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SECTION EIGHT:
SOCIAL STUDIES
Part Three
WORLD HISTORY
WORLD HISTORY
The importance of World History, apart from the obvious documentation of all significant events and ages
that have occurred since the earliest known civilizations is that upon its reflection, one gains a perspective
of how the modern world came to be shaped in all aspects of social life, political boundaries, religious
beliefs and customs, economic policies and cultural heritage.
Our study begins with the Ancient Civilizations that date back 6000 years ago to Egypt. However, mention
must be made of the time before 4000 BC, which we refer to as pre-historic.
The estimated birth of our planet is between 2 and 4 billion years ago, although evidence of man’s first
appearance is found in an era known as the Stone Age. This period is divided into three segments. From
150,000 years ago until 8,000 BC is referred to as the Old Stone Age, from 8,000 BC to 5,000 BC is known
as the Middle Stone Age, and the period between 5,000 BC and 3,000 BC is known as the New Stone Age.
It is here that we will begin our study of World History. Also, please note that most of the world’s calendars
use the birth of Jesus Christ to classify the period of time before and after his birth. Born 2,000 years ago,
all the years preceding the birth of Christ have the abbreviation BC after the year. Conversely, all the years
dating after his birth, bear the abbreviation AD.
It is generally agreed that many of the ancient civilizations developed in the area known as the Middle East;
where Africa, Europe and Asia meet and converge. Though this region has been attributed with being the
cradle of civilization, it is clear to us now, with ongoing discoveries that similar “cradles” existed in other
regions of the world also.
Ancient Egypt
For the purposes of our study, we will begin with Ancient Egypt. The Egyptians were the first people known
to make their country strong and united. Evidence shows that the Egyptian civilization dates as far back as
4,000 BC, however, the first organized form of government in Egypt began around 3,400 BC. One of the
most important of contributions the Ancient Egyptians gave to the world was the earliest form of writing.
Known as hieroglyphics, this form of “picture writing” was used to record dates and events and convey
information much as any modern language does today.
Mesopotamia
Also around 4,000 BC, in an area not far from Egypt, then known as Ancient Mesopotamia, people settled
around a fertile valley between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The Middle-eastern countries of Kuwait and
parts of Iran, Iraq, Syria and Turkey today occupy ancient Mesopotamia. The people were known as
Sumerians, and they lived in independent cities within that region which also included the ancient kingdom
of Babylonia (modern day Iraq). However, through lack of uniting as a nation, the cities would often war
with each other and thus became susceptible to conquest from outside.
Babylon, the major city of the region known as Babylonia, was a highly prosperous trade and learning
center. The Babylonians invented what is perhaps the oldest form of Mathematics in order to keep accounts
of their sales record, profits and losses.
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The Phoenicians
Along the small eastern coastal section of the Mediterranean Sea where Israel, Lebanon, Jordan and part
of Syria now stand, was the ancient land of Phoenicia. Most notable of the Phoenicians’ contributions was
the ability to build ships. As seafaring merchants, they were able to establish trade throughout the
Mediterranean region and spread the knowledge from Egypt and Babylon to the surrounding areas.
Of these, the major area to which they brought trade and knowledge was Greece. The Phoenicians also
modified existing alphabets, the hieroglyphics of Egypt and a complex alphabet devised by the Babylonians
that consisted of more than 300 characters. The Phoenician alphabet consisted of just 22 characters, all
consonants, and later, the Romans added the vowels. Eventually the alphabet evolved to the one we use
today.
The Hebrews
Another ancient, but small civilization that has contributed importantly to world history is that of the
Hebrews. These were nomadic tribes who wandered the deserts of the Mediterranean region where Israel
(then Palestine), Jordan and part of Syria now stand. The Hebrews presented to the world, the idea of
monotheism, (the belief and worship of a single God). All other nations at that time believed in several gods
and deities (God-like personalities).
Moses, who lived around 1,200 BC, through a vision of God, was compelled to lead his people, most of
whom were enslaved by the Egyptians, to a promised land. This land came to be known as Palestine,
located between Egypt to the southwest and Mesopotamia to the northeast. To its west was the coast of
the Mediterranean Sea. Today this land is mostly occupied by Israel and part of Syria.
The Persian Empire
From between 1,000 BC and 500 BC, the Persian Empire flourished, expanding to include almost the entire
civilized world of the time. Its homeland is known today as Iran and during the reign of its empire, its
territory stretched from the Mediterranean region all the way to India.
The Persian Empire was divided into provinces, all under the rule of the King of Persia, who permitted each
province to retain their customs and even select their own provincial leaders. As a consequence, the people
of the nations within the Persian Empire were happy until 500 years later with the rise of the Roman
Empire. The Persian government was considered the finest in the ancient world.
Ancient Greece
Credited with the birth of Western civilization and forming the basis of modern society, is the land of
Greece, which was strategically located at the center of the trading routes between the Middle-east, Asia,
Africa and Western Europe. From the ancient Greeks have come the many principles and methods used
today in governing society, copper plumbing, heating and cooling systems for homes; astronomy, the
physical sciences, medicine and philosophy.
Among the countless contributions of their culture are some of the most well known of ancient legends;
individuals whose work continues as a study pursued by modern day scholars. These were Socrates, Plato,
Aristotle, Hypocrites, Archimedes, Homer and many others.
The Greeks believed in many gods and that each played a role in different aspects of life, all residing atop
Mount Olympus; the highest peak in Greece. Due to the Greeks openness to try new things, many ideas,
then considered radical, took form and consequently spawned entire sciences and disciplines. Some of
these include arithmetic, geometry, zoology and trigonometry. The Greeks also built independent “citystates”, which were cities governed by completely different rules and systems from each other and often
found themselves in conflicts with each other. This left them vulnerable to conquest from the outside.
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Macedonia
To the north of Greece lived the Macedonians. Macedonia was located where parts of Albania, Yugoslavia
and Bulgaria now stand. The Macedonians were distant relatives of the Greeks, but with a less advanced
culture, yet a more unified nation. Philip II was heir to the Macedonian throne and while he lived his youth
as a hostage in Greece, he learned as much as he could about Greek culture. He saw the division between
their city-states and, realizing their weakness, recognized an opportunity.
He sought to conquer and unite the city-states of Greece and successfully did so when he came to power
in 338 BC. He then set his sights on Persia; however, his assassination in 336 BC brought an end to his
ambitions. His twenty-one year old son, who had a brilliant mind as well as military genius succeeded Philip,
and came to be known as Alexander the Great.
Alexander had been tutored by one of the greatest minds in Greece; Aristotle, who taught him to appreciate
Greek culture. In 334 BC, Alexander, vowing to fulfill his father’s ambitions, defeated Persia and continued
his conquests further eastwards to what are now Afghanistan and northern India, resulting in combining
Eastern and Western worlds under one king. As a consequence, the principles and doctrines of Greek
civilization now reached the Eastern world and soon cultures combined to include the best of both worlds.
THE ROMAN EMPIRE
Enduring more than 800 years, the Roman Empire has made historically significant contributions to the
world, both through its victories and defeats. Around 1,500 BC, when the Greeks were building their citystates, primitive tribes in Italy were setting up small farm communities throughout the Italian peninsula.
Located midway on the western side of the peninsula and on the bank of the River Tiber lays the city of
Rome, surrounded by seven hills and perched on higher ground which renders a distinct vantage point for
defense. One of the early tribes, known as the Latins, settled in the area having recognized its clear
advantages.
Rome’s Conquest of Italy
Around 800 BC, a tribe known as the Etruscans, from the northern region of Italy now known as Tuscany,
defeated the early Romans and occupied the area for some time. However, having to continuously fend off
invasions by the Greeks to the north, the Etruscans became distracted and afforded the opportunity to the
Romans to regroup and gain strength from the knowledge of weapon design and military strategy they had
learned from the Etruscans.
By 500 BC, the Romans were able to drive out their former masters and form a Republic. Through their
relentless motivation and sheer determination, the Roman army grew to be the fiercest fighting force in the
region and soon conquered the entire Italian peninsula.
Early Roman Government
Legend records the birth of Rome in the year 753 BC. The gradual takeover of the Italian peninsula lasted
from 450 BC to 270 BC. Now that Rome was a Republic, this form of government placed officials selected
by the hierarchy to serve as governors of the different regions of the slowly expanding empire. This meant
that although Rome was a republic, it was not a democracy; the regional governors were not elected by
their constituents. Over a long period of time, however, democracy was gradually introduced into the
system of government.
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Like the Greeks before them, the Romans were also challenged by outside forces. During the expansion of
the empire through the Italian peninsula, Rome was engaged in conflict with Gaul to the north (now France
and part of Germany), the Etruscans in the center and the Greeks to the south. Rome was victorious in its
battles with the outside foes and had vanquished its enemies within the peninsula, and had now conquered
Italy. Growing increasingly more powerful, Rome now began to seek domination over the Mediterranean
region.
The Punic Wars
From 264 BC to 146 BC, Rome and Carthage fought three wars known as the “Punic Wars”. Carthage was
a city founded on the North African coast of the Mediterranean by the Phoenicians, who controlled the
seas. Rome envied Carthage for its prosperity gained through trade and dominion over the Mediterranean.
In one of the wars, Hannibal, a general of Carthage, marched over the Alpine mountain range, north of Italy
and managed to invade northern Italy through a brilliant offensive strategy. His victory was short lived
however, and the Romans defeated him. At the end of the hard-fought wars, Rome had won.
Further Expansion of the Roman Empire
During a break in the Punic Wars, Rome had also engaged the Macedonians in war, and as a result, the
way was opened for the conquest of the Middle East. With the victory over Carthage, the Roman Empire
now stretched across most of the North African coast of the Mediterranean, including Egypt; what are now
Turkey, Syria, Iraq, Palestine (Israel), Jordan as well as Macedonia; (now the Balkans). In time, Roman
influence extended as far as Gaul, (France and Germany), Spain, and all of central Europe. In its heyday,
around 117 AD, the Roman Empire also included much of Eastern Europe and Mesopotamia as well.
Julius Caesar, Augustus Caesar, Mark Antony and Cleopatra of Egypt
Throughout the years of the Roman Empire’s expansion, leaders who won significant battles to gain
additional territories were Julius Caesar (110 BC - 44 BC), and Octavius his nephew who was 19 years old
when he succeeded Julius to become emperor upon the assassination of Julius Caesar in Greece.
Octavius then bore the title of Augustus Caesar, (63 BC - AD 14), sharing the power of the Roman Empire
with his one-time rival Mark Antony.
Having conquered Egypt, Julius Caesar became enamored by Cleopatra, the beautiful daughter of Egypt’s
ruler. Upon the ruler’s death, Julius Caesar allowed Egypt to be ruled jointly by Cleopatra and her younger
brother, Ptolemy XIII.
Caesar, because of his adoration of Cleopatra went so far as to seek divorce from his Roman wife in order
to marry Cleopatra. This is one of the reasons that his fellow Romans plotted his assassination. With
Octavius as successor, leadership fell upon himself and two others, Lepidus and Mark Antony. It was
Antony’s fate, like Caesar before him, to fall hopelessly in love with the Queen of Egypt.
Mark Antony became ruler of Rome’s Eastern Empire, of which Egypt was part. Through Cleopatra’s
cunning, Egypt remained an independent country. She aided Mark Antony in the conquest of additional
lands such as Phoenicia, northern Judea and Syria in return for which, Antony declared Cleopatra to be
Queen of all queens and appointed her children rulers of the conquered lands.
In the Roman Senate, Octavius denounced Antony for giving away Roman conquests and declared war on
Cleopatra. Antony committed suicide in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so. Upon her
learning of her beloved Antony’s death, Cleopatra then also committed suicide by allowing herself to be
bitten by a poisonous snake called an asp.
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Roman Law as a Model for World Law
Considered as the greatest gift of the Roman Empire to the world, Roman law was continuously studied,
reviewed for its effectiveness and accordingly, revised to suit the needs of its society. Romans tried to build
into law the lasting principles of fairness and justice. Roman laws provided for new and better legal
methods. Foreign people in the provinces ruled by Rome were allowed to govern themselves.
During the long lasting reign of the Roman Empire, the Romans experimented with many systems of
government from dictatorships and rule by an Emperor to Republicanism and Democratic Republicanism.
All lessons learned have been passed on to the world.
One of the greatest contributions of Rome to legal thought is the idea that a person is presumed innocent
until proven guilty. The Romans are also most noted for all the successes with which they ruled their empire
and the length of time the empire lasted. The two hundred years of peace, which Rome achieved, has yet
to be achieved in modern times.
Rome’s Practical Gifts to the World
A major difference in the contributions made by the Greeks and the Romans is that those of the Greeks
were chiefly artistic, while those of Rome were chiefly practical. Continuously seeking to make life more
comfortable, the Romans produced paved roads, sewers and aqueducts to provide their cities with fresh
water. They also built hospitals paid for by taxes, and their art of building still inspires architecture today.
THE
ROMAN
EMPIRE
(AD 117)
The Rise of Christianity and the Fall of the Roman Empire
As Roman government declined, Christianity rose. It was during the reign of Augustus Caesar that Jesus
was born in Bethlehem in the Roman province of Judea. The teachings of Jesus, who was named Christ
(savior) by his followers, stated that all people were equal in the eyes of the One God who created all life.
His promise of a better life after death gave security to the people at a time when it was most needed.
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The Roman government ordinarily tolerated many religions, but the teachings of Jesus greatly disturbed
them. Rome had grown accustomed to the expectation from its subjects that in addition to their own
religious beliefs, they would also worship the Emperor of Rome.
Christians and Jews refused to do so because they felt that such a practice was idol worship. As a result,
the Romans persecuted Jews and Christians. Despite the persecution, however, the number of Christians
grew steadily, and finally in the year AD 313, the Roman Emperor Constantine issued a command which
said that the Christian religion would be tolerated.
It is generally agreed that the actual date of the fall of the Roman Empire was AD 476 when invaders
defeated the last Roman Emperor. However; just as “Rome was not built in a day”; neither did it fall in a
day. In fact, the seeds of its destruction may have taken root as early as the first century BC when the army
was involved in a civil war, and the real decline began in the second century AD, when men of questionable
loyalty filled the ranks of the Roman army.
An economic factor that contributed to the fall of Rome was the widening gap between the rich and the
poor. As one emperor died leaving the next in line for succession, generals in the army gained control of
the state and many threatened to overthrow the leadership. Civil unrest and the threat of riots became
imminent every time an emperor died. For a while, Rome had a succession of weak emperors, which also
contributed to the eventual decline of government.
An important reason that Rome fell was because discontent grew due to Rome’s failure to extend the
privileges of full citizenship to people in the provinces and to give the people a voice in government. When
it became evident that the power of Rome was declining, the provinces tried to take advantage of the
situation and establish independent nations of their own.
INDIA AND SOUTHEAST ASIA
India is often referred to as a subcontinent because its land mass is so huge, its size can be compared with
that of a small continent. Evidence shows that India had a rich and advanced civilization as early as 2,900
BC. Across the middle of the Indian subcontinent, flanked on either side by the Indus and Ganges rivers,
lay a very broad fertile land fed by the rivers. This afforded the population the ability to cultivate food.
The people of this land were seafarers, braving long journey across the Arabian Sea, to the west, to trade
with ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia; and across the Bay of Bengal, to the east, to trade with Ceylon, (now
Sri Lanka) and South-East Asia.
Today, the countries that make up South Asia are India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal and Sri
Lanka. Southeast Asia is made up of Thailand, Burma, (now Myanmar), North and South Vietnam, Laos,
Cambodia, Malaysia, the Philippines, and Indonesia. The Far East is made up of China, Japan and Korea.
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Europeans did not make contact with this part of the world until the 15 century AD, and when they did,
historians found evidence of an advanced civilization that existed thousands of years before. This
civilization lived in cities with a drainage (sewer) system, brick made apartment houses with bathroom and
toilets, evidence of business and manufacturing and coins indicating an established monetary system.
They also knew how to grow cotton and weave it into cloth. Evidence also revealed the manufacture of
weaponry made from metals such as copper and ornaments made from gold and silver. Bronze carvings
were also found as well as evidence that the potter’s wheel was known and used. Not until thousands of
years later would Europeans enjoy such a level of civilization.
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India’s Ancient Civilizations and the Religion of Hinduism
What is known of the civilizations that lived in India is that up until the year 2,000 BC a people called the
Dravidians lived in northern India. They were dark skinned with black hair. These were the ancestors of the
majority of India’s population today. How they came to be in this area and why they were given this name
remains one of the many mysteries of India.
The Dravidians were conquered by the Indo-Aryans, whose origins are also unknown; however, it is
believed that they were relatives of the Persians. The Indo-Aryans developed the main religion of India
called Hinduism with rites and rituals far different from those of other civilizations present at the time. For
example, instead of burying their dead, Hindus practiced cremation, which involved burning the corpse.
Much of this religion was handed down by word of mouth; however, the oldest document of the religion
dates back to the period between 1,500 - 1,000 BC and is called the Vedas. The principal belief of Hindus
is that the soul is eternal and that each soul occupied a living form which, upon death would re-incarnate
into successive life forms - human or otherwise; until by living a pure and holy life, the soul would relinquish
the cycle of birth and re-birth and achieve union with God. Today, Hinduism is a religion followed by almost
500 million people. Through the period of its growth, the Hindu faith was not without competition, as will be
discussed later.
Northern India is Conquered
During the period from 1,500 - 1,000 BC, India was made up of several small and separate kingdoms, and
these divisions made India weak through the lack of unity, and therefore susceptible to invasion. About 510
BC, Darius I of Persia successfully conquered Northern India; and to this day, Persian influence can be
seen prevalent in the region.
Alexander the Great also conquered Northern India in 362 BC, and this is regarded as the first exact date in
Indian history. Alexander’s occupation of India was brief. When he died, his troops left the conquered
region, but, his conquest had lasting effects including the introduction of the East to the West. Greek art
and culture soon influenced those in India and Alexander’s conquest taught India that, without unity, the
region would be subject to frequent invasions.
The Coming of the Buddha
As mentioned earlier, the Hindu faith was not without competition. Indeed born in the Northern Indian region
was a man who would exert an influence so strong through his spiritual beliefs that the religion formed after
his death is one of the world’s major religions today.
About the year 563 BC, a prince was born in the foothills of the Himalayas; the tallest mountain range in the
world bordering Northern India. His name was Guatama. His father, who was determined that his son would
never know sorrow, surrounded him in luxury expecting his son would never want for anything.
As the boy grew older, he learned of all the suffering, poverty and evils of the world surrounding his
splendorous palace and, forsaking all his comforts and the security of his wealth, Guatama left his palace to
learn about life in the world outside. He spent seven years living alone in the forest, subjecting himself to
the torment and suffering of the world seeking the answers to life’s problems.
Seven years later, having found the answers, he returned to civilization, leaving the forest for the cities to
spread his knowledge. He taught that through leading an unselfish life and by engaging in right thought,
right speech and right action, one could attain the state of Nirvana, the painless and ideal existence - a
release from the cycle of re-incarnation.
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To his followers, he was the Buddha, meaning Enlightened One. Buddhism began in India but died out
around AD 200. Meanwhile, however, the religion had spread across the countries of the Far East, where it
took solid root and where today, it is the main religion of the Far East.
India’s Great Rulers
A young nobleman of India named Chandragupta Maurya, (322-298 BC), managed, during his brief life, to
conquer the small divided kingdoms that existed in India and united the region into one strong nation.
