samson and his wife, are frequently portrayed as adversaries, accentuating religious and cultural conflicts. Samson's interactions with his Philistine
wife and battles with the Philistines exemplify this tension. The Israelites' civilization is closely tied to their faith and moral obligations, often seen as threatened by the Philistines' paganism.
In the Epic of Gilgamesh from Mesopotamia, more nuanced relationships with outsiders are evident, emphasizing themes of friendship, as seen in Gilgamesh's bond with Enkidu and the pursuit of wisdom. These
aspects provide a multifaceted view of civilization beyond mere conflict with outsiders.
"The Story of the Shipwrecked Sailor" offers a benevolent perspective on interactions with outsiders. It focuses on the values of mercy and wisdom, reflecting a different part of Egyptian civilization. Other
Egyptian texts and artifacts, such as the Narmer Palette, depict military conquests and diplomatic scenes, showcasing the complexity of Egyptian interactions with outsiders and their broader perspective on
civilization. These comparisons highlight the distinctive focus on religious identity and conflicts in the Hebrew Scriptures, whereas other cultures often present a more complex view of relationships with outsiders
and civilization.
Be able to relate the reign of Solomon to that of other Near Eastern monarchs and be able to explain the role of outsiders in our sources on his reign.
Solomon's reign, marked by his wisdom and the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem, resembles Ramses II. Both monarchs ruled over powerful kingdoms and undertook
monumental building projects, such as the First Temple and various Jerusalem structures in Solomon's case, and the grand buildings and temples of Ramses II. They shared a commitment
to expanding their respective empires. Solomon's wisdom, his famous judgment to settle disputes, and Ramses II's signing of the first recorded peace treaty with the Hittites after the Battle
of Kadesh reflect their dedication to maintaining internal order and stability. In Solomon's reign, outsiders played a vital role, most notably in foreign collaborations, highlighting the
significance of international relations in achieving ambitious construction projects. This parallels the historical interactions between foreign entities and Ramses II in his reign and military
campaigns, illustrating the importance of alliances and diplomatic efforts in the ancient Near Eastern context.
Compare Nebuchadnezzar II to other Near Eastern monarchs, especially in his strategies for ruling non-Babylonians and the use of outsiders in his self-presentation.
Nebuchadnezzar II's rule shares a significant resemblance to Ramses II in several aspects. Both rulers governed large and diverse empires, and they recognized the value of diplomacy
and alliances in maintaining order. Much like Ramses II, Nebuchadnezzar II emphasized the importance of self-presentation through grand building projects, military campaigns, and
inscriptions of their accomplishments, symbolizing their dominion over a wide range of peoples and territories. Both monarchs sought to secure their legacies as powerful and successful
rulers.
In contrast, Nebuchadnezzar II differs significantly from Gilgamesh, the legendary Sumerian hero-king. While Nebuchadnezzar II ruled with a more structured and bureaucratic approach,
focusing on governance and territorial expansion, Gilgamesh's legacy revolves around his legendary adventures and heroic feats. Gilgamesh's persona is enshrouded in myth, with tales
of challenging natural forces and embarking on quests, while Nebuchadnezzar II's reign is characterized by more conventional and administratively focused rule. The two rulers belong to
different eras, and their approach to governance and self-presentation reflect the evolution of political leadership over time.
Be able to discuss the ways in which defeat by barbarians is explained in Near Eastern sources, especially the Hebrew Scriptures.
Defeats by "barbarians" in Near Eastern sources, especially the Hebrew Scriptures, are explained differently. In passages like 2 Kings 20:12-21:18 and 24:1-25:17, the Hebrew Scriptures
attribute defeat and the subsequent Babylonian exile to divine punishment, citing the Israelites' disobedience to God's laws and their worship of foreign deities as violating the covenant.
This theological explanation links defeat to moral crimes, framing the exile as a consequence meant to teach the Israelites a lesson in faithfulness. Psalms 137 and 79 express the deep
sorrow and lament of the Israelites, explaining defeat through the lens of collective suffering and injustice while pleading for God's mercy and the eventual restoration of their homeland.
The Book of Daniel, particularly in chapters 1 and 3, explores defeat within the context of a trial of faith, with captivity challenging the Israelites' religious principles. The Hebrew Scriptures
offer various explanations that encompass divine punishment, collective grief, resilience, and loyalty in the face of adversity, shedding light on the theological and emotional dimensions of
these historical events in Israelite history.
Use Babylonian and Persian sources in discussions about how defeat by barbarians is explained and in discussions about the strategies Near Eastern rulers used to control outsiders.
In the context of the Babylonian perspective, the Sippar Cylinder of Nabonidus and The Verse Account of Nabonidus illuminate the events leading to the fall of Babylon
to the Persian king Cyrus. These texts suggest that Nabonidus' prolonged absence from Babylon during his military campaign created a power vacuum and weakened
the city's defenses, rendering it more susceptible to conquest. The Verse Account of Nabonidus also mentions Nabonidus' controversial neglect of the city's patron
god, Marduk, in favor of the moon god Sin, which may have been seen as a contributing factor to Babylon's vulnerability. The Babylonian Chronicle further confirms this
narrative by providing a chronological account of the fall of Babylon to the Persian forces under Cyrus. It highlights the chaos and disarray that engulfed the city in the
face of the Persian invasion. In sum, these Babylonian sources help clarify the circumstances and weaknesses that contributed to Babylon's defeat by "barbarians."
Conversely, the Persian sources, particularly The Cyrus Cylinder and the Behistun Inscription, provide a different perspective. They emphasize Cyrus' conciliation
strategies and respect for the customs and religious practices of the conquered peoples. Cyrus is portrayed as a liberator who allowed exiled populations, like the Jews,
as mentioned in Ezra 1:1-8, to return to their homelands and rebuild their temples. These sources highlight the Persian approach of tolerance and inclusion, contrasting
with the Babylonian defeat, which may have been precipitated by overextension and less inclusive policies. Thus, while Babylonian sources reflect vulnerability and
defeat, Persian sources exemplify a strategy of integrating and respecting conquered peoples, which contributed to the stability and success of the Persian Empire.
Be able to discuss how outsiders were portrayed in Near Eastern royal imagery, and provide possible explanations for why they were displayed in those fashions.
In Near Eastern royal imagery, outsiders were often portrayed in specific fashions that conveyed the ruler's power, dominance, and the dynamics of their empire.
Several sources, including The Sippar Cylinder of Nabonidus, The Cyrus Cylinder, the Behistun Inscription, and inscriptions from the Persepolis Palace, provide insights
into this portrayal of outsiders.
Outsiders were frequently depicted in submissive or inferior positions, signifying the ruler's control over different subject populations. In the context of the Persian
Empire, known for its vast diversity, these depictions conveyed the idea of a benevolent ruler who allowed conquered peoples to coexist under Persian rule. This
portrayal served both propaganda purposes and practical ones. By showcasing the unity and compliance of diverse subjects, it reinforced the idea of a well-ordered
and harmonious empire under the Persian king. It also provided a visual narrative of submission, emphasizing the power and authority of the ruler. These depictions of
outsiders were meant to convey a message of imperial strength and the ruler's capacity to control and integrate diverse populations into a unified and stable empire.