Chandragupta won fame as a soldier, but his son, Asoka (273-232 BC), won even more fame as a man of
peace. As a monarch, Asoka was honored as having established and ruled the greatest Kingdom that India
had yet seen.
Asoka soon converted to Buddhism and was responsible for the growth of that faith, and though he built a
Buddhist nation, Asoka tolerated all other religions. The kings who succeeded Asoka upon his death were
not able men and so, for 500 years, India was either under threat of invasion, or being invaded by outside
neighboring forces.
The Muslim Conquest of India
Beginning in the eleventh century AD, the Muslims, who were followers of Mohammed; born in Arabia, had
begun their crusades of conquering nearby lands and spreading their religion of Islam by forced
conversion, they succeeded in extending their influence throughout the Middle-East. They fought their way
to the gates of India. Through a gradual and systematic purging of the nation, through sheer force and
brutality lasting hundreds of years, the Muslims became the masters of India. History records the conquest
of India by the Muslims as one of cruelest stories, where rampant genocide of Hindus assured the Muslims
the power to rule India.
By 1398, the Muslim rule in India had spent itself and was ready to fall. A Mongol warrior named Tamerlane
from Asiatic Russia, the area referred to as Mongolia, took advantage of the weakening power of the
Muslim rule in India. Armed with his league of expert horsemen, Tamerlane soon conquered neighboring
provinces and nations such as Persia (Iran) and Afghanistan. Though he was a Muslim himself, he
organized an invasion into Delhi, the Muslim capital of India.
Almost a hundred years later, the real conqueror of India, a descendant of Tamerlane named Babur,
became the founder of a great and noble line of Mogul, or Mongol kings. His rise to power began when he
first became the king of a small province within Mongolia, and gradually extended his empire through
successful invasions of neighboring provinces and nations such as Iran (Persia) and Afghanistan, then on
to northern India.
In time, all of India came under the rule of Babur. Upon his death, his first son succeeded him, though only
to rule a short reign, and then his second son succeeded to the throne and became one of the greatest
monarchs in world history. His name was Akbar. Also recorded as one of history’s greatest emperors,
Akbar enlarged the existing empire and ruled it well.
Akbar formed an efficient civil service and spent much of his time as a judge, listening to the problems of
his subjects and trying always to come to fair and just decisions. He was truly loved by his people, for unlike
his Muslim predecessors; he tolerated all religions and gave full freedom to the Hindus, abolishing the
unfair heavy taxes that had been forced upon them by previous Muslim rulers.
The rulers who followed Akbar were weak emperors who thought more of pleasures than of work. One of
these, Shah Jahan, a grandson of Akbar’s ordered the construction of the Taj Mahal, considered one of the
wonders of the world for its sheer magnificent beauty. The purpose of this building was to function as a
tomb for a wife he dearly loved.
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Soon after, the great empire that Akbar had built and ruled so well reached its glorious heights and then
fell. His own son, who re-introduced all the cruelty that Muslims inflicted upon Hindus that Akbar had spent
so long and worked so hard to dismantle, forced Shah Jahan from his throne.
In time, India once again became a nation of many small and divided kingdoms, and along with these
changes came the expected weakness of a nation divided. As India grew weak, European influence grew
stronger and had by now, reached the subcontinent. This part of history will be told in a later section.
India’s Contribution to Civilization
Among the many gifts of India to the world, science, mathematics and literature are among the most prized.
India had built hospitals and schools far in advance of other civilizations of the time. The Arabic numbers,
which is the basis of mathematics used worldwide, actually originated in India.
It was discovered that this system of math was in use well before 265 BC, thousands of years before it
appeared in the Muslim world focused in Arabia. The western civilization came by it through their contact
with the Middle East, geographically located not far from Europe, but the Arabians had obtained it from their
neighbors to the east, in the subcontinent of India.
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In chemistry, Indians of the early periods were far ahead of the Europeans of the 16 and 17 centuries.
They were first to invent soap and shampoo and even manufactured steel, which were discovered in use by
the Indians when Alexander the Great invaded the northern region of India in 362 BC.
In medicine, Indian doctors were describing the human circulatory system more than a hundred years
before the famed English scientist; Harvey established the theory of blood circulation through his
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documentation in the 17 century and was credited with its discovery.
HISTORY OF THE FAR EAST: CHINA, JAPAN AND KOREA
China
The geographical location and the actual size of the Chinese mainland have made it naturally hard to
conquer. As a result, its population has remained largely isolated during the history of this nation’s
development. Surrounded by high mountainous regions to the south and west and neighbored by the sea to
its east, the geography of this area has afforded the nation of China protection from invaders.
The Dynasty – Ruling Family of China
For thousands of years, the way of rule in this country was by a sovereign family, and the important
historical events of the nation were marked not by the lifetime of an individual ruler, but by the lifetimes of
the entire ruling family. The family of rulers is known as the Dynasty, and China’s first dynasty; Hsia,
existed between 2,000 BC and 1,500 BC. However, little is known about the Hsia Dynasty, other than their
overthrow in 1,500 BC.
Shang Dynasty
Using clay and the potter’s wheel, the Chinese created many beautiful works of art and sculpture during the
Shang Dynasty (1570-1045 BC). They also created weapons made from bronze. The characters used in
Chinese writing were developed during this time. Unfortunately, the Shang was vicious rulers who amused
themselves with cruel games and torture. It should be noted that early on in the development of Chinese
civilization, the majority of the population lived along China’s eastern coast bordering the Pacific Ocean and
the population gradually grew westwards.
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The Chou Dynasty and the Origins of the Feudal System
In the far western area of China in the province called Chou, a brave warrior named Duke Fa declared war
on the Shang Dynasty, seeking to put an end to its tyrannical rule. History records this warrior king as
Wang Wu, and he succeeded in overthrowing the Shang Dynasty and became the first king of the Chou
Dynasty (1045-256 BC).
Though they were strong conquerors, the Chou were weak rulers; for and during their reign, the feudal
system began. The origins of this system stemmed from the power bestowed upon their friends by the
Chou, making them nobles with ownership of large lands. In exchange for this favor, the nobles were to
commit their armies to the king at anytime that the need arose. In time, this period was marked by frequent
wars between the nobles, giving rise to feuds within the kingdom.
The Birth of China as One Nation
Gradually, the nobles became more powerful than the king, particularly the smaller kingdoms on the Chou
borders to the west of the country. One of these, the Ch’in fought over a quarter of a century attempting to
unite the small kingdoms into one. The leader of this kingdom, Shih Huang Ti, succeeded in his task of
uniting the small kingdoms, and from the now large kingdom of Ch’in, China was born and a new dynasty
began its reign in 221 BC.
China’s Legendary Philosophers
During the Chou dynasty, the teachings of the philosopher Lao Tze, (604 BC – 517 BC), were very popular.
Lao Tze was called the “Old Teacher”. He preached that to find true happiness, one must follow the right
way or Tao. Taoism has become a spiritual discipline that is followed to this day and its basic premise is
that the Way is the natural order of things, over which people had no control. Therefore, in order to be
happy, people had to allow themselves to be in harmony with the natural order.
The way to align themselves to the natural order of things, or Tao, required people to accept life as it
comes by becoming humble in spirit. This philosophy promoted inaction, because according to Lao Tze,
any effort made to change the natural order would only upset the Tao and cause unhappiness. His
teachings, which promoted a passive approach to life, made people less willing to improve their lives or to
work for human betterment.
The next great mind was far more practical. Confucius (551 BC – 479 BC) was an adviser to kings. During
periods when his advice was not needed, he sought work but often experienced intervals when he was
unemployed. This however, allowed him the time needed to think through what he preached and to ponder
the human situation.
He spent his life trying to find an ideal society in which every person knew his or her place. He believed that
it was the responsibility of the ruling class to set a good example for the subjects they ruled and further,
believing that since all people are basically good, a perfect society was possible.
Confucius encouraged what he believed to be correct behavior for all occasions and this soon came to be
adopted as the basic etiquette observed in formal ceremonies, which were part of Chinese life. His
influence led to the worship of ancestors, which became part of China’s religion.
Toward the end of life, Confucius’ words were finally written down. All his life, he had taught his ways by
traveling and speaking to people. Now that his words were documented in nine books called Confucian
Classics, they were widely read and strengthened family ties, for which China is noted.
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His books contain rules of conduct for the nation and its leaders. In time, persons wishing to enter
government service were forced to memorize the sayings of Confucius to pass the required tests. The
teachings and ideas of Confucius spread to other countries of the Far East where their influence remains to
this day.
Mencius, (221 BC - 207 BC) followed in the footsteps of Confucius, spending years trying to find a ruler
wise enough to use his services. He questioned what could be done when “rulers were not as good as
Confucius expected them to be”, and proposed the answer that in such an event, the people had a right to
rebel.
What was unusual for this time period was Mencius’ belief that people were very important. Though he
believed in monarchy, he insisted that monarchs be effective rulers. Mencius believed that people were the
real beginning of all political power and he hoped that the future would be better than the period in which he
lived.
China Unites and Develops a Great Civilization
During 221 – 207 BC, Shih Huang Ti (259-210 BC), who was determined to forge a nation and rule as a
strong king, ruled China. To accomplish this was going to prove difficult in light of the teachings of
Confucius and Lao Tze, which encouraged passive acceptance of the present and the future. The
teachings of Confucius stood in the way of Shih Huang Ti’s plans to make active changes to prepare for the
future. He ordered the books of Confucius and other philosophers burned in an attempt to destroy the ideas
contained within them.
He then proceeded to change the structure of how the nation was ruled by requiring all the kings, dukes
and nobles to live in the capitol, where he resided, so he could keep an eye on them. Realizing he could not
win over the loyalty of all the people by a force of arms, he set out to make many improvements in their way
of life. He also simplified the Chinese written language, built canals to better irrigate the land for farming,
built roads and encouraged the study of science.
Shih Huang Ti recognized the need to protect his country from invaders so he ordered the construction of
the Great Wall of China. At the huge expense of time and forced labor, requiring housing and feeding the
workers; the wall, measuring about 1,500 miles was eventually completed. Later, successive emperors
added to and strengthened the wall. To this day, many large portions of it still stand.
Shih Huang Ti did much for China, his greatest contribution being the unification of the nation. No other
nation in the world can boast of a tradition of unity that had lasted for more than 2,000 years. Upon his
death, however, very few people mourned as many lives were lost during his strict rule and people were
taxed very heavily to pay for the construction of the wall. His son, who succeeded him was murdered only
five years after coming to power, and a new dynasty began that was destined to leave an even greater
mark on the history of China.
The Han Dynasty
The Han Dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD) assumed power after a revolt that took place shortly after the death of
Shih Huang Ti. While the Roman Empire was in its glory in the west, the Han was in its glory in the east,
and like the Roman Empire’s influence on its people, the Han left a lasting influence upon the land and
people of China.
The first emperor of this dynasty was Liu Pang. In him, people found a leader who drew to himself poor
people with great ability. Since he was born in the province of Han, the dynasty came to be called Han. The
Han rulers became powerful by recognizing the need to educate those followers that were loyal to them.
They also encouraged a return to the teachings of Confucius.
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Tradition and respect for authority and ceremony played a central role in the affairs of the state. In order to
strengthen their government, the Han rulers became highly selective in their choice for government
positions by giving examinations on the teachings of Confucius. In this way, they attracted only the best and
brightest minds. Due to these tests, the teachings of Confucius became more firmly a part of China than
they were during the Chou dynasty.
A later Han ruler named Wu Ti, (156 – 87 BC) was a very capable military general and a highly effective
ruler. During his reign, the empire of China grew through conquests of the northern regions and thus
expanded the boundaries of the nation.
In many respects, under the Han, the strength of China was probably greater than that of Rome. The fall of
both Rome and the Han were due in large part to invasions by barbarian tribes. However, when Rome fell,
the Empire fell. When the Han fell, the empire of China lived on.
The Tartar Invasion
The following 400 years saw much confusion in China with frequent internal conflicts. On the one hand, the
Chinese fought with each other, and against invaders on the other. No single dynasty that followed was
able to bring all of China under its control. During this period, China fell to the invading Tartars, a barbarian
tribe to the north who adopted the Chinese culture once they settled into power. This time period also saw a
marked growth in the religion of Buddhism.
T’ang and Sung Dynasties and the Mongol Invasion
In AD 589, the Sui Dynasty gained control in China and ruled until AD 618. The more renowned families of
T’ang succeeded this dynasty, which ruled from 618-907 and the Sung dynasty, which ruled from 960-1279.
During the reign of these two dynasties, China grew more prosperous than ever before. This was due in
large part to its booming silk and fur trades. Even though the nation’s economy grew at this time; and more
so during the T’ang than the Sung, China once again came under the threat of invasion.
The Sung kings were forced to fight the Mongols who swept down from the northeastern part of what today
is Russia. The famous Genghis Khan, (1162-1227) led these violent people through the Gobi desert and
into China. Genghis Khan himself had to forcefully unite his people through bloody battles before he could
lead them. So ferocious and unmatched was this warrior that just his name alone would strike fear in the
hearts of people. Upon his death, his followers continued to fight. The greatest of these was his grandson,
Kublai Khan, (1216-1294) who succeeded in continuing the conquest of China. He founded a new dynasty,
the Yuan. He also founded a new capital, Peking.
The Final Dynasties of China
Following the Yuan was the Ming Dynasty (1365-1644), whose leader; Hung Wu was a Buddhist monk who
succeeded in driving out the Mongols from China. Although the word “Ming” is Chinese for “glorious”, the
dynasty did not reach the glory of the Chou, the Han, the T’ang or the Sung. Its main ambition was to drive
all foreign influence from China, and to that end it succeeded.
As isolated as the Ming wanted to make China, it was during this period that the Europeans started coming
to China. Also, the Ming Dynasty could not prevent another Mongol invasion. The Mongols launched a fresh
invasion from the region known as Manchuria. They drove the Mings from power and set up the Manchu
Dynasty, which ruled from 1644 to 1911 and was China’s last dynasty.
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THE HISTORY OF KOREA
According to tradition, in 2333 BC a dynasty was founded in Korea that ruled for a thousand years, after
which, for several hundred years, Korea was a divided land until a powerful general; Wang-kon united it
under a single government. It was he who founded the Koryo Dynasty, (935-1392), which ruled for more
than 450 years and gave its name to Korea.
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In the 13 century, the Mongols invaded Korea. However, in 1392, with the help of the Ming Dynasty in
China, Korea succeeded in driving out the unwelcome guests. In the Korean revolt against the Mongols,
General Yi Tai-jo defeated the Mongols and became a national hero. He also led his troops against the
pirates of Japan.
Korea Becomes a Unified Nation
Declaring himself king, Yi Tai-jo gained the support of the people. Yi was a hard working ruler who cared
little for the luxuries of court life and preferred to spend his time in creating a strong nation. He moved the
Capitol City to Seoul, and decided to change the name of Korea to Cho-sen, a name by which it is still often
referred to this day. He improved the government and ensured that the people were wisely ruled.
Korea Fends Off the Japanese
During most of the dynasty of Yi, Korea enjoyed stable relations with China and willingly paid tribute to that
nation. However, its relations with Japan were extremely strained. In 1592, the Japanese invaded of Korea,
using firearms for the first time in their history of warfare. The Koreans met the challenge with a metal-clad
ship called a tortoise boat, which due to its power, succeeded in sinking a large part of the Japanese navy.
The Effects of History Upon Korea
The Koreans victory over Japan exhausted Korea and thereafter, they withdrew from contact with foreign
nations. For most of its history from that point, Korea became reclusive to the point where even to this day,
Korea is often called the “Hermit Kingdom”.
Today, the nation is divided into two countries, North Korea and South Korea. The division grew out of
World War II with North Korea ruled by communism and South Korea maintaining a policy of democracy.
THE HISTORY OF JAPAN
The history of Japan was divided into three parts. The first part, referred to as the ancient age began about
600 BC and lasted until about AD 600. The middle period spanned from 600 to 1853 and the time since is
called the modern period.
The first known inhabitants of the islands of Japan were the Ainu. They were a violent people; however, a
few of their ancestors remain today and live quietly in the northern island of Hokkaido. The Ainu were
gradually driven out of most of the islands by newcomers.
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The Yamato Clan
The newcomers lived in clans made up of family groups who shared common interests. The clans fought
one another until one became more powerful than the rest. The clan that eventually became victorious over
the all others was the Yamato. In time, the people of ancient Japan accepted the leadership of the Yamato
chiefs. The first of these chiefs was Jimmu Tenno, and by tradition, he was considered Japan’s first
emperor. Under the rule of the Yamato, the chief was both a king and a priest to whom other clans listened.
Social Order, Religion and Influences
During the early period of Japanese history, life was crude, as civilization was not highly developed. Also,
due to frequent wars, the soldier was made an influential figure. Religion was based on the worship of
nature, which gave rise to Shintoism, still the chief religion of Japan. Little in the way of the laws of conduct
was contained in early Shintoism.
While culture on the Japanese islands grew slowly, Chinese culture was rapidly growing on the mainland.
As contact between Japan and China grew, so did China’s influence over Japan. Japan sent ambassadors
to the court of the Han Dynasty, and they brought back their learning, infusing Japanese culture with
Chinese influence.
One of the most important clans in early Japanese history was the Soga Clan, which was largely
responsible for the spread of Buddhism in Japan resulting from their contact with China and Korea. By 600
BC Buddhism was firmly established in Japan.
The clan system remained as the basis of social organization in Japan until another Chinese idea exerted
its influence and replaced the clan system at the time that the Soga was at its weakest. This was the idea
of centralized government.
THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AMERICA
Often referred to as Latin America, the nations of South America and Central America as well as Mexico,
which lies on the North American continent, constitute “Latin America”. The name is given due to the
Europeans who settled in these lands and spoke the Romance languages; Spanish, Portuguese and
French. The majority of today’s Latin American population speaks Spanish, although, the largest of all
South American nations, Brazil, speaks Portuguese.
The Native Ancestry
Before the arrival of the Europeans, little is known about the origins of the Native American population that
inhabited the area, however, it is speculated that they migrated to the lands of South America from Asia,
journeying across the Bering Strait (the gap between the continental land masses of Asia and North
America).
They came thousands of years ago and settled throughout the North and South American continents; from
Alaska south to Canada, the United States, Mexico, Peru and the rest of South America. It is further
assumed that the migration of these people was over by 500 BC. Though some of the Native South
Americans tribes never developed beyond the Stone Age, others grew into advanced civilizations.
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The Mayas
Although exact origins of the Mayas are unknown, archeological evidence uncovered by the conquering
Spanish (Conquistadors) estimates that Mayan civilization began around 2,000 BC. They built small
communities that shared a common culture, language, tradition and trade, however they did not form a
nation, and there was no Capitol.
In the Yucatan peninsula of Central America, the Mayans built pyramids similar to the style of the Egyptian
pyramids. These were located at the center of their towns and mainly used for worship. These structures
were enormous and carefully constructed, revealing that the Mayans had enough knowledge of the
principles of physics to move huge blocks of stone into place.
They developed a form of picture writing known as glyphs, which have yet to be understood by modern
scholars and it is also evident that they possessed knowledge of astronomy. The Mayans also maintained
an accurate calendar and devised a system of arithmetic based on units of 20. (Ours is based on units of
10).
Though the Mayans are often thought of as a people tied to the land, they did venture the seas for
exploration and trade, sailing around the Caribbean and the Gulf coasts. The biggest mystery of the
Mayans and one of the biggest mysteries in world history is their disappearance. No evidence indicates that
an enemy defeated them.
Although the pyramids they built still stand, there is no trace of the Mayan people; nor is there any evidence
of a natural disaster or catastrophe that might have destroyed the majority of their population. By AD 1,000,
the Mayan civilization was already in decline and by the time the Spanish came, they were so weak, they
were simply pushed aside rather than conquered.
The Aztecs
The Aztecs dominated the area we now call Mexico from 1168 to 1521 when the well-known Spanish
explorer Cortés conquered them. Information about these people was obtained from the remains of stone
and stucco buildings, pottery, calendars and writing samples as well as other archeological remains. Some
of these were saved by the Spanish conquerors of Mexico.
It is from such records that we know that the Aztecs were a warlike people whose strong king ruled a large
empire. Montezuma was the last known ruler of the Aztecs at the time of the Spanish conquest. The Aztecs
were also farmers who cultivated foods still used today such as corn, tomatoes and peppers. They are also
known to have produced chocolate and may have been the first known civilization to have done so.
The Aztecs are also credited with the earliest known use of rubber, from which they made a ball and played
a game similar to handball. Although they had not discovered the use of iron, the Aztecs did work with
copper and tin, and combined these to make bronze.
Praying to statues representing the sun, the moon, the stars and fire, the Aztecs worshipped as their chief
god, the god of war, to whom they made human sacrifices. One of the reasons they were nearly always at
war was that they needed a constant supply of prisoners to sacrifice for their religious ceremonies.
Also, because of the need for a steady supply of soldiers to wage war, children were very well looked after
and a mother who bore many children was highly regarded.
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Schooling was available for each group or clan into which the Aztecs were organized. Boys were taught the
art of war and myths and legends of their people; girls were not as well educated and, for the most part,
were expected to be good homemakers and mothers. The Aztecs developed a written language consisting
of glyphs, a form of picture writing.
The Incas
At the height of the Inca Empire in 1532, Atahualpa was the ruler of the land, which covered the Andes
mountain range from southern Colombia to southern Chile. Its capitol, Cuzco, located in what is modernday Peru, was a magnificent example of architecture that revealed the Incas had advanced knowledge of
design and engineering principles. Cuzco was connected to all parts of the empire by exceptionally good
roads.
One very important characteristic of the Inca Empire was its social and political structure. The emperor,
known as the Inca, was regarded as the descendant of the sun god and was himself regarded as a god.
Governed by high officials appointed by the Inca, the entire population was closely supervised and each
person was expected to be loyal to the Inca. Often, these officials were relatives of the Inca. All the land
was owned and governed by the state and each person was expected to work, at least part of the time, for
the state.
Because much of their land was mountainous desert, the cultivation of crops was made possible by wide
irrigation and terracing to accommodate narrow fields of farmland along the mountainsides. The growth and
distribution of farm products was determined by the state. During periods of famine, the state stored grain
to be made available to the neediest of people such as the old, the young, the sick and those physically
handicapped.
The Incas kept primitive records by tying knots on a string to represent quantities and amounts of
something, but they never developed a written language. As with the Aztecs, children were well cared for
and considered precious to the state as well as their parents.
Although they were a religious people, unlike the Aztecs, the Incas did not perform human sacrifice. Rather,
they kept their ritual ceremonies simple, offering the first harvest of their fields with their prayers.
THE HISTORY OF AFRICA
Ancient Africa
Often considered the birthplace of humans, it is believed that by 10,000 B.C., three types of people were
found living in Africa: Bushmen, Pygmies and a Caucasian (white) group known as Kushites. About 6000
B.C., a time roughly corresponding with the dawn of history in the Middle East, black people began to
appear. At first, they lived north of the Sahara Desert, but not along Africa’s Mediterranean coast. Later,
others lived in the Sahara, which was not always as harsh a place as it is today. Evidence shows that
farming took place in the region until around 2000 B.C. Also, it appears that vegetation sufficient to support
cattle was grown.
During the early years of Rome’s conquest of Africa, there was still enough vegetation to allow the Romans
to graze their horses. However, around 46 B.C., the Sahara became so barren it could no longer support
farming or grazing. The Romans then introduced the camel as a means of transportation across the desert.
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It is estimated that from as early as 5000 B.C. to around 3500 years later at about 1500 B.C., black peoples
in Africa developed farming communities. Early Africans made outstanding contributions to farming. They
developed a cotton plant whose fibers were then dyed and woven into cloth.
Contact between the Ancient World & Africa
Writings from the Egyptians, Phoenicians and Greeks provide us with most of what is known about Africa.
Hieroglyphic inscriptions on the tomb of an Egyptian noble shows that the Egyptians had penetrated inner
Africa as early as 2340 B.C. Hieroglyphs, a form of picture writing, is the earliest known form of writing in
the world.
Around 600 B.C., the Phoenicians undertook an arduous three-year long journey around the coast of
Africa. Later, they explored as far south as modern Sierra Leone (West-Central Africa). A flourishing trade
was established between Phoenicia and parts of Africa.
When Carthage was defeated in the Punic Wars, its northern African outposts became part of a Roman
province and given the name Africa. As greater parts of the continent were discovered and explored, the
name Africa was applied to an even greater area, eventually coming to mean the whole continent.
Romans began trading with some countries in the Sahara and parts south; however, they rarely penetrated
much of Sub-Saharan Africa. Along the east coast, they traded for gold and ivory. Slaves were brought
from the interior parts of Africa to the Roman trading stations by the North African tribe of people known as
the Berbers.
The first metal worked in Africa was copper, which was smelted and forged in Egypt in 3100 B.C. As Egypt
was one of the earliest nations in the world to establish itself as an important trading center, it became a
target for foreign invasion.
Around 1640 B.C., a tribe of people from the Middle East known as the Hyskos successfully invaded the
Nile delta region. This vast area stretching from modern day Syria and the Palestinian territories, through to
the fertile valleys of central East Africa was the empire that Egypt controlled. With the Hyskos came the
introduction of the horse to Egypt as well as bronze, a harder alloy than copper. By around 670 B.C., iron,
which is much harder to smelt, was introduced to North Africa from the Middle East. In East Africa, around
the great lakes area of Victoria, the source of the Nile and Lake Tanganyika, furnaces used in the smelting
process were found independent of the ones established in the north. The techniques for working with
metal spread from these development centers to both West and Southern Africa.
With the continued development of this technology, the spread of farming communities accelerated and
clusters of villages throughout Africa formed into larger settlements. With the abundance of crops from
increased cultivation, different regions began trading their excess farm products for other crops not grown
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in their area. Soon, trade between neighboring communities began to flourish and by the 3 century B.C.,
the middle Nile Valley had a long history of agricultural settlement and political kingdoms.
Early North Africa
The Greeks conquered Egypt in 332 B.C. and established a new capital city; Alexandria, which, within a few
centuries, became the greatest trading center of the ancient world. The Greeks founded the Ptolemic
Dynasty of Egyptian Pharaohs, which persisted until the Roman Empire conquered Egypt in 31B.C.
Under Roman rule Egypt became a province of the empire and a major center of grain production for the
citizens of Rome. The rest of Mediterranean North Africa was incorporated into the Roman Empire between
150B.C. and A.D. 200. The Roman Empire split into two in about 400 A.D. and Rome declined in power.
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This split is explained in a later segment. Carthage, on the northeast coast of what is now Tunisia, had
been a Phoenician trading colony since at least 800 B.C. This most famous of early trading centers fell to
Germanic invaders known as the Vandals in 439 A.D. After a period of Vandal rule, North Africa was
recaptured by the Byzantine Empire (eastern half of the Roman Empire) in 533 A.D. More about the
Byzantine Empire, Germanic and other European tribes will be covered in a later segment.
The Spread of Christianity
By 100 A.D. Alexandria had become the most important intellectual center of the early Christian Church.
From Egypt, monastic Christianity spread south to Nubia (along the Nile Valley south of Egypt and Ethiopia
and west to the North African region controlled by the Berbers. The Berbers adapted Christianity to fit in
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with their indigenous beliefs. In the 4 century A.D., Ethiopia with its own adopted form of Christianity
known as the Coptic Church became the most resolute of all African Christian nations, resisting the
conversion to Islam, which was the way of most other African nations.
The Spread of Islam and the Arab Conquest of North Africa
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Islam, which was founded in Arabia in the 7 century, quickly united Arabs and inspired the expansion of a
great Islamic empire across the Middle East and North Africa. By 641, Muslims had conquered Egypt,
where they established a ruling class of administrators and merchants. Over the next few centuries, with
continuous Arab migration, most of Egypt’s population converted to Islam and adopted the Arabic
language. Around 700 A.D., Muslims had conquered Byzantine, Carthage and a decade later, overcame
Berber resistance, extending their empire to Morocco.
How Islam Influenced Africa
Seeking to convert the populations of inner Africa, Islam was found to be more appealing to Africans than
Christianity. The success of Christianity in Ethiopia was the exception rather than the rule. The coming of
Islam brought a religion of high order to the nations of sub-Saharan Africa. It united and exposed the
people of inner Africa to a culture and civilization from which they willingly and quickly learned much. They
acquired a written language with which they were able to carry on trade and commerce and to write down
their own history and oral traditions. They adopted a system of law to govern trade and commerce and to
help in building a political organization.
Islam differed markedly from country to country because the religion permitted adaptations according to the
traditions and customs of the people. As a result, the Islamic faith of sub-Saharan Africa became quite
different from what it was in Cairo or Baghdad. Moreover, it never entirely replaced the traditional religion of
the Africans, who believed in the worship of natural objects.
The Empires of West Africa
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By the 10 century, North African trading powers were clamoring for gold from West Africa to satisfy the
Islamic world’s increasing demand for currency, which they fashioned from the mineral. This stimulated
growth of large trading empires in sub-Saharan West Africa, leading them to accumulate vast wealth and
power by controlling trans-Saharan caravan routes.
Kingdom of Ghana
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By the 11 century, Ghana’s power was near its peak. Ghana was known as the Gold Coast by the British
from the time that it was first colonized up until its independence in 1957.
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During the earlier part of the 11 Century, Ghana had complete control of the trading routes of salt from the
Sahara to gold from its southern boundaries. By the middle of the century, a Muslim group known as the
Almoravids invaded the kingdom. Although their rule was short-lived, Ghana never recovered to its past
prominence. With its borders never clearly defined, rival chiefs were eager to establish themselves as
independent monarchs. Tribal warfare and petty jealousies interfered with the restoration of the kingdom
and Ghana began to decline.
Mali Empire
Two clans in the West African kingdom of Ghana; the Soninke and the Mandinka were among the first to
break away from the empire, organizing among other tribes along the fertile Niger River valley. This
growing state became known as the Mali Empire. It grew far larger than Ghana ever was and stretched
from the Atlantic coast in the west to beyond the bend in the Niger River in the east, and from the goldfields
of modern day Guinea in the south to the major southern Saharan caravan routes in the north. The city of
Timbuktu, which lies northwest of the Niger bend, achieved world fame as both a center of the gold trade
and of Islamic learning.
Songhai Empire
Holding such a massive empire together as Mali was, proved difficult with so many areas of sparse
populations around its borders, susceptible to conquest by larger numbers of invading people. Also, tribes
along the fringes sought to break away to establish autonomy. Songhai, with its capital at Gao on the east
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side of the Niger bend, had been a riverside trading kingdom since at least the 8 century. Songhai was
one of the first states to break away from Mali’s imperial control, using an army of horsemen and a fleet of
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war canoes to assert independent control of the Niger bend by the end of the 14 century. Its empire
completely eclipsed Mali and stretched from the Atlantic coast to what is now central Niger.
The Rise and Impact of the Atlantic Slave Trade
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The collapse of Songhai in the late 16 century coincided with the emerging importance of European
trading interests along the West African coast, stimulating considerable movement of inland peoples and
the establishment of new states within the forest zones. Initially, Europeans sought gold from West Africa,
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but by the 17 century demand shifted to slaves for export to European colonies across the Atlantic.
Slavery and other forms of involuntary human servitude had long been features of African economic life.
Usually these workers were outcasts, criminals and war captives. Slaves had been marketable commodities
for centuries in the trans-Saharan trade, but the European Atlantic slave trade introduced a much larger
scale to the trade of human beings.
Initially, African rulers sold captives when it suited them, becoming rich and powerful in the process, but
rarely took them from their own people. However, as European demand grew for products such as sugar,
tobacco, cotton, indigo and rice, and as more North and South and Central American lands became
available for European use, the need for plantation labor increased. Demand for slaves exploded, growing
to between 50,000 and 100,000 a year.
Systematic slave raiding became common, warfare became much more widespread, and small, villageth
based communities suffered badly at the hands of powerful neighbors. From the mid-15 century to the late
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19 century at least 12 million young adults were sent from Africa to the New World as slaves, some 2
million of them dying en route. Combined with the millions of African slaves sent to the Mediterranean and
Middle East, and the millions more who died in the process of capture, transportation and detainment, the
total number of productive young Africans lost to the slave trade exceeded 20 million.
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Early East Africa
Early Iron Age Bantu-speaking farmers spread their settlements widely along the Indian Ocean coast and
throughout the heavily wooded regions of the East African interior during the early centuries A.D. The drier
regions largely remained the domain of cattle herding peoples.
The Swahili and East Coast Trade
About 2,000 years ago, Bantu-speaking farmers, cattlemen and fishermen populated the Indian Ocean
coast. They established small village settlements on estuaries and islands and built small boats for fishing,
communicating and trading along the coast.
This region was known to Greek and Roman traders of the early centuries A.D. as Azania, which stretched
from Northern Kenya to Southern Tanzania.
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With the ongoing spread of Islam, from the 8 century the communities of the East African coast became
more directly connected to the long-distance trading network of the Indian Ocean. Muslim Arabic-speaking
traders settled along the coast and married into local ruling families. The language and culture that
developed remained distinctly African, but with Arabic and Islamic borrowings and influences. This
language and culture, and the people in general are referred to as Swahili.
By 1000 A.D. Swahili trading settlements stretched from Mogadishu (in Somalia) in the north to
Mozambique and northern Madagascar to the south. Major Swahili towns included Mombasa, Kilwa, Dares-Salaam and Zanzibar. The more prosperous Swahili towns minted their own copper and silver coins.
Gold from the southern African interior became a significant export in southern Swahili towns, while
northern towns sold captives for slave labor.
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The growing significance of the Swahili gold trade prompted further Arab migration in the 12 century
resulting in wealthy Muslim elites ruling the Swahili cities. After Portuguese sailors first sailed around
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southern Africa at the end of the 15 century, Portugal sought to seize control of this lucrative Indian Ocean
trade, especially the gold trade. The Portuguese seized several of the principal Swahili cities, built a string
of fortresses along the coast, and dominated the coastal trade until an Arab force from Oman drove them
out of the northern cities in the 1690s.
Early Central Africa
In Central Africa, the Bantu migration came full circle. By 1000 B.C. western Bantu-speaking farmers had
crossed the Congo River and settled in what is now Angola. Approximately 1,500 years later, eastern
Bantu-speaking groups, which had descended from groups that had spread throughout East Africa, met
and intermingled with their distant relatives in what are now Angola, southern Democratic Republic of the
Congo and western Zambia.
Luba, Lunda and Maravi Empires
In what is now the southern Democratic Republic of the Congo, the ancestors of the Luba people made up
one of the earliest iron-working groups in Central Africa. This wet, fertile savanna woodland on the southern
edge of the equatorial forest was ideally suited to the production of food and the development of settled
communities. By 1300 AD, they had organized into prosperous farming and trading chiefdoms and were
casting copper into cross-shaped ingots for use as trading currency. From these origins, a great centralized
Luba Empire emerged by the early 1400s.
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According to traditional accounts, in the 1450s the growth of the Luba Empire inspired a sense of unity
among the scattered Lunda chiefdoms to the west. New dynasties arose, but they recognized the authority
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of the existing Lunda rulers. The Lunda Empire that emerged in the 16 century was more like a
confederation of tribute-paying chieftaincies than a single, centralized empire.
Luba and Lunda ideas of kingship and inheritance of power spread farther west to present-day Angola, and
southeast to eastern Zambia and southern Malawi. Local clans integrated through marriage developing
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their own concept of kingship, based upon local religious beliefs. Over the course of the 16 century they
founded the Kalonga, Lundu and Undi kingdoms, collectively known as the Maravi Confederacy. In these
rich elephant-hunting lands between Lake Malawi and the Zambesi River, they profited greatly from the
ivory trade with the Portuguese at the Swahili coast.
Kongo and Portuguese Interference
Before 1000 A.D. Bantu-speaking farmers had developed numerous small states in the hills and valleys of
present-day Angola and in the woodland savanna country on either side of the lower Congo River. By 1400
a number of these states had merged to form the kingdom of Kongo, a federation of provinces whose king
was elected by the hereditary rulers of the provinces.
By the 1480s, when Portuguese explorers first visited Kongo, its capital housed 10,000-15,000 people,
occupied in trading and in manufacturing iron and raffia cloth. The great concentration of people gave the
king the power to challenge the local authority of the provinces. The power struggle between the king and
the provinces was to be a dominant theme of Kongo’s history over the next 200 years.
With the arrival of Portuguese emissaries and missionaries, one more element was added to the internal
strife of Kongo. The king welcomed the Portuguese, seeking to gain strength from their weapons
technology, and converted to Christianity. Kongolese Christianity retained much of its indigenous African
beliefs and rituals despite the Portuguese missionaries’ attempts to quash them. The king’s power declined
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in the 18 century, but the Kongolese form of Christianity persevered, incorporating further African qualities
and strengthening indigenous African religious thought.
Politically, the Portuguese were arrogant and unreliable allies, refusing to consider their relationship with
Kongo as a meeting of equals. Intervening in dynastic struggles and entering into wars in the interior, by the
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mid-16 century, it was clear that Portugal’s primary objective was the acquisition of slaves for their
plantations in Brazil and elsewhere. In the 1660’s and 1670’s, the Portuguese fueled rebellions in these
provinces, culminating in a civil war that virtually destroyed the kingdom of Kongo.
Early Southern Africa
By 650 A.D. small Bantu-speaking communities of ironworkers and farmers had settled all over southern
Africa, excluding only the drier regions of central and western Botswana, Namibia and the Cape of Good
Hope region of South Africa. In these drier areas, Khoisan (a different indigenous tribe from the Bantu that
are the ancestors of the eastern African populations) hunter-gatherers and herders were dominant.
Formation of States in Southern Africa
Some southern Bantu groups may have learned how to herd cattle by absorbing Khoisan herders into their
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societies. From the 7 century on, cattle keeping came to be associated with the rise of chiefs.
Chiefdoms first developed into fairly large states in the cattle-raising regions of eastern Botswana. There
were large settlements of wealthy people surrounding enclosures that would have held several hundred
cattle. In the areas surrounding each of these hills were numerous smaller hilltop settlements, not as rich in
their possessions or in numbers of cattle. In the flat land between the hills lived the peasantry, probably
Khoisan, who tended the cattle, hunted and tilled the fields for their patrons.
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A similar cattle-keeping culture developed on the western Zimbabwe plateau, near the modern city of
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Bulawayo, from about the 10 century. Here farmers terraced hillsides to retain moist soils for cultivation,
and miners worked the region’s rich gold seams. This western Zimbabwean culture reached its height
between AD100 and 1300 A.D.
Great Zimbabwe
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Great Zimbabwe started as a hilltop settlement in the early 13 century. In addition to possibly bearing
some religious significance, the location also had a number of political and economic advantages. The land
was fertile and well watered as well as being strategically situated at the head of the Sabi River valley,
midway between the goldfields of the western plateau and the coast of the Indian Ocean. With cattle
forming the basis of the state’s power, its location on the edge of the plateau provided pastures of both
upland and lowland grazing.
Dutch Occupation at the Cape of Good Hope
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In the mid-17 century a new force appeared at the southwestern tip of the African continent. The Dutch
East India Company established a trading station at the Cape of Good Hope to facilitate provisioning its
ships headed for its colonies in Indonesia.
Later, more Dutch and other European settlers used firearms to seize control of the region, subjugate the
Khoisan and strip them of their cattle.
These white settlers established wheat farms and vineyards in the Cape region, worked by slaves or
Khoisan forced labor. Other settlers moved into the interior, establishing large cattle ranges and hunting
lodges before moving on when resources were exhausted. By the 1770s their settlements had reached as
far as the lands of the southernmost Bantu farmers. Here they met well-established and powerful Xhosa
kingdoms that could command armies sufficient to halt the settlers’ advance. Thus began a century of
conflict between the Xhosa and the Cape invaders.
Discovery of South Africa’s Mineral Wealth
By 1867 large parts of what is now South Africa were still under independent African control. However, the
discovery that year of diamonds near the confluence of the Orange and Vaal rivers, followed by the 1886
discovery of the world’s largest gold deposits in the Transvaal (northeast region of South Africa) would
ultimately transform the economic and political life of all southern Africans. As a vast and hugely lucrative
industrial market opened up in the interior, conflict over land and labor heightened. Britain in particular was
determined to bring the whole area under its imperial control.
The Subsequent Scramble for Africa
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In the final two decades of the 19 century European colonial powers took over virtually the whole continent
of Africa, racing each other to claim territory to expand their colonial empires. This so-called “Scramble for
Africa” marked an irreparable turning point in the history of the continent. Almost overnight, most Africans
lost control of their own historical destinies. Nations and whole empires were swept aside as the political
layout of the continent was reconfigured according to European dictate.
Historians have debated the question of what sparked the “Scramble”, what Europe’s motives were, and
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why the takeover happened so rapidly and completely. In the early 20 century the colonizing powers set
the terms of the debate, arguing that they came to Africa with a “civilizing” mission. Because it morally
justified their actions, they unfairly portrayed Africa as a dark and primitive continent with no discernable
record of historical achievement.
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European powers claimed that they had come to suppress the slave trade, end endemic warfare and
establish their own right to trade freely without local interference. Attempts by African rulers to control and
tax the trade within their own states were arrogantly dismissed by European traders, who accused them of
interfering with the free flow of trade. Income from the taxation of trade had always been an essential
source of government revenue in most African states and the removal of this rightful income deliberately
and seriously weakened them in the face of the European challenge.
From the beginning, Europe’s presumed “moral justification” for imperialism was challenged by
contemporary thinkers who identified economics as the prime motivator underlying the European conquest
of Africa. Industrial Europe needed Africa’s raw materials; palm oil, cotton, rubber and various minerals.
Abolition of the Slave Trade
It has been argued that the abolition of the slave trade was the result of a humanitarian campaign
spearheaded by a handful of British philanthropists. Historians who argued that it was hard economics, not
humanitarian concerns that ended the slave trade, later challenged this view. According to this view, by
1800 colonial plantations were declining in profitability, while the spread of industry in Britain was becoming
increasingly profitable, making the need for slaves obsolete.
Many historians now agree that both economics and philanthropy were involved, though which was the
more powerful force remains a subject of debate. Another factor, often overlooked, was African opposition
to slavery, both in the form of slave rebellions in the Caribbean and resistance within Africa itself.
By 1817 the major European powers had officially banned the slave trade, but it still continued, and even
increased at times, until slavery itself was completely abolished (in 1865 in the United States and in the
1880s in Cuba and Brazil). Later in the century Britain and other European powers would use the antislave-trade campaign as a justification for seizing further African territory, and eventually for their
colonization of the continent.
Africa and the World Wars
By World War I (1914-1918) Ethiopia and Liberia were the only independent nations left in Africa. France
and Britain held the most African territory: French colonies stretched across almost all of West Africa, while
Britain held an almost unbroken string of colonies from Egypt to South Africa. The war impacted many parts
of Africa as British, French and Belgian forces invaded their neighboring German colonies. Africans
suffered badly, mostly as noncombatant forced laborers. In addition, many thousands served in the French
Army as combatants in the trenches of Western Europe. After the war, Germany’s African colonies were
handed over to neighboring colonial powers.
World War II (1939-1945) combat was limited to Ethiopia and North Africa. Fascist Italy invaded Ethiopia in
1935 and, with the use of aerial bombardment and poison gas, conquered it in 1936. Driven into exile,
Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie failed to gain any wide support for Ethiopia until Italy declared war on
Britain in 1940.
With the aid of British troops and volunteers from all over Africa, Ethiopians expelled the Italians in 1941
and Haile Selassie was returned to the throne.
In the long term, the most significant impact of World War II on Africa was political and psychological. The
brief colonization and subsequent liberation of Ethiopia had galvanized the emerging class of urban,
educated Africans. These people were determined that the war – fought and won in the name of freedom –
should liberate them too. Throughout the continent, from Algeria to Ghana to South Africa, Africans awoke
with a new determination to bring an end to the humiliation of colonization.
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MAP OF AFRICA SHOWING ITS NATIONS OF TODAY
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
The Middle Ages is that period between the fall of the Roman Empire in A.D. 476 and the discovery of
America in 1492. This period is also referred to as the Medieval Period, and as you will discover, the roots
of modern times may be found in the Middle Ages.
This period of time saw much uneven growth in Europe; with the ancient cultures of Greece and Rome
seemingly lost, a flourishing civilization had developed spanning the area of southeast Europe. It was
known as the Byzantine Empire and concurrently, the Muslim civilization was flourishing in the Middle East.
Our modern world of today has ties to these civilizations.
The Byzantine Empire
Mention has been made earlier to the time when the Roman Empire had split into two. The old Roman
Empire ruled lands to the west while this breakaway region, while still part of the Roman Empire, dominated
the eastern parts of Europe.
This culture of southeastern Europe gets its name from the ancient city of Byzantium, which in turn owes its
name to its mythical founder Byzas.
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The city was rebuilt by Emperor Constantine, renamed Constantinople and became the capital of the
Eastern Roman Empire, which historians call the Byzantine Empire. When Rome fell, the Byzantine Empire
lived on. While Western Europe struggled to gain a high level of economic development and political
stability, the Byzantine Empire thrived.
The ancient city of Byzantium is today the modern city of Istanbul (Turkey). It is one of the most
strategically located cities in the world; situated at the gateway between Europe and Asia, surrounded on
three sides by water. The Black Sea lies immediately to the northeast, the Aegean Sea to the southwest
and the city lies at the entrance to the Sea of Marmora. This enables ships to pass from the Aegean Sea to
the Mediterranean, making the city a prime port for commerce and trade. Byzantium was the center of a
great civilization and a great empire.
Geographically, the extent of the Byzantine Empire is difficult to define because it alternately grew with
conquest and shrank with defeat. Present day Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, Yugoslavia,
Serbia, Montenegro, and Romania were all once part of the Byzantine Empire.
Ruling from the city that was renamed Constantinople; the Byzantine Empire had many successive
emperors, the most important of whom was Justinian. He tried, but failed to reunite the Eastern and
Western Roman Empires, he was, however, able to encourage trade between the two. The reigning ruler
chose emperors with help from the army, the senate, the people and the church.
There was much more wealth, pomp and ceremony surrounding the emperor of Byzantium than the
emperor of Rome – even when the Roman Empire was at its height. The enormous wealth, the many
servants, the marble halls and gilded columns impressed many visiting rulers of lesser states who were
humbled even before they were presented to the Byzantine rulers.
Byzantine Military Power
The Byzantine Empire was divided into military districts. Each of these was ruled by a general who was
directly responsible to the emperor. Soldiers in the district armies fought for the emperor in return for the
land on which they lived. Fighting for their own farms made them brave and loyal fighters.
The Byzantines were nearly always at war, and warfare became almost a fine art. Byzantine armies had
intelligent leaders who carefully trained and equipped their soldiers. The music from military bands sent
soldiers off to battle in high spirits. Mirrors were used to flash signals for attack or retreat. Later, a medical
corps was founded to bring back the wounded from battlefields for the finest medical aid available at that
time.
The Byzantine navy was no less renowned than its army, requiring exceptional skill to launch a fleet of
1,330 battleships in a campaign against an enemy. The Byzantine navy used a device known as Greek
Fire, which combined the chemicals of Naphtha and Sulphur to form an explosive capable of burning ships
on water. It proved to be a most effective defense against those who tried to defeat Byzantium by sea.
The Religion of Byzantium
Constantine was the first Christian emperor of the Roman Empire and those who followed in succession as
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emperors of the Byzantine Empire were also Christians. Up to about the 5 century A.D., the bishop of
Rome (the Pope) was looked upon as the head of all Christian churches. However, a number of religious
and political disagreements developed between the Eastern Church and what became known as the
Roman Catholic Church. The Eastern Church today is known as the Orthodox Church or Greek Orthodox
Church.
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It is hard to appreciate the influence of religion in the lives of the Byzantines. In all aspects of daily life,
church leaders were consulted for every important decision that had to be made. In political and intellectual
life, as in people’s personal lives, the role of the Eastern Church was ever present. For men of high
intelligence, the church offered great opportunities for advancement. A career in the church was very
desirable.
All Byzantines were caught up in the religious question about the nature of the Trinity (union of Father, Son
and Holy Ghost) and the relationship between the human and divine. These questions moved the
population as a whole and were discussed among soldiers during their off hours and between merchants
and customers. Questions of religion dominated daily conversations.
The Byzantine Economy
Most people in the Byzantine Empire farmed for a living. Trade and commerce, however, were more
important. The wealthy merchants of the world and their goods went to Constantinople. Animal skins, furs,
salt, wine, slaves, spices, precious gems and later silk were among the common articles of trade.
In the ancient Roman world, trade and commerce were not highly regarded activities. People of noble birth
generally shunned engaging in business. In Constantinople, the opposite was true. The Byzantine
emperors and nobility were deeply concerned about the economy of the nation and encouraged business
activities of all types.
Constantinople was a city of commerce as well as an important city of manufacturing. Cloth, jewelry, metal
and enamelware were made using the latest methods of the time. It was in Constantinople that master
builders of churches, palaces and other great buildings learned their trade. The city became a commercial
center through which a variety of goods on their way to Asia and Europe.
The Fall of the Byzantine Empire
Carrying an important role on world affairs, the Byzantine Empire was not only a continuation of the Roman
Empire as a civilization with its own character, but a cultural bridge between the East and the West. Yet
despite this, the Byzantine Empire also collapsed. Some of the reasons for this are explained:
Through its vast trade and many wars, Byzantine civilization spread to southern Italy, the Balkan countries
and western Russia. Constantinople saved the learning of Greece and Rome and fought one invader after
another. In so doing; it gave Europe the time it needed to develop its own ways. Constantinople was a
major city when Paris and London were small towns. However, it finally fell as the result of Turkish invasion.
There is not a chief explanation for the fall of the Byzantine Empire. Numerous wars made its enemies
stronger and the empire weaker. Its church was more concerned with worldly power than spiritual power. Its
emperors (who enjoyed absolute power) gave the people little voice in the government and few
opportunities to improve themselves.
Many were jealous of the power and splendor of the Byzantine Empire and were determined to bring about
its fall. The Persians and the Arabs each took turns in fighting the Byzantines. However, they could not
defeat them, nor rob the empire of its wealth.
Eventually, the Byzantine Empire experienced two deadly blows that were struck against it. In 1204, the
crusaders from Europe went to Palestine to drive out the Seljuk Turks. Envious of the wealth the crusaders
saw in the Byzantine Empire, they forgot who their enemies were and proceeded to destroy the city of
Constantinople.
More about the Crusades will be covered in a later segment. The second blow was when the Ottoman
Turks battered down the walls of Constantinople and captured the city in 1453. Historians usually consider
this date as marking the fall of the Byzantine Empire.
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THE RISE AND FALL OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE
The Map below shows the progression of the emprie from its peak in A.D. 550
through its gradual demise 800 years later.
The Birth of the Muslim Civilization and the Spread of Islam
During the Middle Ages, while the Byzantine Empire flourished across southeastern Europe, another
civilization shone as brilliantly across the Middle East, North Africa and southern Asia. Founded by
Mohammed (A.D. 570-632), the religion of Islam was spread by his preaching of a holy war (jihad) that
sought to convert non-believers. Born in Mecca (in present day Saudi Arabia), Mohammed was a merchant
who at the age of twenty-five, married a wealthy widow. He frequently crossed the desert with caravans
carrying goods to distant parts of the Arabian Peninsula. During the course of his journeys, he learned a bit
about Greek culture, Christian ideas and the Hebrew religion.
As a deeply thoughtful man, Mohammed would often go away by himself to think about the world in which
he lived and his place in it. It was during one of these sojourns that, according to his teachings, God
revealed the purpose of Mohammed’s life on earth; that he was a prophet chosen by God to preach a new
faith to the world. He was about forty at this time.
This new faith had five basic tenets, often referred to as the five pillars of Islam:
1. Every Muslim (follower of Islam) must repeat the Muslim Creed in Arabic – “There is no God but
Allah and Mohammed is his Prophet”.
2. It is the duty of every Muslim to pray five times daily
3. Fasting from sunrise to sunset during the holy month of Ramadan is required
4. Every Muslim is required to make a pilgrimage to Mecca at least once during his/her lifetime
5. Every devout Muslim is to give charity to the poor
Mohammed was an attractive looking man with a charismatic personality few could resist. He was eloquent
in expression and freely shared his revelations with those who would listen. Mohammed taught that there is
only one God – Allah and that one person, Mohammed was his prophet. The holy book of Islam is the
Koran and like the Old Testament and the Hebrew Talmud, the Koran is more than a collection of religious
ideas - it provides rules of conduct for everyday life.
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The area around Mohammed’s birthplace in Mecca had a mixed population made up of mostly nomadic
tribes from the desert; Mecca was an old trading city and the center for the worship of tribal gods. The rise
of Islam was slow at first and there were many Arabs who would not accept Mohammed as a prophet of
Allah. They preferred instead their own tribal gods. Since, at the time, they looked to Mecca as their holy
city, Mohammed thought that Mecca would be a good place in which to spread his ideas.
He thought that in this religious center the people would leave their tribal gods and follow him. He was
wrong. In 622, Mohammed was driven out of the holy city of Mecca and fled to Medina, a city about 200
miles to the north where he was more successful. He later returned to Mecca and upon conquering it, made
it the religious center of Islam. By the time of his death in 633, he had converted nearly all of Arabia and
had set an example for future jihads.
In a jihad that swept the Middle East and moved westward, Muslims conquered Arabia, Persia, North Africa
and even Spain and Portugal. The Muslims then crossed the Pyrenees mountain range bordering Spain
and France and were about to conquer France and Western Europe, but were stopped by Charles Martel;
leader of the Franks in 732. In a little over a hundred years from its birth in 622, the Muslim faith had spread
and was accepted by a great number of people. To the east, Islam had spread as far as India, Malaysia,
the Philippines, Indonesia and China.
The Muslim world was ruled by leaders known as Caliphs. The first four caliphs were informally chosen by
Arab leaders. After that, leadership was passed on from father to son. It was under one of the first Caliphs
– Omer – that the greatest of jihads were carried out. Although the Muslims never achieved political unity, a
strong, common faith and a common language united them. Arabic was required by all the Muslim faithful in
order to read the Koran. Also, ties of trade and commerce united the Muslim world.
Western Europe in the Middle Ages
After the fall of Rome during the Middle Ages, while the Byzantine Empire and the Muslim civilization
prospered in rich trade and healthy economies, Western Europe was poor and backward. Its people had to
build their own civilization and culture by developing their resources. It had rich farmlands, great forests,
fur-bearing animals and seas. Through the development of these resources it gradually became one of the
richest parts of the world.
For hundreds of years, Germanic tribes lived on or near the borders of the Roman Empire. Sometimes,
those tribes in the border areas were made part of the Roman Empire through war and conquest, at other
times; German families crossed the borders into Rome peacefully. They tried to secure better farmland for
themselves and their families. On occasion, they were invited into Roman lands by the Romans, often
joining the Roman army.
As Rome declined, the number of Germanics who entered its army increased. Having long recognized the
advantages of Roman civilization, the Germanics over this period of time populated the empire. As they
became aware of the fall of the government of Rome, they saw the opportunity to easily enter the empire.
This and other contributing factors – namely the invasion from Asia of a ferocious tribe called the Huns,
seizing lands across Europe including Germanic lands – were what brought about the fall of Rome.
First, in 378, one of the Germanic tribes called the Visigoths crossed the great river Danube to ask for
protection from Rome. When they discovered Rome was no longer in a position to help them, the attacked
the Romans, showing them they were a match for the once famous Roman legions.
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Then, in 410, Alaric led the Visigoths into the city of Rome plundering it for several days. Emboldened by
their victories, they advanced further into Western Europe by first expanding into southern France and then
into Spain where they set up a kingdom. The kingdom collapsed in 711, when they were defeated in battle
by a Muslim invasion.
The Visigoths who originated from the area of today’s Romania and southern Ukraine were among many
Germanic tribes collectively known to the Romans as the “barbarians”. So-called barbarian invaders settled
most parts of the Western Roman Empire during its dissolution (A.D. 193-476). The other tribes in this
group included the Ostrogoths, who hailed from the areas known today as Austria and Poland; the Vandals
from the northeast parts of today’s Germany; the Lombards from the north-central parts of today’s
Germany; Burgandians from southeastern France and part of today’s Switzerland; the Angles and the
Saxons came from parts of today’s Denmark and Holland and north-western Germany; and the Goths from
today’s Scandinavian countries of Norway and Sweden. The most outstanding of the Germanic tribes who
moved across Europe was the Franks, after whom the nation of France gets its name.
How the Franks Began an Empire
In 481 the Franks, through the leadership of their first important ruler King Clovis began to establish what
would be a mighty empire. Clovis converted to Christianity and thus enabled the king and the pope to work
together to the benefit of both. The pope needed the king’s armies to fend off invasions from the Lombards
who, at the time, controlled northern and central Italy. The king needed the pope to help convince the
people to recognize his authority and to obey him.
Local leaders who followed King Clovis were weaklings who preferred to indulge their pleasures rather than
the hard work of governing a new kingdom. Quarrelling among themselves, they allowed the king’s
ambitious advisers to misguide them and subsequently lost power to these advisers who came to be known
as the mayors of the palace.
The most influential of these advisers was Charles Martel (688-741), who was mentioned earlier in the
segment on the Spread of Islam. Martel was the leader of the Franks who stopped the invading Muslims
from conquering France and North-western Europe. Upon his death, Martel’s son Pepin the Short became
king with the pope’s help. In return, Pepin rushed to the pope’s defense when enemies again threatened
the pope. Pepin went on to give the pope some lands he controlled near the city of Rome, which together
with other lands in the area came to be known as the Papal States. Already possessing spiritual authority,
this gift, known as the Donation of Pepin, now gave the pope political power as well.
King Charlemagne (Charles the Great)
Pepin only lived to his early twenties and upon his death; his kingdom was divided between his two sons;
Charlemagne and Carolman. The latter died suddenly in 771, after which Charlemagne (742-814) became
sole king of the Franks. Immediately after this he traveled to Rome to assure the pope of his continued
support. He then began a lengthy series of military campaigns to expand the Frankish kingdom.
Charlemagne’s first move came against Saxony (Sachsen), a region in what is now northwestern Germany
in 772. The Saxons, who were the last non-Christian and independent tribe of central Germany, had long
harassed the Franks with raids against their borders. Charlemagne considered them a serious threat to his
empire and sought to convert these pagan peoples to Christianity.
Charlemagne is credited with many beneficial reforms in law and government as well as a revival of the arts
and architecture that is referred to the Carolingian Renaissance, named after the second dynasty of the
early Franks. Charlemagne was very successful and through his numerous conquests, managed to expand
his empire to areas that we now know as the countries of France, Belgium, Holland, Austria, Switzerland
and parts of Germany, Italy, Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia.
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His empire did not long survive his death, but its two main territories, East and West Francia, later became
the major parts of two important European entities: West Francia became modern-day France, and East
Francia became first the Holy Roman Empire and then the modern state of Germany.
After several attempts at forcing his will on the Saxons due to their many insurrections and rebellions,
Charlemagne did finally succeeded 32 years after his initial attempt. In 782 he organized Saxony as a
Frankish province and established a Christian Church there, but insurrections broke out regularly. After
several more fierce campaigns, Charlemagne had to capture the Saxon Chieftain before he could firmly
impose his rule. He introduced Frankish political institutions and forced his new subjects to convert to
Christianity. Charlemagne completed the conquest of Saxony in 804.
Another important achievement of Charlemagne was the cultural revival mentioned before that was known
as the Carolingian Renaissance. Charlemagne ordered bishops and abbots to set up schools for the
training of monks and other clerics. Much of his motivation for this policy was practical as well as religious;
because the training was conducted in Latin, it promoted the standardization of a common written and
spoken language in a huge empire of several languages and dialects. The simplified handwriting devised
during this period known as Carolingian miniscule, is the ancestor of the modern printed alphabet.
After Charlemagne’s death, the rulers were too weak to hold his massive empire together. The three
grandchildren of Charlemagne divided his lands. One grandson took what is now France; another took what
is now Germany and the third grandson took what is now Italy, plus a strip of land along the Rhine River.
For nearly two hundred years after Charlemagne’s death, there were no strong kings in Europe. The
violence and disorder that Charlemagne had stopped began again and grew worse.
THE EARLY HISTORY OF ENGLAND
Ancient Britain
From around 1000 B.C. the Celts overran the British Isles, as they did virtually all of Western Europe. With
iron plows they cultivated the heavy soil of the river valleys; with iron weapons and two-wheeled horsedrawn chariots, they subdued and absorbed the indigenous inhabitants of the islands. Their priests, the
Druids dominated their society.
Although the Mediterranean peoples had long known it as a source of tin, Britain did not enter the Roman
world until Julius Caesar’s arrival in 55 B.C. Contact, however, was temporary; permanent occupation had
to wait until Rome had solved more pressing problems at home.
Britain was a military outpost, taking a tenth of the Roman army to hold it. Several towns attained a degree
of Roman urban civilization, but beyond these, the countryside remained Celtic.
Roman Withdrawal
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Britain in the 3 and 4 centuries felt the decline of the Roman Empire. In 410 A.D. Rome abandoned
Britain, and after nearly four centuries of occupation, it left a superb network of roads, the best Britain
would have for 1400 years; the sites of a number of towns including London, York and Manchester and the
religion of Christianity. The Anglo-Saxons, who occupied the country after the Romans left, ignored the
towns, chased Christianity into neighboring Wales, and gave their own names to the Roman Roads.
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Anglo-Saxon England
In the absence of Roman administrators, British warlords who were nominally Christian, ruled small,
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unstable kingdoms and continued some Roman traditions of governing. In the mid-5 century, they revived
the Roman policy of hiring Germanic mercenaries to help defend them against warlike peoples of the north
(Picts and Scots). These Saxon mercenaries revolted against their British chiefs and began the process of
invasion and settlement that destroyed the native ruling class and established Germanic kingdoms
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throughout the island by the 7 century.
How England Began
One of the fiercest groups to attack Europe during the ninth and tenth centuries was the Vikings. They
came from the Scandinavian nations of Norway, Sweden and Denmark. They sailed in small, well-built
ships and raided the coasts of France and England. They landed in Iceland and Greenland, and even
reached America.
The Northmen (Vikings) who attacked the people of the British Isles met resistance from tribes called
Angles (Anglos) and Saxons and Jutes. These tribes fought against one-another as well as the Northmen.
Unsuccessful efforts were made to unite the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes as a nation. Alfred the Great
(849-899) came closest to achieving unity among the peoples of the islands. The Danes, (from Denmark)
were part of the Viking forces that were particularly determined to conquer the British Isles and Alfred, for
many years, had managed to successfully protect his people.
Alfred’s Legacy
Alfred also gave his attention to good government, issuing laws and promoting scholarship, which had
declined since the Roman conquest. He also promoted and assisted in the translation of Latin works into
Old English and encouraged the compilation of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle. For his many accomplishments,
Alfred was called “The Great”. He was the only English king so acclaimed.
After Alfred’s death, weak rulers were unable to resist the Danes, The Danish king; Canute defeated the
Saxons and became king of England in 1016. The Danes conquered England while the Normans
(Northmen) conquered the region of France known as Normandy.
England Under Norman Kings
The year 1066 is very significant in English history. William the Conqueror from Normandy (France)
attacked and conquered England. Since then, no other foreign army has invaded England. William the
Conqueror and his sons gave England vigorous new leadership. Norman feudalism became the basis for
redistributing the land among the conquerors, giving England a new French aristocracy and a new social
and political structure. Thus England turned away from Scandinavia in its orientation and turned toward
France. This was to last for 400 years.
During the high Middle Ages, “feudalism” (not to be confused with blood feuds, which also existed) was the
way the little kingdoms were governed by the rulers of lands throughout this region of Europe. It was a
contractual system of political and military relationships existing among members of nobility in Western
Europe. After the fall of the Carolingian Empire, feudalism joined political and military service with
landholding to preserve medieval Europe from disintegrating into myriad independent seigneuries.
Seignorialism, from which the word “seigneuries” is derived, was the system of relations between the lords
and their peasants during the same period.
William was a hard ruler, punishing England, especially to the north, when it disputed his authority. Upon
his death William gave England to his second son, William II and Normandy to his elder son Robert. Henry,
his third son, in due time got both – England in 1100 when William II died in a hunting accident and
Normandy in 1106 by conquest.
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Henry wanted his daughter, Matilda, to succeed him, but in 1135 his nephew, Stephen of Blois, seized the
throne. The years from 1135 to 1154 were marked by civil war and strife until Matilda’s son Henry II
succeeded in 1154. Ending the anarchy of Stephen’s reign, Henry and his sons, Richard and John,
expanded royal authority.
Henry II strengthened the government created by Henry I. Most importantly, he developed the common law,
administered by royal courts and applicable to all of England. It encroached on the feudal courts’ jurisdiction
over land and created the grand jury. Henry’s empire included more than half of France and lordship over
Ireland and Scotland. His sons later rebelled against him several times in their attempts to seize power.
They were backed by the kings of France and by their mother, Eleanor of Aquitane.
Richard and John
Richard I, the Lion-Hearted, was in England only briefly. He was busy fighting in the Crusades and later for
the land lost in France during his absence, especially when he was a captive in Germany. His younger
brother John was a petty tyrant who was jealous of the rule of both his father and his brother and due to his
own excesses, compounded his problems further. In 1204 he lost Normandy to the French kings and lost
the following of his own barons who in 1215, forced John to accept the Magna Carta, or Great Charter, by
which he admitted his errors and promised to respect English Law and feudal custom. He died the following
year. Although the loss of Normandy seemed a disgrace at the time, it left England free to develop its
unique institutions without outside interference.
Economic Prosperity and the Revolt of the Barons
When John died in 1216, the barons accepted his nine-year-old son as King Henry III.
They assumed control of the government and confirmed the Magna Carta in 1225, as did Henry when he
became of age two years later. Thus began the tradition of royal confirmation of the Magna Carta and the
idea that it was the fundamental statement of English Law and of limited government.
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England prospered in the 12 and 13 centuries. Land under cultivation increased; London and other towns
became vital centers of trade and wealth and by royal charters (laws) they acquired the right to local selfgovernment. The universities of Oxford and Cambridge were established and the country’s population
doubled from 1.5 million to 3 million.
The monasteries, especially those of the Cistercians, led the rural expansion and became wealthy in the
process; building more than a dozen cathedrals and scores of abbeys and parish churches, all attesting to
the wealth of England and of its church. In the 1220s, the friars, Franciscans and Dominicans arrived in
England, improving the quality of preaching and becoming the leading scholars in the universities.
Henry III was not an able king, however. He quarreled with the barons and in 1264; civil war broke out led
by the baronial leader who was later killed and power returned to Henry and his able son Edward, who
restored royal control and limited the rights of all of England’s barons.
In the following centuries of the Middle Ages, England underwent many changes with successive
monarchs; the country suffered the plague which wiped out almost a third of its population; civil war broke
out; the power struggles between the ruling royalty and the barons raged and subsided, and wars were
waged in France over territory. A major turning point in British history occurred when Queen Elizabeth 1
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came to power in the late 16 Century.
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The Rise of the British Empire
The foundations of the British Empire were laid during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603). Under
Elizabeth, English support for naval exploration increased dramatically. Overseas commercial and trade
interests were also established in the form of the English East India Company in 1600. However, because
England was at war with Spain, which had a large colonial empire in the Americas, English colonization in
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the Americas remained almost unknown in the 16 century.
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th
In the 17 and 18 centuries, Britain established its first empire, which was in the Caribbean and in North
America. It began with the establishment of tobacco plantations in the West Indies and religious colonies
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along the Atlantic Coast of North America. England established a presence in India during the 17 century
with the activities of the East India Company. Although this presence became larger and more entrenched
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during the 17 and 18 centuries, India did not come under direct British rule until 1858.
In 1655 the English conquered the Spanish colony of Jamaica – the first English colony taken by force. In
1670 England and Spain signed the Treaty of Madrid, in which Spain finally acknowledged English
possessions in the Caribbean.
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The 18 Century
During the early 1700s, public interest in overseas affairs faded. Nevertheless, significant developments
occurred. The Transportation Act of 1718 subsidized the transportation of convicted criminals from Britain
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to North America. Georgia, originally a refuge for debtors, became the 13 American colony in 1732, while
the New England seaboard began to fill out and extend further into the interior, where it threatened to bump
up against French settlement. Sugar emerged as the chief import into Britain, fueling the West Indian
plantation economy, and with it the flow of 70,000 slaves annually across the Atlantic.
The Seven Years War
The Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) was a series of worldwide conflicts waged in order to gain territory. In
Europe the war was fought over the control of Germany with Britain, Prussia (now Poland) and Hanover
(small portion of western Germany) on one side and Austria, Saxony, France, Russia, Sweden and Spain
on the other. Britain made large gains at the expense of France.
The North American segment of this war was known as the French and Indian Wars launched by the British
against French possessions in North America in 1754. In India, this phase of the war was known as the
Third Carnatic War and it established British domination in India.
Consolidation
Britain successfully colonized parts of Canada and all of India; however, they lost their American territories
through the American Revolution. In the years following the American Revolution, the British government
attempted to consolidate and tighten control over its territories in India and Canada. In India, Britain put
administration into the hands of a professional civil service within the East India Company through a policy
named The India Act of 1785. The Canada Act of 1791 attempted to ease tensions between French and
British inhabitants in Canada somewhat by separating the region into Upper Canada, primarily English
speaking, and Lower Canada, primarily French speaking.
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Final Note
As a final note to British history, it should be mentioned that one of the most important developments in
human history; one that has changed the lives of all societies everywhere and by its extensions,
revolutionized life for everyone today, had its birthplace in Britain. That development is known as the
Industrial Revolution to which a separate segment of this World History curriculum has been dedicated.
THE INFLUENCE OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE
The Role of Church in Daily Life
During the Middle Ages, church and state were not separate as they are in Western Europe and the United
States today. Church and government worked hand-in-hand to direct people’s lives. Church and
government were expected to cooperate with each other; ultimately the Catholic Church wielded great
power and influence in medieval Europe.
People of that time believed that God had the answers to all their problems. They believed that God took an
active part in their affairs; curing the sick, effecting the weather by bringing the rain, causing earthquakes,
etc.
The Roman Catholic Church held that those who followed its teachings would go to heaven, while those
who did not would lead lives of endless misery in another world. In order to be sure of going to heaven, a
person had to observe religious rules and teachings. These included church attendance, prayer, fasting,
and confession.
The Role of the Church in Business
Farming was the most important way of making a living in feudal days. The monks were good farmers. As
they farmed church property they found better ways to grow crops and care for livestock, teaching these
methods to others.
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The Church often regulated the activities of business. For example, it forbade the practice of charging
interest on money that had been loaned to another person. It urged merchants to charge a just or fair price
for goods. A just price was one that would cover the cost of labor and materials and would not include a
high profit.
The position of the Church was that people should work because it was good for the soul. Accumulating
wealth for its own sake was wrong. Such a position is partly the reason that business and industry
developed slowly.
The Church’s Role in Governing
In a real sense, the Church was itself a government, stronger than any monarch or noble, and able to tell
monarchs and nobles what to do. The Church tried to curb the cruelty of government rulers. To prevent
fighting, it declared holy days during which fighting was not allowed.
As a governing entity, it had the power to tax and did so by means of tithing. A tithe amounted to one-tenth
of one’s income. Every church member was expected to pay it. Through tithing, the Church got the money
to do its work. It also became the world’s greatest single landowner. The pope ruled the Papal States in
central Italy, where he was head of a government as well as head of the Church. Because of its power,
wealth and lands, the Church became the envy of monarchs and nobles.
All social services that we expect our government to pay for and provide today; such as the administration
of justice, the establishment of courts of law, providing for education, looking after the sick, the hungry and
the needy were all part of the services of the Church. It also supported hospitals and asylums and ensured
that the poor were able to get some education.
Effects of the Christian Crusades on Medieval Europe
A crusade may be defined as a vigorous fight for a cause. In 1095, Pope Urban II called upon the
monarchs, their nobles, and their people to help the Church by driving the Muslims out of Palestine. People
were eager to join the crusade. The pope urged war against the Muslims who, he said, were interfering with
the right of Christians to worship in Jerusalem. These Muslims, who were Seljuk Turks, and who had
recently adopted Islam as their religion, were making Christian pilgrimages to the Holy City unsafe. The
Turks also posed a threat to the Eastern Orthodox Church in the Byzantine Empire.
Four major Crusades were undertaken, but they failed to recapture the Holy Land. The first Crusade (10961099) was the most successful and Jerusalem was temporarily recaptured from the Muslims. The Second
Crusade started in answer to calls for help from crusaders who had remained in the Middle East as
monarchs of independent states. That crusade ended in 1149 with quarrels among its leaders.
In 1187, The Muslim warrior Saladin recaptured Jerusalem and a call for a Third Crusade was sounded.
This crusade was famous in history because three great and rival kings took part in it. Despite the royal
celebrities; Emperor Frederick Barbarossa of the Holy Roman Empire, King Philip Augustus of France and
King Richard the Lion-Hearted of England, the crusade failed.
In the Fourth Crusade, the crusaders forgot that their enemies were Muslims. Seduced by the enormous
wealth of the Byzantine Empire; they raided and plundered Constantinople (formerly Byzantium). This was
one of the blows that shattered the Byzantine civilization.
Other crusades were attempted, but they too were unsuccessful. One of them was even undertaken by
children. It was a dismal failure that left many children dead while others were captured and sold into
slavery.
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It showed, however, the tremendous religious faith of the people. In fighting for Christianity, crusaders also
attacked Jews. As they made their way east, they spread terror in the sections of cities in which Jews were
forced to live in miserable conditions. These sections were called ghettos. The word is still in use today to
describe similar circumstances. Of the Jews; many were killed while others saw their homes burned to the
ground and their possessions stolen.
The Crusades resulted in increased prestige for the pope, held back the Turks for two hundred years, and
increased contact between Western Europe and the Middle East. The Crusades contributed to the growth
of trade and commerce. Many necessities and luxuries such as sugar, rice, lemons, cotton, muslin and
precious gems were introduced into Western Europe. As trade increased, money, banking and credit – long
frowned upon by the Catholic Church – became necessary to carry on business.
To an extent, the Crusades also brought about an increase in the power of monarchs over the nobles. The
monarchs were able to strengthen their taxing powers to raise money for the Crusades. Power remained in
the hands of monarchs when the Crusades ended.
MODERN HISTORY
The Renaissance and the Reformation: New Views in Learning and Religion
Historians refer to the period after the Middle Ages to the present day as “Modern History”. Modern thinking
suggests the quality of life can be improved through our own efforts and education. From the fourteenth
through the sixteenth century, a period known as the Renaissance, meaning rebirth, began to develop in
Europe. During the Middle Ages interest in learning had declined. Then between the fourteenth and
sixteenth centuries, there was a reawakened interest in learning of the past. Ancient works were read with
new interest. People became optimistic and bold experiments were tried in writing, painting, science and
technology.
In the early medieval period, educated people spoke and wrote in Latin. Ordinary people could neither write
nor read. During the Renaissance, books were written in everyday language. However, most people were
not educated and in different areas, different languages developed and grew from the commonly spoken
and understood form of Latin known to them. These special forms of Latin became known as the Romance
languages. They varied from place to place and formed the basis of French, Spanish, Italian, Portuguese
and Romanian languages.
During the Middle Ages, religion was the most important influence in the lives and thoughts of the people.
They worried about what would happen to their bodies and souls after death and depended on the Church
for answers to many of their questions.
In the Renaissance, some people began to question some of the beliefs held during the Middle Ages. Life
on earth concerned them more than life after death. Some said people could lead full, rich lives here on
earth. Those who taught this were called humanists. Humanists turned to the thinking of ancient Greeks
and Romans such as Plato, Socrates and Aristotle.
They were no longer willing to accept knowledge and beliefs without question and wanted to test old
beliefs. People wanted proof before they were satisfied that certain things were true. Some superstitious
beliefs that they once held closely were given up one by one.
The Renaissance began in Italy for several reasons. Italy was made up of a number of city-states including
Florence, Genoa, Pisa, Venice and others. Because of Italy’s location on the Mediterranean Sea, these
city-states traded with the Middle East and became prosperous. The existence of trade and cultural contact
with other civilizations is one of the reasons why the Renaissance began in Italy in the fourteenth century.
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The Italian city-states competed for wealth, power and glory. Competition encouraged the city-states to try
out new forms of government, new ways of doing business and new forms of art. Through competition,
each city-state tried to gain advantage over the other. Enough freedom existed in these city-states to
encourage a desire for learning.
Italy was the home of ancient Rome and so scholars from all over Europe went to Italy to study the famous
writings of the past and to study the remains of ancient buildings. Italy was also the center of the Church,
which used its wealth to promote painting, learning and writing. Thus, the Church helped the rebirth of
learning. From Italy, the Renaissance spread across the Alps (the mountain range bordering Northern Italy,
Southern France and Switzerland) to northern Europe.
Along with the artistic growth of the Renaissance, there were also advances in technology and science. In
technology, the development of printing was the most important. In Germany, Johann Gutenberg developed
a new method of printing that was far more efficient than the ancient method of using stone blocks with
permanently carved letters invented by the Chinese. This development in 1450 enabled knowledge to
spread quickly and be made more readily available to the masses.
Modern science was also born during this period. Anatomical drawings of the human body by the most
famous of figures of the Renaissance, Leonardo da Vinci, provided a better understanding of how the body
worked and how blood circulated. Astronomer
Nicholaus Copernicus made an important scientific discovery; that the earth revolved around the sun and
not the other way around as was believed at the time.
The Protestant Reformation
During the Middle Ages, all Christians in Western Europe were Roman Catholics who followed the
directions of the pope as handed down through bishops and local parish priests. By the sixteenth century,
the Christian Church was over fifteen hundred years old. It was the oldest and most established institution
in the Western world. With its growth had come such wealth and power that monarchs and commoners
alike feared the Church.
In time, with riches and power came abuses. The church allowed its priests to become more concerned
with worldly affairs than with affairs of the spirit. The Church had taught that proper prayer and repentance
would open the gate of heaven to sinners. However, by 1500 A.D., the power of the Church to grant
indulgences (partial forgiveness for sins) had become subject to much abuse. Indulgences were sold,
making forgiveness a matter of money rather than conscience. The large sums of money raised by selling
indulgences went to the pope in Rome.
As people began questioning authority in the Renaissance period, some came to recognize such a practice
of the Church’s granting indulgences to be an abuse of power, founded in nothing more than greed. This,
they thought, was contrary to the teachings of the Bible, and so came about protests from the dissenting
Christians. It is from the word protest that the word Protestant originated.
As was previously mentioned, the Renaissance encouraged learning. Books became more easily available
and as people read more, they were less likely to accept ideas without questioning. The ideas of Church,
like those of science or literature, were closely examined. A combination of these trends led to the
Protestant Reformation.
Two outstanding leaders of the Reformation were Martin Luther (1483-1546) and John Calvin (1509-1564),
Luther in Germany and Calvin in France and Switzerland. Luther began his career in the Church as a
monk, but later left the monastery to start an individual crusade against Church practices. He attacked the
sale of indulgences (pardons for sins). He came to believe that faith in God was all a person needed in
order to be saved. Luther reasoned that if faith alone were needed for salvation, then the services of the
Church and the pope were unnecessary.
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With the aid of printing presses, Luther’s ideas spread quickly throughout Europe. He wrote to the kings
and princes of Germany’s many states clarifying his position in protest to the Roman Catholic Church. He
urged the German royals to join him in ridding the German states of Church influence in political affairs. In
1520 Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther from the Church and Emperor Charles V declared him an outlaw
who was to be killed on sight.
Luther was never captured or killed, due, in large part, to the German princes, who liked his ideas and
helped him escape. For reasons of their own, German princes were quick to adopt Luther’s ideas. Some
responded favorably to his teachings because they genuinely believed in what he said, while others used
Luther’s beliefs as a chance to rid their lands of the Roman Catholic Church. They wanted to take over
Church lands and wealth. Lutheranism was a Protestant faith founded by Luther. Many German lands
adopted Luther’s religious ideas. Others, such as the Scandinavian countries (Norway, Sweden and
Denmark), adopted them too.
Just as Germany became the birthplace of Lutheranism, so did Swiss cities become the birthplace of
Calvinism. The cities of Switzerland, like the states of Germany, were seething with dissatisfaction over
abusive practices of the Church. Ulrich Zwingli (1484-1531) of Zurich was the first organizer who fought for
reform. He was eager to free Zurich and other Swiss cities from the domination of the Church. When war
broke out between the Catholic Swiss cities and Protestant Zurich, Zwingli led his people into battle, but
was defeated and killed. Reform would not come until the arrival of a more powerful leader, John Calvin
(1509-1564).
The city of Geneva was the center of the Protestant Revolution led by Calvin. Under John Calvin’s
leadership, Geneva became the model of Calvinistic teachings and practices. Calvin made his views known
in his famous work Institutes of the Christian Religion. It is one of the great books of the Protestant faith.
Calvin and his people believed that only the people that God had chosen would be saved. Neither good
works nor faith could change God’s plans. Calvinists were taught that they must lead God-fearing lives
since they did not know whether or not they were saved or doomed.
Under Calvin, Geneva became a city in which merriment was absent. The Calvinists frowned on luxury,
idleness, games, and dancing. These things were viewed as sinful. Despite its stern ideas, Calvin’s
teachings spread to other lands. Calvinism had wide appeal for the growing class of business people. It
encouraged such practices as industry and thrift and did not discourage either profit making or money
lending. Calvin’s book, previously mentioned, was widely read and became influential. In France, the
followers of Calvin were called Huguenots, and in England they were Puritans. Presbyterian and
Congregational faiths originally based their teachings on the ideas of Calvin.
King Henry VIII of England was the first English monarch to break from the Roman Catholic Church. Ill
feelings had developed between the English people and the pope over the taxes that had to paid to the
pope. Breaking from Catholicism, Henry VIII founded the Church of England, also referred to as the
Anglican Church. He declared himself the head of the Church instead of the pope.
THE AGE OF DISCOVERY:
Expansion of European Monarchies and the Birth of New Nations
The period from the fifteenth through the seventeenth centuries (1400-1600) is called the Age of Discovery.
The new nations of Europe, having built strong governments at home, were ready to set out in search of
new lands. During the Age of Discovery, the European culture was established in the New World (the
Americas). European influence made its way to far-off corners of the world.
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The explorers who ventured out on the oceans in search of India and who rounded Africa or stumbled upon
the New World were very great indeed. These explorers won fame, not only for their bravery and skill, but
also for the vast wealth their travels uncovered.
Columbus was just one of several explorers who opened new areas of the world to trade and commerce.
Bartholomeu Diaz, a Portuguese navigator sailed around the Cape of Good Hope (southern tip of Africa).
Another Portuguese, Vasco de Gama completed the trip around the Cape of Good Hope to reach India in
1498. Further voyages undertaken by Spanish and Portuguese explorers opened the way to South
America. Ferdinand Magellan, another brave Portuguese explorer sailed across the southern tip of South
America (Cape Horn) and is also credited with being the first person ever to sail around the whole world.
“Glory, Gold and God” are the words often used to describe the reasons for the voyages of exploration.
The explorers went for the sheer joy of being first to find and conquer new worlds. Gold was an obvious
motivator behind these journey and religious zeal, the desire to make Christians of other people, was
another powerful force behind the explorations.
Benefits of the Age of Discovery
One result of the Age of Discovery was that the Atlantic Ocean, and not the Mediterranean Sea, became
the main highway of commerce. This new trade route meant that England, France and Holland became
powerful commercial countries. Italy, Spain and Portugal became less important in foreign trade.
The Age of Discovery brought with it an increase in the amount of gold and silver that came into use. With
the increase in money came an increase in banking and money lending. Consequently, one of the results of
the Age of Discovery was the growth of capitalism. Capitalism is an economic system based on
competition, private property, the investment of money for profit, and freedom from government
interference. The emergence of the middle class was another great benefit to this age.
A middle class is made possible from among those of moderate wealth. Their power is based on profits
made from business rather than from the land. Capitalism became the main economic institution of modern
times. So great were the changes in methods of doing business that the Age of Discovery has sometimes
been called a “commercial revolution”.
Problems Created by the Age of Discovery
Not all the results of the Age of Discovery were beneficial. As national governments took more interest in
colonies, there were new causes for war among nations. Each nation tried to own the richest colony or to
take riches away from the other nations. Because of the competition for wealth, power and glory, the native
peoples who lived in the newly found lands were often harshly treated.
Greedy explorers enslaved people and stole much of their wealth, especially in the New World. African
slavery was introduced in the New World to provide cheap labor for the silver mines. The slave trade itself
became a very profitable enterprise for sea captains, merchants, financiers and investors. Many of the
problems we face today in the United States, especially racial problems, may be traced to the slave trade.
The Rise of Nation-States and the Expansion of Empires
One of the most important developments of modern world history was the rise of nation-states and the
empires they built. A national government provides protection for its people, raises money, and improves
the way people live, developing loyalty among their peoples.
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England and France developed early as nations. Spain and Portugal followed somewhat later. Although
England and France were each governed by a monarch, political institutions emerged that were later used
to control the unlimited rule of the monarch. Russia developed as a nation more slowly, but eventually
occupied a large land mass. Holland, Switzerland and the Scandinavian nations also developed gradually.
Germany and Italy remained divided into small states within their borders of today and did not become
nations until the nineteenth century. Many countries of Africa and Asia did not become nations until the
twentieth century.
The desire to gain and rule an empire (imperialism) was a powerful force. Portugal and Spain led the world
in discovering new lands overseas in Africa, Asia, and South America. Spain in particular built up an empire
in the New World. Portugal dominated Brazil and established colonies in Asia, India and the islands of the
Pacific. England established colonies in India and what are now Canada and the United States. It competed
with France, which also had colonies in the New World.
How Russia became a Nation
Unlike the European countries, Russia was never part of the Roman Empire. It was not influenced by that
great Roman civilization. In the ninth century, a group of ancient Norse (Vikings) led by Rurik, set up a
small kingdom around the city of Kiev. The people he led were called Russ, from which we get the name
Russia.
In 1237, the Mongols, who went on to rule for 300 years, destroyed Kiev. During the fourteenth century the
principality of Moscow grew in strength. The princes of Moscow at first served the Mongols and paid tribute
to them. Under Ivan the Great (1440-1505) Mongol rule ended, Russian expansion took place, and its
borders were extended to Siberia to the north and China to the east.
As mentioned previously in the study of the Byzantine Empire, Constantinople (formerly Byzantium) fell to
the Turks in 1453, and the ruler of Moscow took the title of czar, or king. He claimed that he inherited the
imperial power, which the Byzantines had taken from Rome. Under Ivan the Terrible (1530-1584) Russia
became a country in which the wishes of the czar were the law of the land. In no other country was
autocracy (one-person rule) so complete. In 1613, the Romanov family became the rulers of Russia and
remained so until the Russian Revolution of 1917.
The nation of Russia did not develop as rapidly as did the nations of Western Europe. Despite its vast size,
Russia in the sixteenth century was a weak nation. There were few people for such a large area, resources
were limited, and there was little industry.
The reign of Peter I (1682-1725), also known as “Peter the Great”, was a turning point in Russian history.
At the end of the 17th century, Russia was a backward land that stood outside the political affairs of
Europe. The economy was based on primitive agriculture and the military organization was sorely out of
date. He remodeled the armed forces and bureaucracy along European lines, and imposed new taxes that
dramatically increased the state’s revenues. Both technological and cultural Westernization advanced
quickly under Peter.
In succession of rule, under Catherine II (1762-1796), known in the West as “Catherine the Great”, Russia
annexed the majority of land from Poland, and thereby consolidated Peter’s Power.
When it came to religion in Russia; while missionaries from Rome Christianized Europe, missionaries from
Byzantium Christianized Russia. The Eastern Orthodox Church, rather than the Roman Catholic Church
became the established church in Russia. Economic, religious, political and geographic reasons help
explain why Russia’s history does not parallel the history of Western European countries.
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THE AGE OF ABSOLUTISM: The Might of the Mighty Rulers
The complete power of a monarch over his or her people is called absolutism. During the Age of
Absolutism, roughly between the sixteenth and eighteenth centuries (1500-1700), mighty monarchs ruled
from extravagantly expensive palaces where they lived in splendor. Absolutism reached its peak sooner in
some countries of Europe than in others, but it was a feature of all countries. Because monarchs held all
the political power, they were flattered and admired by those who wished royal favor or had desires for
more power.
Absolutism: Help and a Hindrance to Civilization
Under Absolutism, there were many good things done for the people and nations of Europe. For one thing,
absolutism was a better form of government than feudalism. It brought people together to form nations, to
create national law, and to build national armies. A strong, central government could collect taxes from
many people and build the nation’s trade and industry. It united large groups of people under an organized
central government. People learned that there is strength in numbers, especially when a strong person
leads the groups.
Nevertheless, absolutism probably should be more condemned than praised. Waging costly wars that took
many lives was absolutism’s greatest evil. Wars were fought over religion, power, prestige and land in the
New World (Americas) as well as the Old World (Europe). In order to support the wars, the monarchs taxed
the peasants heavily. In the present day, taxes are supposed to be based on one’s ability to pay, but ability
to pay was not considered in the days of absolutism. The poorest people often paid the heaviest taxes and
carried the burdens of foolish and unnecessary wars. They also paid for the court life of idle and privileged
nobility. The people who were least able to pay had to pay for the high cost of absolutism.
Absolutism did not serve civilization well because it did not provide stable and lasting government.
Absolutism depends upon the ability of one person, the ruler. When such a person dies, the government
often falls into weaker hands and whatever progress has been made is then lost.
One reason that absolutism caught and held the minds of the people was the general feeling that things
could not be better. The Renaissance helped pave the way for weakening the acceptance of absolutism.
The idea grew that people could improve themselves through effort, and that they could make a more
peaceful and comfortable world. Writers and philosophers taught that government had a responsibility for
taking care of the people.
THE AGE OF REASON: Enlightenment and the Birth of the Scientific Method
The Age of Reason is sometimes called the Enlightenment. It is a period of time that dates roughly from the
publication in 1687 of Principia by Sir Isaac Newton (physicist who formulated the theory of gravity) to the
outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789. It is called Enlightenment because during those hundred years
there was concern about improving the way people lived and were governed. To enlighten is to free from
ignorance. Scientists, writers, philosophers, and artists sought to free people by teaching them how the
laws of nature and the laws by which they were governed could be used to better the human condition.
The Age of Reason was a time when people used their reasoning abilities to find answers to disturbing
questions by exploring the mysteries of nature. They put their faith in their ability to make scientific
observations and interpretations. They believed that by experimenting they could find the answers to their
questions.
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The Age of Reason was in many respects a continuation of the Renaissance. Whereas many of the
creative activities of the Renaissance took place in Italy, Much of the great work of the Enlightenment was
done in northern Europe and America. The Renaissance may be seen as a preparation for the
accomplishments of the Age of Reason. The Age of Reason is considered a glorious chapter in history. It
was a period of great human accomplishment. It also prepared the way for future achievements in science,
literature, and government.
The Birth of the Scientific Method
Scientific thinking was not widespread in the seventeenth century. Many people were too willing to accept
the words and ideas of others instead of finding out for themselves. However, in the seventeenth century
scientific observation of nature was made somewhat easier by the invention of the telescope in 1608 and
the microscope in 1610. These inventions made the use of the scientific method more widespread.
The scientific method is credited to the English scientist Francis Bacon (1561-1626), who was first to
establish the methodical approach to experiments by noting observations, interpreting them and then
forming conclusions. Bacon believed scientific progress would be based on the scientific method.
Other great scientists of this period include Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) credited with the invention of the
telescope and Rene Descartes (1596-1650), who demonstrated the importance of mathematics in the
scientific method. The Englishman Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727) opened the door to our understanding of
the world and the universe. Newton’s laws of gravity explained much of what is the basis of today’s
understanding of the science of physics.
THE FRENCH REVOLUTION
The form of government and the way society in France was organized before the French Revolution is
described as the Old Regime. Government and society under the Old Regime had many features that had
not changed since feudal days of the Middle Ages. In 1789, the Old Regime was not serving the needs of
the French nation or its people. The government and society of France under the Old Regime were little
different from other countries of Europe. Except for Great Britain, the governments of other European
countries were undemocratic.
The advanced thinkers of France at this time like Voltaire and Rousseau and others taught that freedom of
thought and action is important. One of the reasons why revolution came first to France was because the
peasants were not as oppressed as peasants in other countries.
The French peasants were better treated and had more privileges than other peasants in Europe.
Revolution often occurs not when conditions are the worst, but when they are beginning to improve. People
began to see that there was a possibility for change and the underprivileged in France believed that things
could be better. Also, a growing middle class was getting rich and demanding a voice in the government.
The inability of the king to solve France’s problems was another reason for the Revolution.
In 1789, the power of governing was in the hands of a well meaning but feeble king, Louis XVI. He had
inherited many problems from his predecessor, Louis XV. The wife of Louis XVI was Marie Antoinette, an
Austrian by birth. Her thoughtlessness and extravagance hurt her reputation and her position. Both the king
and queen, along with the lords and ladies at court, spent their time idly indulging in comforts and luxuries,
rather than thinking about the problems of the nation. Both king and queen wanted to do the right things but
did not know how. Selfish friends often misled them and they did not recognize or take good advice.
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Many fundamental and immediate causes brought about revolution in France. A fundamental cause is one
that has deep roots in the past. Under the Old Regime, there were many feudal laws and customs that
were not in step with modern thinking. The thinking and attitudes of the people were changing. These were
among the fundamental causes of the revolution.
An immediate cause is one that directly leads to action. The switch that set the French Revolution in motion
was the need for money to pay the costs of running the government and supporting a costly court. The debt
was so great that the interest on it was the nation’s greatest single expense.
Combined with Louis XVI’s inefficient style of governing, the nation’s burdensome expenses led to its
bankruptcy. Although France gave aid to America during its revolution, it could not financially afford to give
this aid. Its loans to the American Revolution also contributed to its bankruptcy.
How Society Was Divided Under the Old Regime
During the period of the Old Regime, French society was divided into three groups, or “estates”. The First
Estate, made up religious leaders and clergy, represented less than one percent of France’s population of
25 million. This small minority, however, owned and controlled one-fifth of the land. Among the many
special rights and privileges this class enjoyed was freedom from the burden of tax.
The Second Estate included less than two percent of the country’s population and was made up of the
nobility class. It too enjoyed special privileges and rights and owned much of the land. The nobles were
best able to pay, but they paid few or no taxes and retained many feudal privileges. The nobles held the
best political jobs and had a great deal of influence over the monarchs.
Among the members of the First and Second Estates there were also many poor and well-meaning people.
The local parish priests served the religious needs of the people and received few rewards. Furthermore,
there were many nobles who knew that the privileges they had were unfair and some of the more thoughtful
people among them and the clergy were to help remove these privileges.
Ninety-five percent of France’s population, or 24 million people, belonged to the Third Estate. This group
included the common people, or peasants, as well as members of the middle class, of whom some were
very rich. The people of the Third Estate were the backbone of the nation but had no voice in the
government. They were servants, skilled and unskilled workers, doctors, lawyers, teachers, storekeepers
and laborers.
The Estates-General was a kind of lawmaking group without much democratic influence. In the EstatesGeneral voting was done separately by Estate. The Third Estate was always doomed to lose by a vote of
two to one. The First and Second Estates always overruled any laws that would benefit the people of the
Third Estate. Thus, most people were unhappy with conditions in France.
Democracy Triumphs Over Absolutism in France
French bankruptcy made Louis XVI desperate and he decided to call a meeting of the Estates-General in
hopes that they would have an idea to help matters. As this meant that the people of the Third Estate would
finally have some say in national matters, it was eager to make the most of the meeting, which they saw as
a golden opportunity.
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The king needed money and the Estates-General could help him get it. The Third Estate would make the
king give in a little. At the same time as this crisis was unfolding in France, democratic developments in
England and America were exerting an influence over the average French people. History had shown a far
more effective form of government where the people had a say in the nation’s affairs. With these thoughts
to guide them, various groups met in large and small cities throughout France and drew up lists of dislikes
and criticisms of the monarchy, compiling them into books called cahiers.
The cahiers told of some of the new democratic ideas of the day. Demanding changes in government, they
asked that special privileges for the nobles be abolished, that taxes be fair for all the people and that the
Estates-General meet much more often to discuss government affairs. In the cahiers, the people
demanded that the government allow freedom of speech and press and that the government leave
business alone. The people wanted freedom from an irresponsible government guaranteed by a written
constitution for France.
How the Estates-General Became the General Assembly
In 1789 the Estates-General met in Paris. The First and Second Estates had three hundred members each
and the Third Estate had six hundred. Angered at how the Third Estate could be outvoted by two to one,
they demanded that every member’s vote be counted as one instead of each Estate counting as a single
vote. The Third Estate declared itself to be the National Assembly and invited members from both the other
Estates (priests and nobles) to join, which they did. Because the meeting hall had been closed to them,
they met in an indoor tennis court and swore they would not disband the meeting until they had given
France a constitution. Only when they had gained a constitution would they give their attention to the king’s
money problems.
The Tennis Court Oath of June 20, 1789 was a significant step in the French Revolution. It showed that the
three estates could unite, at least for a time, against the crown. But Louis XVI would not listen to the
demand of the Third Estate for a constitution, declaring that they were wasting time and threatened to send
them home. By the time the king finally decided to listen to the Third Estate, the French Revolution had
begun. The people of Paris cheered the demand for a constitution and angry mobs showed their approval
by attacking the Bastille, an old fortress used as a prison and an important symbol of the Old Regime.
Today, the French remembers this action taken on July 14, 1789. Bastille Day is celebrated as a national
holiday bearing the same significance to its people as the Fourth of July has for Americans.
What the Revolutionaries Wanted
The National Assembly met during the years 1789-1791 and much important work was done. The Third
Estate introduced the Declaration of the Rights of Man in August 1789. It repeated some of the new ideas
of the time, such as “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights.” The rights of liberty, ownership of
property, and resistance to oppression were defended. All citizens were to have a voice in the government,
to be equal before the law, and to be free from unfair arrest. These were great days for people who
seemed to be getting what they wanted.
But the honeymoon period soon ended. The Third Estate, which now controlled the National Assembly, was
made up of the bourgeoisie, or middle class, who wanted to control the government; the peasants who
wanted to own land and the city workers and laborers who wanted liberty, better working conditions and
more extreme reforms. A three-way conflict developed among these groups and, eventually their demands
were at least partially, if not fully met as a result of the French Revolution.
The resolutions of August 4 and the Declaration of the Rights of Man did not solve the money problems of
France. The king needed money and good ideas could not immediately provide the money he needed.
Even with tax reforms that forced the nobles to pay their fair share, money could not be generated as
quickly as was needed.
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The National Assembly found that one answer was to take away Church lands, which were worth a great
deal. The land taken from the Catholic Church was to be sold at low prices to the French peasants. In this
way, two problems would be solved at one time. The national government would have money to pay its
debts and becoming landowners would strengthen the peasants. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, which
was the financial idea by which the Church lands were sold, in time backfired. Soon, more money was
printed than the lands were worth, which forced the prices for food, clothing and shelter to rise so high that
the people could not pay for the things they needed.
Church officials were angry that their lands had been taken away. People were angry that they could not
buy the basic necessities of life. The peasants of France were the only ones who were content because
they got the land they so desperately wanted. Partly as a result of the sale of land to peasants, the
agricultural areas of France today are dominated by small, privately owned farms.
In 1791, France adopted a new Constitution that limited the powers of the monarchy, permitted every
taxpayer the right to vote, granted freedom to all religious groups, which further weakened the stronghold of
the Catholic Church, and also provided for the Legislative Assembly; a lawmaking body whose members
were elected by the people.
Of the three groups that made up the old Third Estate, which later declared itself as the National Assembly,
the workers and laboring class had so far gained little from the new government. The middle class now
controlled the government and the peasants now enjoyed landownership. This working class group had a
right to be disappointed. The revolution had not gone far enough; they meant to push it further.
Over the coming months, the Legislative Assembly had many bitter arguments over the changes that
revolution had brought about. The bourgeoisie and the workers were quite far apart in their ideas of what
changes were necessary for France. The majority of the old Third Estate did not know exactly what they
wanted, remaining unable to decide whether to support the limited monarchy or to encourage further
revolution.
It often happens that the few people who know what they want can sway the many who do not. The working
class organized with support from local Parisian labor groups and began to exert their influence. They
forced the majority to declare war against Austria and Prussia (now Poland), which were considered to be
France’s enemies. The war that came provided an excuse to remove the king. The National Assembly was
abolished and was replaced by the National Convention, which then formed the First Republic. The
undecided majority of the old Third Estate accepted what the minority wanted.
The National Convention, which represented the working people, governed the First Republic (1792-1795).
Although France was fighting a war, Georges Jacques Danton, one of the revolutionary leaders, demanded
that France be bold. The Parisian mob took his advice and began a wave of killings in the city that spread
to the countryside, targeting anyone who was not in favor of the continuing revolution.
In the National Convention, those who favored extreme measures were in control. On January 15, 1793,
Citizen Louis Capet (King Louis XVI) was declared guilty of treason and condemned to the guillotine (an
instrument used for execution by beheading). Most members of the National Convention did not like what
had been done, but there was little that they could do to change it. Armed Parisians forced their way into
the National Convention, where they put to death many of those who were opposed to the extreme
measures. This began the period in France’s history known as the Reign of Terror.
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Terror and Warfare Lead to Napoleon
Rioting and war, disagreement over the kind of government to have, little leadership, hard times,
unemployment, high prices, and food shortages had weakened France. The nation stood alone fighting the
countries of Europe and hoping to save the gains of the revolution. America was asked for help, but
America was not in a position to give help because it was trying to establish itself after winning its own
revolution.
The National Convention voted a new democratic constitution that gave all men the right to vote (not just
taxpayers), and gave all lawmaking power to a single legislative body. However, it did not follow the
provisions of the new constitution and appointed a twelve-man committee with unlimited power to rule the
nation. This committee, known as the Committee of Public Safety was headed by a man named Maximilien
de Robespierre.
The committee paid no attention to the democratic constitution, arresting and executing those who were
even suspected of not being in complete agreement with the revolutionary ideas of the National
Convention. Danton, an early leader, lost his life; later the queen, Marie Antoinette was also beheaded.
Thousands of people were executed in the name of the republic.
Following the Reign of Terror, the people were tired of disorder and wanted peace. The National
Convention dismissed the Committee of Public Safety and adopted the Constitution of 1795. This was less
democratic than the one produced by the National Assembly. The new government included a two-house
lawmaking body and a five-person law enforcing body known as the Directory (1795-1799). This
government was a far cry from the high ideals the National Assembly had formed in 1791.
The Directory was not equal to the difficult job it had. The dissatisfied people were looking for a strong
leader who could bring them peace, glory, and lasting victory. Such a leader soon came. His name was
Napoleon Bonaparte.
The Rise and Fall of Napoleon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
As a young man, Napoleon supported the French Revolution by fighting against the foreign enemies of
France. He was noticed by the Directory when he saved the National Convention from an attack by a
Parisian mob. As a reward, he was made a general and given command of the French armies in northern
Italy, where he defeated the Austrians, whose armies controlled this region. Later he went to Egypt and
unsuccessfully attempted to destroy the British trade route to the Middle East and India. Hearing of the
unrest back home, Napoleon decided it was time for him to become master of France.
He returned to France and with the help of his brother and two members of the Directory seized control of
France through a coup d’etat (military overthrow of a sitting government). Napoleon quickly issued a new
constitution in which power was given to the First Consul of a three-person Consulate. The new constitution
was acceptable to the people, and by popular vote, Napoleon became First Consul and ruler of France.
By 1802 Napoleon had brought victory to France and peace to Europe. After gaining peace, he turned his
skill to the problem of making a strong central government. So effectively did he centralize power in the
hands of the government that even today, France is largely ruled from Paris as Napoleon had planned.
He further strengthened the government by founding a bureaucracy to oversee all education in to ensure
that all schools taught what he wanted them to teach. In so doing, he set the pattern for the dictators of
modern times. He also revitalized the economy by organizing the Bank of France and implementing a
sound economic system to ensure that France would become a prosperous nation.
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The French Revolution had left the Church officials at odds with the government and Napoleon took it upon
himself to regain the confidence and favor of the Catholic Church. He did so by returning lands that had
been taken from the Church by the National Assembly. He also struck an agreement with the pope called
the Concordat, which made Catholicism once again the official religion of France. He also undertook the
mission to make France more beautiful by engaging many public works improvement projects such as
building better roads, digging canals, deepening harbors and commissioning the construction of great
buildings.
Because of his successes at home and abroad, people were ready to give Napoleon whatever he wanted.
He wanted to be First Consul of France for life, and this amounted to dictatorship. France agreed. He then
wanted to become emperor. Again, the people agreed. By 1804, Napoleon, Emperor of France, was
looking for new worlds to conquer.
In 1803, Napoleon started a war with Great Britain and later, most of the nations of the world became
involved. On land, Napoleon was usually successful in his battles against the British, but on the sea the
British admiral, Horatio Nelson, defeated Napoleon, proving that Great Britain controlled the seas.
However, Napoleon’s victories continued in battles over land against other European nations, and soon, he
was the most feared man in all of Europe, and France became the continent’s most powerful nation. He
then began to reorganize Europe so that France could keep its powerful position by placing his own
relatives on many European thrones. He made a strong alliance for mutual protection with Alexander I of
Russia. By 1807, Europe was in Napoleon’s palm, but Great Britain remained a threat to him.
The Final Defeat of Napoleon
At its height, Napoleon’s Empire extended over much of Europe. Among the nations either under his control
or allied with him were France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, Belgium, Holland, Norway, and
Prussia.
When he failed to defeat Great Britain by military means, Napoleon decided he would crush what he called
the “nation of shopkeepers.” He would prevent Great Britain from trading on the continent of Europe. In his
Berlin Decree and Milan Decree, Napoleon ordered all the countries under his control to stop trading with
Britain. This move was called the Continental System.
Great Britain struck back with the Orders in Council, which ordered neutral countries not to trade with
France or any other nation controlled by France. This proved more effective than Napoleon’s plan because
Britain controlled the seas.
Alexander I decided to break the alliance with Napoleon and this brought about a war with Russia in which
Napoleon met his first serious defeat, which proved costly to Napoleon. The break between France and
Russia brought a reaction from other countries that had been conquered by Napoleon and inspired them to
regain their thrones. At the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, these nations combined to inflict another serious
defeat on Napoleon. He was forced to give up his emperorship and was exiled to the tiny island of Elba in
the Mediterranean Sea.
After the defeat of Napoleon, the monarchs in Europe were restored to power, and peace was
reestablished. Louis XVIII, one of the brothers of Louis XVI, became king of France. Europe breathed a
sigh of relief at the end of the Napoleonic menace. A generous peace settlement was made with France
and a brilliant gathering of foreign ministers met at the Congress of Vienna, held in Austria’s capital from
September 1814 to June 1815 for the purpose of solving the problems of the rest of Europe.
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In the midst of deliberations of the Congress of Vienna, news came that Napoleon had escaped from Elba,
and with 1,500 men, was marching into Paris. On March 20, 1815, Napoleon reentered Paris. It seemed as
if a new Napoleonic era had begun, but it did not last long. Napoleon’s new drive to regain control is called
the Hundred Days. Austria, Prussia, Russia and Britain combined forces once again. A million men led by
Britain’s Duke of Wellington, proved to be more than a match for Napoleon. On June 18, 1815, Wellington’s
troops defeated Napoleon at Waterloo, in Belgium. Napoleon surrendered to the British. This time
Napoleon was sent as a prisoner of war to the lonely island of St. Helena in the South Atlantic Ocean. He
died on the island in 1821.
THE AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTIONS
People, Money and Machines
During the later Middle Ages, physical work was done in small shops under the direction of craft guilds. On
feudal manors it was done under the supervision of an overlord. With the discovery of the New World,
wealth grew, commerce increased and merchants began to seek new ways to produce more manufactured
products. People who were wealthy bought large amounts of raw material and gave it to workers whom
they hired to make the finished products at home. In the domestic system, as this arrangement was called,
workers owned simple machines such as spinning wheels or hand-operated looms. They manufactured
cloth and yarn. In time, the domestic system could no longer meet the demand for manufactured goods,
and it became necessary to invent faster methods for production.
This prompted the invention of many new machines driven by new sources of power. Because these
machines were too expensive to be owned by one worker and too large to be kept in a home, a new system
was created where the machines were housed in large buildings. Also, because the machines did not
require skill to be operated, large numbers of workers were hired to operate the machines in the large
buildings called factories. This method involving new steam-powered machines and large numbers of
unskilled workers housed in factories that replaced the domestic system was called the factory system.
This change from the domestic to the factory system and all the effects that followed has been called the
Industrial Revolution.
Revolution may be defined as a big or complete change, as occurred with the English, American and
French revolutions, in which big changes in government were made. In England, an absolute monarchy
became a limited constitutional monarch; in America, a group of colonies became an independent nation;
and in France, a kingdom became a republic.
The Industrial Revolution was a different kind of change. Firstly, it was an economic rather than a political
change. It brought about a change in the way goods were manufactured and in how people earned a living.
Secondly, it was a gradual change. People knew when the American Revolution and the French Revolution
took place. They were probably not aware that an industrial revolution was taking place at the same time.
Between 1750 and 1850, Great Britain was the home of the Industrial Revolution. While the Industrial
Revolution is most often associated with England, it was not confined to that nation. Instead, it took place in
many countries of Europe and in the United States. It spread to other parts of the world as well.
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Why the Industrial Revolution Began in England
England was the only country with the conditions necessary for a change from the domestic system to the
factory system. There was a plentiful supply of labor for the factories, and a wealthy class of merchants
used its money to invest in new businesses and inventions. England was blessed with good harbors,
natural resources and a favorable climate for the textile industry, as cotton thread tended to break without
the presence of moisture. Surrounded by sea, the British Isles has a very moist climate.
England’s abundant supply of natural resources included coal and iron. Coal was used as a power source
to drive the new machines and iron was used to build machines and tools. The mining of coal required that
this cheap but heavy source of energy be carried economically over great distances. The locomotive was
still in the future, but the technique of putting down parallel railroad tracks was known. Along these tracks,
or “wagon-ways” as they were called, horse-drawn wagon were pulled.
The goods England produced had markets at home as well as in its colonial empire. Improved methods of
agriculture made large-scale farming possible and such changes forced many farm laborers into the cities
where plenty of factory jobs were available.
The Industrial Revolution was based on the use of water and steam power applied to new machines. In the
early stages of the Industrial Revolution, the machines were run by water wheels, which were turned by
natural running water from creeks and rivers. In the first part of the nineteenth century, steam engines were
used to supply the energy for machines. Coal, also plentiful in England, was used to produce steam, which
in turn replaced running water as a power source. Iron ore mined in England was also important in
supporting the Industrial Revolution as it was the raw material from which iron and steel, used in
manufacture of machines and tools, was produced.
The first industry to benefit from the Industrial Revolution was textiles. With the advent of increasingly
improved inventions to spin and weave cotton fibers, textiles soon were able to be mass-produced by
means of technological efficiency. The manufacturing process of steel was also highly improved upon and
with it; steel soon came into widespread use.
Industrial growth cannot take place unless people and materials can be moved quickly and cheaply over
long distances. The need to move things from place to place resulted in many changes in transportation
and communication. Great steps were made in land transportation. John McAdam, a Scot, improved roads
by using crushed stone which, when spread on the road surfaces, made them passable in rainy weather.
Inventions That Changed Our Lives Forever
Also important were the inventions of the steam-powered trains and boats. Horse-drawn rail cars were
rather common in England by 1820. In 1829, George Stephenson invented a steam locomotive. In America,
Robert Fulton also successfully used steam power on a steamboat. His steamboat the Clermont, made a
successful trip up the Hudson River in 1807. In 1840, the first transoceanic crossing under steam power
took place. By 1860, it became clear that the days of the sailing vessel and horse-drawn vehicles were
numbered. Steam-powered vehicles had taken the lead.
The government of Great Britain in 1840 provided cheap but quick postal service. Other nations followed in
improving and in speeding up the delivery of mail. The development of cheap newspapers made possible
the spread of information needed in daily business activities. In 1844 Samuel F.B. Morse sent the first
telegraph message, and in 1876, Alexander Graham Bell spoke through his new invention - the telephone.
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The Birth of the Agricultural Revolution
th
th
Between the 16 and 18 centuries the British Parliament enacted a series of laws known as the enclosure
movement, which provided for farmers to enclose the fields of farmland previously open without borders.
The open field system, which was replaced by enclosures, allowed private English farmers to farm separate
strips of land in a number of fields. In addition, they shared common lands to feed their livestock and
woodlands for timber to heat their homes.
The open system was good for small farmers who grew food for their own use. It was not good if food was
to be grown inexpensively and sold to people living in cities or even in other countries. The enclosure
system provided for lands that had been scattered in several fields to be combined into a single farm under
a single ownership. Lands that were held in common, such as pastureland and woodland, were also
consolidated or enclosed.
The enclosure movement encouraged the development of new inventions, since a single owner was now
free to experiment with land on a single farm. The search for improved and easier farming techniques led to
an Agricultural Revolution in England. Later, the changes in farming methods adopted in England would
spread to many other countries. During the seventeenth century, the usual way of planting was simply to
scatter the seeds by hand. Many of the seeds, unevenly scattered on top of the soil did not grow into plants.
In 1701, Jethro Tull invented a drill for planting seeds in straight rows.
Inventions of the Agricultural Revolution
About the mid-eighteenth century, a new method of cultivation of crops was adopted. Crop rotation, as this
method is called, makes it possible for the soil to retain valuable minerals and stay fertile longer when the
same soil is used to periodically grow different crops. Robert Bakewell taught farmers how to breed and
produce the kinds of cattle that gave better beef and dairy products.
Many improvements were made in farm machinery. Steel plows took the place of wooden ones. The
reaper, invented in 1834 by Cyrus McCormick made it possible to cut grain more rapidly than a farmer
could with a hand scythe. The reaper was designed to cut and tie the grain into bundles. The thresher was
a stationary machine designed to strip the grain from the stems. Today, a mobile machine called a combine
harvester performs several of these jobs. It cuts the grain and separates the seed from the stems in one
operation. The new inventions, plus the use of natural and chemical fertilizers, were outstanding
developments of the Agricultural Revolution.
Benefits of the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions
The Industrial Revolution made possible better care of the sick and the aged. Cities and towns provided
better hospital facilities. New medical equipment became available for the sick and for those wounded on
the battlefields.
The use of machines meant that people had more time for education. The hours of labor for factory workers
usually allowed them some time off for holidays and vacations. Public schools, paid for by taxes, became
common. The public schools made it possible for workers’ children to learn to read and write and perhaps
get better jobs. When compulsory education was adopted, sending children to school was a way of keeping
them out of the factory. Workers realized that education was a means of self-improvement. The industrial
and agricultural revolutions performed a service by placing at our fingertips the means to improve and enjoy
the world.
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Problems Caused By the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions
During the early period of the Industrial Revolution, wages were so low that a factory worker could not
support a family. Women and children had to do factory work alongside men. Working hours were long,
often totaling fourteen to sixteen hours a day. Factories were unhealthy and dirty places with little light or
circulating air. Since machines were expensive and labor was cheap, the machines were often more
carefully protected than the people who ran them. Many factory owners provided no safety devices. Often
the work was dangerous, and accidents were frequent when unskilled workers came in contact with
machines. This was particularly true when workers got tired and careless after the long hours.
There was much unemployment as new machines took the place of people. Workers who lost their jobs
because a new machine could do it better found it difficult to learn a new trade. Frequently, laborers started
riots against the introduction of machines that could reduce the need for labor.
While factory conditions were bad, with low pay, long hours, and poor working conditions, conditions were
not much better in the homes. Cities were growing rapidly; often buildings were being built faster than
streets or water and sewage systems. In every industrial city, workers lived in wretched slums.
Whole families often occupied one room, which was too hot in summer and too cold in winter. Stuffy and
unsanitary, these living quarters were breeding places of crime and disease. During the eighteenth century,
when industrialism began in earnest, government did nothing about improving living conditions of the
working classes.
People came to believe that the inventions of the Industrial Revolution assured humankind of a world of
plenty. Today, many people are no longer sure of this. They point to shortages of food, energy resources,
and widespread worldwide hunger. Unless the well-to-do are satisfied to live less lavishly, there may not be
enough of the world’s resources for all to share.
Help for the Working Classes
Many thinkers and writers offered their views and solutions to the problems created by the Industrial
Revolution. There were some who thought the situation was hopeless and that if left alone; perhaps the
problems would correct themselves. There were others, however, who thought that things could become
perfect. Utopia was an imaginary place with perfect government, perfect law, and perfect economy.
Extremes of wealth and poverty did not exist in utopian conditions and, under such an ideal system, people
were supposed to be happy.
Those who believed in these ideas were called utopian socialists. They were utopian because they believed
perfection is possible on earth. They were socialists because they wanted factories, farms, railroads and
mines to be owned and run by the government for the benefit of all people. They believed that wealth
should be shared. This idea of socialism was to later find its foundation in a more militant form of organized
society; a system determined to put an end to capitalism, and thereby replace the fiercely competitive and
frequently callous way of life given birth by the Industrial Revolution. The system, though not new in its
basic premises, however, strongly made its mark at this point in world history is called communism.
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COMMUNISM:
Philosopher Karl Marx; Adoption of a Major World Political System, and the Cold War
As a theory and system of social and political organization, communism was a major force in world politics
for much of the 20th century. As a political movement, communism sought to overthrow capitalism through
a workers’ revolution and establish a system in which property is owned by the community as a whole
rather than by individuals. In theory, communism would create a classless society of abundance and
freedom, in which all people enjoy equal social and economic status. In practice, communist regimes have
taken the form of coercive, authoritarian governments that cared little for the plight of the working class and
sought above all else to preserve their own hold on power.
The idea of a society based on common ownership of property and wealth stretches far back in Western
thought. In its modern form, communism grew out of the socialist movement of 19th-century Europe. At that
time, Europe was undergoing rapid industrialization and social change through the Industrial Revolution.
Advanced, socialist critics blamed capitalism for creating a new class of poor, urban factory workers who
labored under harsh conditions, and for widening the gulf between the rich and the poor.
Foremost among these critics were the German philosophers Karl Marx (1818-1883) and his associate
Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). Like other socialists, they sought an end to capitalism and the exploitation of
workers. But whereas some reformers favored peaceful, longer-term social transformation, Marx and
Engels believed that violent revolution was all but inevitable; in fact, they thought it was predicted by the
scientific laws of history.
They called their theory “scientific socialism,” or communism. In the last half of the 19th century the terms
socialism and communism were often used interchangeably. However, Marx and Engels came to see
socialism as merely an intermediate stage of society in which most industry and property were owned in
common but some class differences remained. They reserved the term communism for a final stage of
society in which class differences had disappeared, people lived in harmony, and government was no
longer needed.
Marxism increased in popularity in the late 19th century, particularly in countries whose urban population
was impoverished and whose intellectuals were given no voice in government. Marx and Engels flung
themselves into national and international political movements dedicated to promoting socialism and their
end goal of communism.
The meaning of the word communism shifted after 1917, when Vladimir Lenin (1870-1924) and his
Bolshevik Party seized power in Russia. The Bolsheviks changed their name to the Communist Party and
installed a repressive, single-party regime devoted to the implementation of socialist policies. The
Communists formed the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR, or Soviet Union) from the former
Russian Empire and tried to spark a worldwide revolution to overthrow capitalism.
Lenin’s successor, Joseph Stalin (1879-1953), turned the Soviet Union into a dictatorship based on total
state control of the economy and the suppression of any form of opposition. As a result of both Lenin’s and
Stalin’s policies, many people came to associate the term communism with undemocratic or totalitarian
governments that claimed allegiance to Marxist-Leninist ideals. The term Marxism-Leninism refers to
Marx’s theories as amended and put into practice by Lenin.
In their Communist Manifesto (1848), Marx and Engels dismissed all of the reformers who had come before
them as naive “utopian socialists,” claiming that their plans for communal property could not be achieved in
capitalistic societies. Marx and Engels urged the workers of the world to unite to achieve “scientific
socialism,” or communism.
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After World War II (1939-1945), regimes calling themselves communist took power in China, Eastern
Europe, and other regions. The spread of communism marked the beginning of the Cold War, in which the
Soviet Union and the United States, and their respective allies, competed for political and military
supremacy. By the early 1980s, almost one-third of the world’s population lived under communist rule.
These regimes shared certain basic features: an embrace of Marxism-Leninism, a rejection of private
property and capitalism, state domination of economic activity, and absolute control of the government by
one party - the communist party. The party’s influence in society was pervasive and often repressive. It
controlled and censored the mass media, restricted religious worship, and silenced political dissent.
Early Forms of Communism
Communist ideas can be traced back to ancient times. In his 4th-century BC work The Republic, Greek
philosopher Plato maintained that minimizing social inequality would promote civil peace and good
government. In Plato’s ideal republic, an elite class of intellectuals, known as guardians or philosopherkings, would govern the state and moderate the greed of the producing classes, such as craftsmen and
farmers. To cement their allegiance to the state instead of their own desires, the guardians would own no
private property and would live communally, residing in barracks together and raising their children as a
group instead of in small families.
In the medieval Christian church, the members of some monastic communities and religious orders shared
their land and goods. Such groups believed that concern with private property takes away from service to
God and neighbor. In the 16th century English writer Thomas More, in his treatise Utopia (1516), portrayed
a society based on common ownership of property, whose rulers administered it through the application of
pure reason.
Criticism of the idea of private property continued into the Enlightenment of the 18th century, through such
thinkers as Immanuel Kant in Germany and Jean Jacques Rousseau in France. Philosophers of the
Enlightenment maintained that it is the natural condition of human beings to share equally in political
authority and the rewards of labor. The French Revolution (1789-1799), which overthrew the monarchy,
developed from this philosophical basis. The upheaval of the Revolution brought forth a flurry of
communistic ideas.
In Britain, Robert Owen, a philanthropic Welsh manufacturer, strove against the social problems brought
about by the Industrial Revolution and sought to improve the welfare of workers. As manager of a cotton
mill, he enhanced the environment of his workers by improving their housing, modernizing mill equipment
for greater safety and sanitation, and established low-priced stores for the workers and schools for their
children.
Owen believed that workers, rather than governments, should create the institutions of a future
communistic society. Motivated by mutual interest rather than profit, workers would band together in
cooperative societies (co-ops) for the purchase and sale of commodities. In 1825 Owen took over a colony
in Indiana, naming it New Harmony, and transformed it into a community modeled on his own socialist
views; however, the community failed after three years.
Communism Today
Communist societies encountered dramatic change in the late 1980s and early 1990s, as political and
economic upheavals in the USSR, Eastern Europe, and elsewhere led to the disintegration of numerous
communist regimes and severely weakened the power and influence of communist parties throughout the
world. The collapse of the USSR effectively ended the Cold War. Today, single-party communist states are
rare, existing only in China, Cuba, Laos, North Korea, and Vietnam. Elsewhere, communist parties accept
the principles of democracy and operate as part of multi-party systems. The United States and many of its
allied western European democratic nations tolerate a communist party within their nations’ political arenas;
however, none of these nations’ communist parties has gained enough power to make a difference.
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THE TRIUMPH OF DEMOCRACY AND THE STRUGGLE FOR EQUALITY
Social and Educational Reforms That Shaped Today’s Society
Between the early and mid 1800s, people in many European countries tried to make their governments
more democratic. They sought the freedom to vote as they wished, the right to read books and newspapers
without censorship, the right to attend public meetings, and the right to be represented by publicly elected
officials. These advances were slow in coming.
Why Great Britain Was in Need of Reform
During the nineteenth century, the British Parliament was made up of two “Houses”, The House of
Commons and the House of Lords. Membership in the House of Commons was decided by election, but
membership in the House of Lords was determined by birth. Neither House was democratic because only a
handful of rich and powerful men ran the government as they saw fit.
In order to vote, it was necessary to own a certain amount of property. Most people did not own any
property, so they could not vote. In order to serve in Parliament one had to be rich since members of
Parliament were not paid. Only members of the Anglican Church could serve in Parliament. Therefore,
government service was closed to Catholics and Jews. Because there was no secret ballot, many people
were afraid to express their choices, especially if they depended upon a factory owner or landowner for
their living. So, elections did not demonstrate actual representation of the people’s desires.
How the Reform Bill of 1832 Became a Law
The need for reform had been expressed for more than a hundred years. The middle class, who was
stronger as a result of the Industrial Revolution, wanted more power in the British Parliament. Factory
workers, farm workers, and women wanted the right to vote, however, the wealthy landowners still
controlled Parliament and wanted to remain in control. They opposed the granting of the right to vote to
other people. Because the Reform Bill of 1832 met some of these demands of the middle class and some
of the working class, it marked a giant step in the growth of democracy in Britain. After much debate in and
out of Parliament, the House of Commons eventually passed the Reform Bill.
The Importance of the Reform Bill of 1832
The Reform Bill of 1832 is important for the way it was passed and became a law. The bill brought about a
great change - almost a revolution. Yet there was no serious violence. The people waited for Parliament to
make the democratic changes that they wanted. They were patient and accepted delays and compromises.
They saw that democracy was the way through which wrongs could be made right without resorting to
rebellion and violence. When the wealthy saw that they could not stop reform or change from taking place,
they gave in.
Because of the nonviolent way in which the Reform Bill of 1832 was passed, some historians say that
England became more democratic by evolution rather than by revolution. By evolution they mean a gradual
change to a better way of doing things. By revolution they mean a quick, violent change, such as the
French and American Revolutions. Evolution, not Revolution, was the course England took.
The importance of the Reform Bill of 1832 was that it took the power to run the government away from the
nobles. It lowered the property qualifications for voting, and so extended the right to vote to the middle
class (merchants, traders, bankers, factory owners, and mill owners).
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Dissatisfaction with the Reform Bill
In a democracy, it is difficult to satisfy everyone all the time. People accept the idea that the majority rules.
The results of the Reform Bill did not satisfy everyone because many people still did not get the right to
vote. They had good reason to be disappointed. Industrial leaders of the middle class now controlled
Parliament. Factory workers feared that laws passed would favor the factory owners rather than
themselves. The result was that workers started demanding further changes.
The demands of the workers were outlined in a petition, known as the Charter (guarantee of rights). The
Chartists, as those who signed the Charter were called, demanded that all men be given the right to vote
and that voting be done by secret ballot. They wanted annual meetings of Parliament, payment of salaries
to members of Parliament, and the abolition of property qualifications for membership in Parliament. Many
of these demands were looked upon as unreasonable; yet, slowly, nearly all of the demands of the
Chartists were met in England and other democratic countries.
In 1947, another bill reduced the power of the House of Lords still further and, today, the House of Lords
plays a rather unimportant part in English politics. Its members may debate, but they cannot stop a law that
the House of Commons wants passed. The House of Commons is now the representative and lawmaking
body of Great Britain.
The Growth of Democracy
Great Britain, America and France were not the only countries in which democracy grew. They were among
the largest countries, and they therefore set examples for others to follow. Among those that accepted
democratic ways were the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries. Switzerland
became a republic, while others became limited monarchies. Norway declared its independence from
Sweden and peacefully separated in 1905. All these countries have strong democratic governments.
How Free Education Grew in Democracy
Up to the nineteenth century there was little attempt on the part of governments to educate people. As the
right to vote was slowly given to more people, it became obvious to thoughtful people that the vote by itself
was useless. For democracy to work well, the people needed to be educated.
In the United States, the idea of free public education was adopted early in some parts of America. In 1821,
the first public high school in the United States was opened in Boston, Massachusetts.
In Europe, education was readily available for the rich. Europeans were slow, however, to accept the idea
that all people should be sent to school. In England, the first gift of public money for free schooling was
made in 1832. However, it was not until 1870 that a national system of free public education was born.
Soon all children from five to fourteen were mandated to attend school. In France, the Ferry Laws of the
1880s provided free and compulsory education. In England, France, Germany, Belgium, the Netherlands
and the Scandinavian countries, free education gained a firm foothold in the late nineteenth century.
The Great Pioneers of Education in Modern History
Pioneers in education, like pioneers in science, politics, and exploration, deserve an important place in
history. One of the more outstanding figures in education was Swiss educational reformer Johann
Pestalozzi (1746-1827). He taught that the ills of society could be improved through education. He
improved methods of teaching reading, writing and arithmetic by putting new ideas about education into
practice. Pestalozzi thought that the teacher-pupil relationship should be one of love. This suggestion was
shocking because, in those days, teachers were harsh and often brutal; they did not spare the rod.
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Johann Herbart (1776-1841), German thinker and educator, learned from Pestalozzi and improved upon his
methods. Herbart believed that a teacher should try to hold the attention of students through interesting
subjects rather than through beatings. He felt that schools should develop good character traits among
students.
Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852), a German educator, may be looked upon as the founder of the kindergarten
system. In the kindergarten, children were taught through play. They were prepared to learn the skills of
reading and writing in higher grades.
Maria Montessori (1870-1952) was the first Italian woman to become a doctor. She earned fame, however,
as a teacher who developed new ways of teaching the very young. Her methods are still widely used
throughout Europe and the United States.
John Dewey (1859-1952), American educator and thinker, was one of the greatest of the educational
pioneers. He was responsible for developing the belief that students learn best by doing. His main idea was
that there should be close ties among the home, the school and the neighborhood. He believed that
schools should teach students how to solve life’s problems. Education is life, not merely getting ready for it,
and therefore, education goes on throughout life. Dewey’s ideas have influenced education in nearly every
country in the world.
How Women Gained Rights in Democracy
Women’s struggle for equal rights with men has been a long and difficult one and is not yet over. One of
the early fighters for women’s rights was Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1797), an English author. Because of
her efforts to achieve equality, she was called a “hyena in petticoats”. She fought for the right of women to
vote, to enjoy educational opportunities, and to hold property. She faced a long, hard, uphill battle.
Among the first victories of women was their admission to colleges and universities. For many years, men
were hostile to the idea of women receiving an advanced education. Yet, some progress was made. In the
United States, Oberlin College admitted women as well as men in 1833. Mount Holyoke College in
Massachusetts became the first college for women in America. In 1847, Elizabeth Blackwell was the first
woman admitted to the study of medicine in the United States. In Geneva, New York, the first women’s
medical college was opened in 1865.
In Europe, the admission of women to higher education was somewhat slower. The University of Zurich
(Switzerland) was a forerunner in the admission of women. In 1866, the University of Paris admitted women
and men students on an equal basis, as did Italian universities. In 1869, however, there were riots in
Edinburgh, Scotland, when a small group of women was admitted to the study of medicine.
Sweden and later England admitted women to colleges and universities, however, by 1880, it was still
difficult for women to be admitted to many colleges and universities. It was not until 1919, for example, that
England allowed women to become lawyers. Once in the university, women had to have strong
personalities to withstand criticism from male students, from their parents, and from other women.
As difficult as the struggle for women to get an education in colleges and universities was, the struggle to
gain the right to vote was even more difficult for them. In America, Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815-1902)
took the lead in fighting for the rights of women. She organized the first women’s rights meeting. At the
Seneca Falls Convention, which met in New York in 1848, women took a strong stand against the tyranny
of men. The convention marked the beginning of the American suffragist movement. This was a militant
movement that sought to win voting rights for women.
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As time went on, women became louder and sometimes more violent in demanding their rights. In the early
1900s, the suffragist movement in England became more militant. The suffragists were led by Emmeline
Pankhurst (1858-1928). They sought the right to vote for women. Suffragists spoke on street corners, held
parades and demonstrations (breaking windows and setting off bombs to gain attention), and rallied
members of their sex to action. For ten years, violence in one form or another broke out. Meetings of
Parliament were interrupted and parliamentary leaders were shouted down when they tried to speak in
public. Men and women began to take notice.
Women’s fight for the right to vote was first won in 1895 in Australia. In 1902, the right was granted in New
Zealand; in 1907, in Norway; in 1919, in the United States. In England, women won the right to vote on a
piecemeal basis. Older women were given this right in 1918, and in 1928, women over twenty-one were
finally allowed to vote. In France, women had to wait until 1945 before they could vote, and in Switzerland,
women’s right to vote was granted as late as 1971.
The rights of women to higher education and to vote have largely been won. Another struggle women had
to win was the right to buy, sell own or inherit property on an equal basis with men. During most of the
nineteenth century, a woman’s wealth became the property of her husband. Only he could buy, sell or give
it away. Gradually, in the United States and in Europe women gained the rights over their own property.
Today, women seek to achieve equal job opportunity and equal pay with men.
How Democracy Helped the Unfortunate
During the nineteenth century, some private individuals and organizations did what they could to help those
who were helpless, particularly orphans. As governments became more democratic and responsible for
people’s welfare, they took over a large share of caring for unfortunate people.
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the slave trade proved profitable. Many failed to see that it
was wrong. With the growth of democracy came the demand that the slave trade, if not slavery itself, be
stopped. Denmark was the first country to stop the slave trade. Later, Great Britain and the United States
abolished slave trading. Although the slave trade was slowly being abolished, slavery continued for some
years. In 1833, British politician William Wilberforce persuaded Parliament to end slavery in the British
colonies.
It took a great Civil War and the Emancipation Proclamation of 1863 to end slavery in the United States.
Before this, slaves were sold at auction and their families were disrupted. The slave had no rights and was
denied the opportunity for an education. Even after emancipation the struggle of blacks for equal rights was
long and hard. The barriers of segregation and discrimination fell slowly. The black revolution of modern
times is a continuation of the struggle for equal opportunities.
During the nineteenth century, government made little effort to relieve the burdens of the poor. Private
organizations provided some relief. Among those private groups, the Salvation Army is probably the best
known. It was begun by William Booth (1829-1912), an English preacher. He tried to form a group that
would give religious and material help to the needy. Booth took the idea of the Salvation Army to several
continents.
In America, Jane Addams (1860-1935) pioneered in social work by helping Chicago’s poor. Helen Keller
(1880-1968) set an example to the handicapped by overcoming blindness and deafness.
Swiss philanthropist Henri Dunant (1828-1910) established the International Red Cross. It was his work that
led to a meeting in Geneva in 1864, where it was agreed to establish an organization for giving aid to
wounded soldiers. At first, only a few nations agreed to do so. Later, an International Red Cross was
established. Its job became one of helping those hurt by disasters: floods, earthquakes, and war. In 1881,
Clara Barton (1821-1912) was responsible for establishing the American Red Cross. Today, although most
nations of the world are members of the International Red Cross, it is often hard to make all nations obey
its rules.
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